ignou MEV-002

THE PEOPLE'S
UNIVERSITY Environmental and
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and Occupational Hazards
Trans-disciplinary Studies

NATURAL HAZARDS 1
 MEV-002
Environmental and
Indira Gandhi National Open University Occupational Hazards
School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies

Block

1
NATURAL HAZARDS
UNIT 1
Introduction to Natural Hazards and Disaster 5

UNIT 2
Earthquakes and Volcanoes 21

UNIT 3
Floods and Landslides 48

UNIT 4
Weather Related/Coastal Hazards 65
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. (Ms.) Shyamala Mani Dr. Rachna Agarwal Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Deeksha Dave
Professor, National Institute of Urban School of Vocational Education and Environmental Studies Environmental Studies, School
Affairs (NIUA) India Habitat Centre Training, Indira Gandhi National School of Interdisciplinary and of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
New Delhi Open University, New Delhi Trans-disciplinary Studies disciplinary Studies,
Indira Gandhi National Open Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. R. Baskar Prof. Daizy R Batish University, New Delhi University, New Delhi
Department of Environmental Department of Botany, Panjab
Science & Engineering, Guru University, Chandigarh Prof. Ruchika Kuba Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
Jambheshwar University of School of Health Sciences, Indira School of Interdisciplinary and
Science & Technology, Hisar Haryana Prof. M. Krishnan Gandhi National Open University, Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Vice Chancellor, Madurai Kamraj New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
Prof. H.J. Shiva Prasad University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu New Delhi
Professor of Civil Engineering Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur
College of Technology, G.B. Pant Dr. Chirashree Ghosh School of Interdisciplinary and Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
University of Agriculture & Technology Department of Environmental Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand Studies, University of Delhi, Indira Gandhi National Open Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
New Delhi University, New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
Dr. T.K. Joshi New Delhi
Director, Occupational & Mr. Ravi Agarwal Dr. Shachi Shah
Environmental Programme, Centre Director, Toxic Link, Jangpura Environmental Studies, Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
for Occupational & Environmental Extension, New Delhi School of Interdisciplinary and School of Interdisciplinary and
Health, Maulana Azad Medical Trans-disciplinary Studies Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi Gandhi National Open University
College, New Delhi School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi Indira Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi New Delhi
Prof. Nilima Srivastava National Open University,
School of Gender and Development New Delhi Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open Dr. B. Rupini Environmental Studies
University, New Delhi Environmental Studies, School School of Interdisciplinary and
of Interdisciplinary and Trans- Trans-disciplinary Studies
Prof. S.K. Yadav Indira Gandhi National Open
School of Agriculture disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi
National Open University, University, New Delhi
Indira Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi New Delhi

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Gurmeet Kaur Prof. R. Baskar Dr. Shachi Shah
Environmental Studies, School of Dept of Geology, DepartmentofEnvironmentalScienceandEngineering, Environmental Studies, School
Interdisciplinary and Trans- Panjab University, Chandigarh Guru Jambheshwar Universityof Science and Technol- of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Dr. Seema ogy. Hisar, Haryana disciplinary Studies, Indira
Gandhi National Open Dept Of Geology, Panjab Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi University, Chandigarh University, New Delhi

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Prof. Ruchika Kuba
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences,
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi Indira Gandhi National Open
National Open University, New Delhi National Open University, New Delhi University, New Delhi

COURSE COORDINATOR CONTENT EDITORS

Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Prof. R. Baskar, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar
Environmental Studies, School of University of Science and Technology. Hisar, Haryana;
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Dr. Meenal Mishra, Geology, School of Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
Indira Gandhi National Open University,
Prof. Ruchika Kuba, School of Health Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi
New Delhi
Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi

FORMAT EDITORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Secretarial/Technical Assistance: Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

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February, 2019
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
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COURSE 2 INTRODUCTION
The second course that you study is Environmental and Occupational Hazards.
In this course we have presented 4 blocks comprising 16 units.
Block 1 is Natural Hazards. In this block we tried to explain you about natural
hazards and disasters. Natural disaster is an event like earthquake, floods,
landslides that adversely affects the people either by damaging the property or
through loss of life. Here we discussed geological hazards, where events like
earthquake volcanic eruptions and landslides have been elaborated.
Weather related hazards or coastal hazards have explained under meteorological
hazards.
Block 2 is Environmental Hazards. This block, gives an overview of Physical,
Chemical and Biological hazards. Explosives, Flammable, radiation, heat &
cold stern vibration, noise hazards have explained in physical hazards. How a
chemical can be hazardous to human and in detrimental health effects have
explained in chemical hazards. And finally you will surprise to learn about
how biological substances like microorganism, virus or toxin can pose a threat
to the health of living organisms primarily that of human beings.
Block 3 is Occupational Hazards. This block deals with hazards which can
posed by specific Occupation such as Mining & Construction, Agriculture and
Allied Sectors, Hospital and Health Centers and Corporate and Offices. Each
Occupation has specified health effects and we have explained each occupation
with health effects and their measures.
Block 4 is Management of Natural Hazards, Environmental Hazards and
Occupational Hazards. This block explicitly explained about basic disaster
Management, Natural Disaster Management. You will also learn about
mitigation of physical, chemical and biological hazards.
Natural Hazards
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION
None of the studies have succeeded to construct reasons, on human health, a
more precise definition of ‘environment’ is the entire concept of human life-
the physical, chemical and biological settings of where and how people live.
This block connects you to the hazards in the environment, human disease and
death.
Unit 1 is on Introduction to Natural hazards and Disaster, in which we explained
explicitly about the natural hazards, its dimensions. We describe the probability
of suffering, injury, disease, death as a result of exposure to hazards. The notion
of vulnerability & human intervention also touched upon.
Unit 2 is Earthquakes and Volcanoes, where we explained about natural
geological phenomena, by explaining causes of earthquakes, significance of
tectonic plates. We also extended the information by discussing learning
concepts of epicenter, focus and magnitude. You will surprise to know about
volcanism and its role on eliminate change, its effects on environment and
occupation.
Unit 3 Floods and Landslides where we describe the nature of floods, explained
various types of droughts, causes and effects of landslides. We have also
analyzed various stages in drought and concluded by giving an overview of
these hazards.
Unit 4 Weather Related/Coastal Hazards, we covered extreme events of both
natural and anthropogenic. We have discussed most damaging weather related
hazards, tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, tornadoes, Elnino and floods. It
properly explains the process of formation of tornadoes and destruction caused
by them and Tsunami and Elnino.

4
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO
NATURAL HAZARDS AND
DISASTER
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Hazards and Disaster
1.3 Dimensions of Hazard
1.4 Hazards Classification
1.5 Types of Natural Hazards
1.6 Effects and Service Functions of Natural Hazards
1.7 Disaster and Socio-economic Impacts
1.7.1 Social Impact
1.7.2 Economic Impact
1.7.3 Psychosocial Impact

1.8 Vulnerability and Human Intervention

1.9 Overview of Assessing Hazards
1.10 Natural Disasters: International Attention and Strategies
1.11 Let Us Sum Up
1.12 Key Words
1.13 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 INTRODUCTION
We know that all the earth processes have been operating throughout the
geological history, but these processes have become hazardous only because
they negatively affect us. The earth is an open system with respect to energy
but essentially a closed system with respect to materials. The earth is also a
dynamic, evolving system with complex interactions of internal and external
processes. While the internal processes are primarily responsible for movement
of plates, earthquakes, volcanic activities; the external processes are responsible
for the wave generation, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes and droughts. The source
of energy of the internal process is essentially radioactivity, whereas the source
of energy for the external process is the sun.
We benefit directly and our survival depends on the Earth’s resources. However,
the same earth can be a dangerous place and our understanding of these natural
hazards is important for our continued success as a species. The first step to
deal with hazards is to prepare. Thus, for us to have an understanding of the
5
Natural Hazards earth processes in which we live, it is important to look at the processes and
structures that occur today, and interpret what could have occurred in the past
i.e. applying the Hutton concept “Present is the key to the past”.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define the term natural hazards;
 explain the types of natural hazards, their effects, impacts and
 describe the vulnerability and human intervention.

1.2 HAZARDS AND DISASTER

Geo-hazard is a natural earth process that upon interaction with human activity
causes loss of life and / or property. Earth processes, means natural events that
occurs within the lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere. Geologic processes
affect every living organism on the Earth all the time, but they become obvious
only when they affect life or property. Such life or property threatening processes
is called natural hazards. Hazard is an inescapable part of life and no one can
live in a totally safe environment.
Hazard: A hazard can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their
welfare and risk as the probability of hazard occurrence. Hazard can also be
defined as: “Those elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and
caused by forces extraneous to him” (Burton et al. 1978). A hazard has the
potential to cause harm to:
 People: death, injury, disease and stress
 Human activity: economic, educational etc.
 Property: property damage, economic loss of
 Environment: loss fauna and flora, pollution, loss of amenities.
Disaster: A disaster occurs when an extreme event exceeds a community’s
ability to cope with it.
Hazard Event: It is the physical parameter of the hazard event that causes the
harm. Environmental events become hazards once they threaten to affect society
and/or the environment adversely. A physical event, such as a volcanic eruption,
that does not affect human beings is a natural phenomenon but not a natural
hazard. A natural phenomenon that occurs in a populated area is a hazardous
event.
Natural Disaster: A hazardous event that causes unacceptably large numbers
of fatalities and/or overwhelming property damage is a natural disaster.
The best way to face natural hazards is obviously to predict and prepare. The
long-term preparations for hazard mitigation are frequently complex and often
involve investment of substantial resources. The relationship between humans
and geologic processes is characterized by risk. The risk from natural hazards,
while it cannot be eliminated, can, in some cases be understood in such a way
6 that we can minimize the hazard to humans, and thus minimize the risk. To be
able to do this, we must understand something about the processes that operate, Introduction to Natural
Hazards and Disaster
and understand the energy required for the process. Then, we can develop an
appropriate plan of action for minimizing the risk. Although, humans can
sometimes influence natural disasters other disasters that are directly caused
by humans, are considered technological disasters, such as oil and toxic material
spills, pollution, massive auto mobile or train wrecks, air plane crashes, and
human induced explosions.

1.3 DIMENSIONS OF HAZARD

The impact of a disastrous event is in part a function of its magnitude (amount
of energy released) and frequency (recurrence interval) but it is influenced by
many other factors like climate, geology, vegetation, population and land use.
Magnitude is an important characteristic for analyzing hazards since only
occurrences exceeding some defined level of magnitude are considered
hazardous. The level of harm is governed by:
 Magnitude of the hazard
 Frequency of hazard or recurrence
 Intensity at the impact point
In general, the frequency of such an event is inversely related to the magnitude.
Small earthquakes for example occur more often than do large ones. The
magnitude concept is the assertion that there is generally an inverse relationship
between the magnitude of an event and its frequency. In other words the larger
the flood, the less frequently the flood occurs. The concept also supports the
idea that much of the work of, forming the earth’s surface is done by events of
moderate magnitude and frequency rather than common processes with low
magnitude and high frequency or extreme events of high magnitude and low
frequency.
Return Period: Majority of hazards have return periods on a human time-
scale. Some examples are five-year flood, fifty-year flood and a hundred year
flood. This reflects a statistical measure of how often a hazard event of a given
magnitude and intensity will occur. The frequency is measured in terms of a
hazard’s recurrence interval. For example, a recurrence interval of 100 years
for a flood suggests that in any year, a flood of that magnitude has a 1% chance
of occurring. Such extreme events have very low frequencies but very high
magnitudes in terms of destructive capacity. This means that an event considered
being a hundred year flood would cause severe damage compared to a five-
year flood.

1.4 HAZARDS CLASSIFICATION

There are many different ways of classifying hazards. One method is to consider
the extent to which hazards are natural.
i. Natural hazards such as earthquakes or floods arise from purely natural
processes in the environment.
ii. Quasi-natural hazards such as smog or desertification arise through the
interaction of natural processes and human activities.
7
Natural Hazards iii. Technological (or man-made) hazards such as the toxicity of pesticides to
fauna, accidental release of chemicals or radiation from a nuclear plant.
These arise directly as a result of human activities.
Natural hazards are basically natural processes, which may become hazardous
when people live or work in areas where these processes occur. Technological
hazards occur as a direct result of human interaction with the environment.
They include hazards, which occur due to exposure to hazardous substances,
such as radon, mercury, asbestos, and coal dust. They also include other hazards
that have formed only through human interaction, such as acid rain, and
contamination of the atmosphere or surface waters with harmful substances,
as well as the potential for human destruction of the ozone layer and potential
global warming.
Table 1.1: General Classifications of Hazards
Natural Hazards 1. Geologic Hazards Earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, landslides,
avalanches, subsidence,
and impacts with space
objects
2. Hydrological hazards Floods, tsunamis
3. Atmospheric Hazards Hurricanes, tornadoes,
droughts, and severe
thunderstorms, lightening
4. Biological Hazards Insect infestations,
disease, wildfires

Technological or Exposure to hazardous

Anthropogenic substances, such as
Hazards radon, mercury, asbestos
fibers, and coal dust, acid
rain, contamination of the
atmosphere or surface
waters
Natural Hazards can also be termed as catastrophic hazards when they have
devastating consequences to large numbers of people, or have a worldwide
effect, such as impacts huge volcanic eruptions, world-wide disease epidemics,
and world-wide droughts.
Secondary Hazards: These are hazards that follow as a result of other hazard
events. Hazards secondary to an earthquake may be listed as follows to illustrate
the concept. For example a primary hazard is the earthquake. Secondary hazards
include:
 Building collapse
 Dam failure
 Fire Hazardous material spill
 Interruption of power/ water supply/ communication/ transportation/ waste
8 disposal
 Landslide Introduction to Natural
Hazards and Disaster
 Soil liquefaction

 Tsunami (tidal wave)

 Water pollution

Chronic Hazards: A group of hazards that do not stem from one event but
arise from continuous conditions (e.g., famine, resource degradation, pollution,
and large-scale toxic contamination), which accumulate over time.

Hewitt and Burton (1971) reported a number of factors relating to damaging

geophysical events that include:

 Aerial extent of damage zone

 Intensity of impact at a point

 Duration of impact at a point

 Rate of onset of the event

 Predictability of the event

Rate of Onset of Hazards: Natural hazards can also be classified into rapid
onset hazards, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, landslides, severe
thunderstorms which form with little warning and strike rapidly or slow onset
hazards, like drought and disease epidemics take years to form. The speed of
onset of a hazard is an important variable since it conditions warning time. At
one extreme, earthquake, landslides, and flash floods give virtually no warning.
Less extreme are tsunamis, which typically have warning periods of minutes
or hours, and hurricanes and floods, where the likelihood of occurrence is
known for several hours or days in advance. Volcanoes can erupt suddenly and
surprisingly, but usually give indications of an eruption weeks or months in
advance. Other hazards such as drought, desertification, and subsidence act
slowly over a period of months or years. Hazards such as erosion/sedimentation
have varying lead times: damage may occur suddenly as the result of a storm
or may develop over many years.

Spatial Dispersion: This refers to the pattern of distribution of a hazard over

the geographic area in which the hazard can occur.

Temporal Spacing: Refers to the sequencing and seasonality of events. Some

events are quite random (volcanoes) while others have seasons (hurricanes,
tropical cyclones, river floods).

Hazardscape: It is the landscape of many hazards. The interaction among

nature, society, and technology at a variety of spatial scales creates a mosaic of
risks that affect places and the people who live there. The term is normally
used in reference to a specific place or region.

Each of these disasters has a different space and time signatures (Table. 1.2;
Navalgund, R.R. 2001).
9
Natural Hazards Table 1.2: Disaster Time and Space Characteristics
(Source: Navalgund, R.R. 2001)
Type Impact time Spatial Extent

Earthquake Seconds to minutes 102 – 104 sq.km

Landslide Seconds 0.1 – ½ sq.km

Forest fires Minutes to days 101 – 103 sq.km

Floods Minutes to hours 105 – 107sq.km

Cyclones Few hours 103 – 104 sq.km

Drought Months to years 106 sq.km

Desertification Tens of years 107 – 108 sq.km

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Define hazard and disaster.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. Write short notes on dimensions of hazard.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
3. How are hazards classified?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

1.5 TYPES OF NATURAL HAZARDS

Natural hazards can be classified into several broad categories: geological
hazards, hydrological hazards, meteorological hazards, and biological hazards.
(i) Geological Hazards: These are hazards driven by geological or earth
processes, in particular, plate tectonics. This includes earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. In general, geological extreme events are beyond
human influence, though humans have large influence on the impacts of
10 the events.
(ii) Meteorological Hazards: These are hazards driven by meteorological Introduction to Natural
Hazards and Disaster
or weather processes, in particular those related to temperature and wind.
This includes heat waves, cold waves, cyclones, hurricanes, and freezing
rain. Cyclones are commonly called hurricanes in the Atlantic and
typhoons in the Pacific Ocean.
(iii) Hydrological Hazards: These are hazards driven by hydrological or water
processes. This includes floods, droughts, mudslides, and tsunamis.
Floods and droughts can cause extensive damage to agriculture and are
among the main contributors to famine.
(iv) Biological Hazards: These are hazards driven by biological processes.
This includes various types of disease, including infectious diseases that
spread from person to person, threatening to infect large portions of the
human population. Some examples are the Black Death outbreak of
bubonic plague in the 1300s, killing 75-100 million people, and the 1918
“Spanish” flu pandemic, killing 50-100 million people.
It is possible for an extreme event to fit within more than one of these categories.
For example, volcano eruptions (a geological event) block incoming sunlight,
potentially enough to cause cold waves (a meteorological event). This happened
in dramatic fashion in 1816 when the Mount Tambora eruption caused the
‘year without summer’ in the Northern hemisphere. Volcano eruptions can
also cause tsunamis (a hydrological event); some of the largest tsunamis ever
occurred when volcanoes along coasts caused large landslides into the water.
Earthquakes (a geological event) that occur under water can also trigger
tsunamis (a hydrological event), such as the 2011 Japan Earthquake and
Tsunami.

CASE STUDY OF A NATURAL HAZARD

The killer earthquake of Bhuj, Gujarat, India
While the entire country was celebrating the 51st anniversary of the
Republic Day on January 26, 2001, a devastating earthquake struck the
Bhuj area of the Gujarat State of India. The 7.6 magnitude Bhuj earthquake
that shook the Indian Province is one of the two most deadly earthquakes
to strike India in its recorded history killing thousands and causing
extensive damage to property. One month after the earthquake Government
of India official figures placed the death toll at 19,727, number of injured
at 166,000, 600,000 people were left homeless, 348,000 houses destroyed
and an additional 844,000 damaged. More than 20,000 cattle were
reported killed.

1.6 EFFECTS AND SERVICE FUNCTIONS OF

NATURAL HAZARDS
Effects of Natural Hazards
Natural hazards have the potential to cause a number of primary, secondary
and tertiary effects. The secondary effects produced vary with the type of event,
as does their severity. Tropical cyclones bring strong winds and heavy rains
which cause secondary hazards such as flood, storm tide, landslides and water
11
Natural Hazards pollution. Flood inundates areas, which in turn may lead to landslide, erosion,
water quality deterioration or turbidity, as well as sediment deposition. Severe
storms range from isolated thunderstorms to intense low-pressure systems
producing phenomena such as severe winds, heavy rain, lightning, flood, storm
tide, hail and coastal erosion. Secondary effects of bushfires include water
pollution, erosion and reduced water catchment yield. A landslide may block a
watercourse, leading to flooding and debris flows upstream. Earthquakes may
also bring fire, flood, water pollution, landslide, tsunami and soil liquefaction,
which can be as devastating as the primary hazard. Each of these phenomena
may produce physical, social and economic effects. Physical effects on the
built infrastructure may involve structural and non-structural damage and/or
progressive infrastructure deterioration. They may also result in the release of
hazardous materials such as chemicals which are usually stored in a safe
environment. Social effects may include fatalities, injuries, homelessness or
loss of income; or secondary effects such as psychological impact, disease or
loss of social cohesion. Economic effects may include business disruption;
disruption to the supply of power, water and telecommunications; and the cost
of response and relief operations. Secondary economic impacts, such as
insurance losses and rising premiums, loss of investor confidence, and costs
of providing welfare and medical assistance, may also result (Institution of
Civil Engineers 1995). However, a natural hazard is not inherently negative,
as hazards produce a disaster only when they impact adversely on communities.
Natural hazards can bring positive environmental and social benefits. Bushfires,
for example, can stimulate growth and regenerate forest ecology, as the heat
from fire is required for some seeds to germinate (Luke and McArthur 1977).
Floodplains are picturesque places for recreational activity and floods can bring
welcome relief for people and ecosystems suffering from prolonged drought.
Further, the ash from volcanoes produces rich soils that can grow three crops
per year in the tropics, and floodplains provide easily cultivated agricultural
land close to a water supply.

Table 1.3: Effects of Hazards

Primary Effects They occur as a result Water damage due to a

of the process itself flood, building collapse due
to an earthquake, landslide,
hurricane, or tornado.

Secondary They occur only Fires ignited by

Effects because a primary effect earthquakesor volcanic
has caused them eruptions, disruption of
electrical power and water
service as a result of an
earthquake or flood and
flooding caused by a
landslide moving into a lake
or river.

Tertiary Effects They are long-term Loss of habitat due to

effects that are set off floods, crop failure caused
as a result of a by a volcanic eruption etc.
primary event
12
Natural Service Functions of Natural Hazards: Introduction to Natural
Hazards and Disaster
Natural earth processes are considered only hazardous when they affect human
life and property. These earth processes have important service functions as
they are responsible for things that make the Earth a habitable planet for life.
Volcanic activity throughout the history of the earth has been responsible for
producing the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. Flooding, landslides, and
windstorms replenish soil, which sustain life. Maintaining and restoring nature’s
ecological safety is important. Dunes, barrier islands, mangrove forests and
coastal wetlands are natural ‘shock absorbers’ that protect against coastal storms.
Forests, floodplains, and wetlands, are ‘sponges’ that absorb floodwaters. Nature
provides these services for free, and we should take advantage of them rather
than undermining them.

1.7 DISASTER AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC

IMPACTS
A disaster occurs when an extreme event exceeds a community’s ability to
cope with it. Understanding the process by which natural disasters produce
community impacts is important. It is necessary to identify the pre-impact
conditions that make communities vulnerable to disaster impacts. Also the
disaster impact processes can be used to identify specific segments of each
community that will be affected disproportionately (e.g., low income
households, ethnic minorities, or specific types of businesses). The information
regarding the disaster impact process can be used to identify the event-specific
conditions that determine the level of disaster impact. Finally the entire disaster
impact process allows planners to identify suitable emergency management
interventions. The effects of a disaster are determined by three pre-impact
conditions. They include hazard exposure, physical vulnerability, and social
vulnerability. There also are three event-specific conditions. They include:
hazard event characteristics, improvised disaster responses, and improvised
disaster recovery. Communities can involve in three types of emergency
management interventions to manage disaster impacts in a better way. Physical
impacts can be reduced by hazard mitigation practices and emergency
preparedness practices, whereas social impacts can be reduced by recovery
preparedness practices.
Natural hazards have impacted civilizations. They have influenced, shaped
and influenced human behavior, changing the way people live with and respond
to the environment. Globally, billions of dollars have been spent in trying to
mitigate or prevent, prepare for, respond to and recover from natural disasters.
Natural disasters have resulted in enormous economic and social loss.

1.7.1 Social Impact

More people globally are now displaced by natural disasters than by conflict.
In the 1990s, natural catastrophes like hurricanes, floods, and fires affected
more than two billion people and caused in excess of $608 billion in economic
losses. We have altered so many natural systems and thus their ability to protect
us from disturbances is greatly diminished. Also contributing to the rising toll
of disasters is the enormous expansion of the human population and the built
environment, which put more people and more economic activities in disaster
prone areas. For example, many people live within 100 kilometers of a coastline. 13
Natural Hazards Many of the world’s megacities (with over 10 million inhabitants) live in coastal
zones. The effects of global warming, extreme weather events and sea level
rise, will only magnify potential losses. The impact of natural hazards falls
disproportionately on poor people as they are more likely to be living in
vulnerable areas and they have fewer resources to prepare for or recover from
disasters. Between 1985 and 1999, 96 percent of recorded disaster fatalities
were in developing countries. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) estimates that future impacts of climate extremes will affect the poor
disproportionately. Vietnam and Bangladesh, for example, are projected to lose
more than 70,000 square kilometers of land, affecting some 32 million people.
The entire Mediterranean coast is especially vulnerable to sea level rise, as are
the U.S.’s Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

1.7.2 Economic Impact

The property damage caused by disaster impact creates losses in asset values
Economic losses from are greater in the developed countries. The earthquake
that rocked Kobe, Japan in 1995, for example, cost more than $100 billion,
making it the most expensive natural disaster in history. Smaller losses often
hit poor countries harder, where they represent a larger share of the national
economy. The damage from 1998’s Hurricane Mitch in Central America was
$8.5 billion-higher than the combined gross domestic product of Honduras
and Nicaragua, the two nations hardest hit. Few of the losses in poor countries
are insured. In the period 1985-99, the vast majority of insured losses-some 92
percent-were in industrial nations. For example, China now recognizes that
forests are ten times more valuable for flood control and water supply than
they are for timber, and has halted logging in the Yangtze River watershed.
The loss of 85 percent of the forests in the upper Yangtze River worsened the
1998 flood that affected 223 million people. Vietnam has restored 2,000 hectares
of mangroves in a successful effort to provide a buffer from coastal storms as
well as much needed jobs in fisheries.

1.7.3 Psychosocial Impacts

Psycho physiological effects include: fatigue, gastrointestinal upset, confusion,
impaired concentration, attention deficits, anxiety, depression, and grief. They
also include behavioral effects such as sleep and appetite changes, ritualistic
behavior, and substance abuse. Some disaster victims require psychiatric
diagnosis and benefit from counseling and orientation programmes. However,
there are some population segments that require special attention. These include
children, old and elderly, people with pre-existing mental illness, racial and
ethnic minorities, and families of those who have died in the disaster.

1.8 VULNERABILITY AND HUMAN

INTERVENTION
Vulnerability
Vulnerability refers to not only the possible physical effects of a natural hazard,
but the way it affects human life and property. Vulnerability to a given hazard
depends on a number of factors like:
 Proximity to a possible hazardous event
14
 Population density, construction styles and building codes Introduction to Natural
Hazards and Disaster
 Understanding and awareness of the nature of the hazard
 Early-warning systems, lines of communication and emergency
infrastructure
Generally, less developed countries are more vulnerable to natural hazards
than are industrialized countries because of lack of understanding, education,
infrastructure, poor building codes. Poverty is in a way directly related to
vulnerability of natural hazards - since poverty leads to poor building structure,
increased population density, and lack of communication and infrastructure
i. Human Vulnerability
Humans are vulnerable to natural hazards. There is variability in the
physiological response of the affected population. This means that given
the same level of exposure, some people will die, others will be severely
injured, still others slightly injured, and the rest will survive unscathed.
Typically, the most susceptible to any hazard will be the very young, the
very old, and those with weakened immune systems.
ii. Agricultural Vulnerability
Like humans, agricultural plants and animals are also vulnerable to natural
hazards. There are differences among and within plants and animals.
However, agricultural vulnerability is more complex than human
vulnerability because there is a greater number of species to be assessed,
each of which has its own characteristic response to each stress.
iii. Structural Vulnerability
Structural vulnerability arises when buildings are constructed using designs
and materials that are incapable of resisting extreme stresses (e.g., high
speed winds, earthquakes). The construction of most buildings is governed
by building codes to protect the life safety of occupants from structural
collapse.
iv. Social Vulnerability
Social vulnerability has been defined in terms of people’s “capacity to
anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impacts of a natural
hazard” (Wisner, Blakie, Canon & Davis, 2004). Social vulnerability refers
to their susceptibility to behavioral changes. Social vulnerability varies
across communities and also across households within communities.
Natural Hazards and Human Intervention
Although humans can do little or nothing to change the incidence or intensity
of most natural phenomena, they have an important role to play in ensuring
that natural events are not converted into disasters by their own actions. It is
important to understand that human intervention can increase the frequency
and severity of natural hazards. For example, when the toe of a landslide is
removed for a settlement, the earth can move again and bury the settlement.
Human intervention may also cause natural hazards where none existed before.
Volcanoes erupt periodically, but it is not until the rich soils formed on their
surface are occupied by farms and human settlements that they are considered 15
Natural Hazards hazardous. Human intervention in natural processes increases vulnerability
by:
1. Development and habitation of lands susceptible to hazards, For example,
building on floodplains subject to floods, sea cliffs subject to landslides,
coastlines subject to hurricanes and floods, or volcanic slopes subject to
volcanic eruptions.
2. Increasing the severity or frequency of a natural hazard. For example:
overgrazing or deforestation leading to more severe erosion (floods,
landslides), mining groundwater leading to subsidence, construction of
roads on unstable slopes leading to landslides.
3. Human intervention reduces the mitigating effect of natural ecosystems.
For example, destruction of coral reefs, which removes the shore’s first
line of defense against ocean currents and storm surges, is a clear example
of an intervention that diminishes the ability of an ecosystem to protect
itself.

1.9 OVERVIEW OF ASSESSING HAZARDS

Hazard Assessment is sometimes called Hazard Evaluation or Hazard Analysis
(UNDRO, 1991). Hazard Assessment is the process of estimating, for defined
areas, the probabilities of the occurrence of potentially-damaging phenomenon
of given magnitude within a specified period of time. The probability of a
hazard occurrence differs from place to place. The use of mapping to synthesize
data on natural hazards and to combine these with socioeconomic data facilitates
analysis. It improves communications among people in the hazard management
process and between planners and decision-makers.
a) Hazard Assessment consists of answering the following questions.
 When have hazardous processes occurred in the past?
 Where have hazardous process occurred in the past?
 The magnitude and frequency of the past hazardous processes
 The likely effects of a process of a given magnitude if it were to
occur now.
 Making all this information available in a form easily understandable
to public officials responsible for making decisions in event of a
disaster.
b) Risk Assessment involves not only the assessment of hazards from a
scientific point of view, but also the socio-economic impacts of a hazardous
event. Risk is a statement of probability that an event will cause a certain
amount of damage, or a statement of the economic impact in monetary
terms that an event will cause. Risk assessment involves
 hazard assessment
 location of buildings, highways, and other infrastructure in the areas
subject to hazards

16  potential exposure to the physical effects of a hazardous situation

Risk assessment helps decision makers and scientists to compare and evaluate Introduction to Natural
Hazards and Disaster
potential hazards, decide on priorities on what kinds of mitigation are possible,
and on where to focus resources.

1.10 NATURAL DISASTERS: INTERNATIONAL

ATTENTION AND STRATEGIES
The year 1990’s was designated as the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR) by the United Nations with primary goal to reduce the
loss of life, property, socio-economic disruption caused by natural disasters,
such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions, droughts,
locust infestations, and other disasters of natural origin. A strictly techno-centric
and scientific approach in the beginning was followed by the IDNDR, but the
Yokohama conference in 1994 put socio-economic aspects as component of
effective disaster prevention into perspective. A global strategy aiming at
reducing the impacts of natural hazards therefore must include the development
of national and sub-national mechanisms for disaster risk reduction. Within
this context the IDNDR advised the UN-member states to establish National
Platforms which would facilitate the adjustment of general disaster risk
reduction objectives to national/local conditions implement the agreed policies
and expand the understanding and perception of the importance of disaster
risk reduction on national levels. In practice, there remains a pressing need to
revitalize and strengthen these national structures as many countries have not
established national network. The same resolution also designated the second
Wednesday of October as International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction.
The (international strategy for disaster reduction) ISDR aims to push the
initiatives and cooperation agreed on during the IDNDR, and developing new
mechanisms as well as ensuring for further commitments from policy-makers.
The ultimate goal is to reduce human, social, economic and environmental
losses due to natural hazards. The ISDR promotes the following four objectives
as tools towards reaching disaster reduction for all:
 Increase public awareness to understand risk, vulnerability and disaster
reduction globally
 Obtain commitment from public authorities to implement disaster
reduction policies and actions.
 Stimulate interdisciplinary and inter-sectoral partnerships, including the
expansion of risk reduction networks.
 Improve scientific knowledge about disaster reduction
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
The Sendai Framework was endorsed by the UN General Assembly (after the
2015 Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction - WCDRR) for
Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. It is the first major agreement of the post
2015 development agenda. Seven targets are identified and four priorities are
listed for action. The Sendai Framework was adopted on 18th March, 2015 at
the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai City,
Japan. The Sendai Framework is a 15 year, voluntary, non-binding agreement.
This framework recognizes that the State has the primary role to reduce disaster
risk. It also emphasizes that the responsibility should be shared with other 17
Natural Hazards stakeholders including local government, the private sector and other
stakeholders. The ultimate aim of this framework is the substantial reduction
of disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health. It also aims to reduce
disaster risks regarding the economic, physical, social, cultural and
environmental assets of persons, businesses, communities and countries.
In conclusion, hazards are an integral part of life and no one can live in an
environment totally risk free. Each hazard varies in dimensions and assessing
hazards and risks is the first important step and the response to different hazards
requires adopting different strategies. Also policies play a fundamental role in
influencing the impact of natural disasters, particularly in areas such as land
use planning, construction standards and emergency management.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Explain the socio-economic impacts of disasters.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. Describe vulnerability and human intervention.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

1.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about an introduction to natural hazards, their
types, effects, impacts, vulnerability, human intervention and an overview of
assessing hazards. Humans also play a key role in creating natural disasters.
The effects of urbanization and increasing population growth and density have
led to a higher potential exposure to natural hazards. Natural hazards vary in
dimensions. Assessing hazards and risks is the first important step and the
response to different hazards requires adopting different strategies. Further,
policies play a fundamental role in influencing the impact of natural disasters.

1.12 KEY WORDS

Geo-hazard : It is a natural earth process that upon interaction with
human activity causes loss of life and / or property.
Earth processes : They are natural events that occur within the
lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere.
Hazard : It can be defined as a potential threat to humans and
their welfare and risk as the probability of hazard
occurrence.

18 IPCC : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

 Introduction to Natural
1.13 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED Hazards and Disaster
FURTHER READINGS
Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2009. Natural Disasters. Unicorn books, Pustak Mahal,
India. 159p.
Bryant, E. 2005. Natural Hazards. 2nd Edition, Cambridge university press,
330p.
Burton, I. And Kates, R.W. (1964). The perception of natural hazards in resource
management, Natural Resources Journal 3, 412-41.
Burton, I., Kates, R.W., and White, G.F. (1978). The Environment as Hazard
New York: Oxford University Press.
Hewitt, K. and Burton, I. (1971). The Hazardousness of a Place: A Regional
Ecology of Damage Events, University of Toronto.
Keller, E.A. 2010. Environmental Geology, 9th Edition, Pearson publication,
624 p.
United Nations Disaster Relief Organization. (1991). Mitigating Natural
Disasters: Phenomena, Effects and Options: A Manual for Policy makers and
Planners. New York: United Nations.

1.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answers should include the following points:
A hazard can be defined as a potential threat to humans and their welfare
and risk as the probability of hazard occurrence. Hazard can also be defined
as: “Those elements of the physical environment, harmful to man and
caused by forces extraneous to him” (Burton et al. 1978). A hazard has
the potential to cause harm to:
 People: death, injury, disease and stress
 Human activity: economic, educational etc.
 Property: property damage, economic loss of
 Environment: loss fauna and flora, pollution, loss of amenities.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
The impact of a disastrous event is in part a function of its magnitude
(amount of energy released) and frequency (recurrence interval) but it is
influenced by many other factors like climate, geology, vegetation,
population and land use.
 Magnitude of the hazard
 Frequency of hazard or recurrence
 Intensity at the impact point
 Return Period 19
Natural Hazards 3. Your answer should include the following points:
 Natural hazards
 Quasi-natural hazards
 Technological hazards
 Secondary hazards
 Chronic hazards
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
 Social impacts
 Economic impacts
 Psychosocial impacts
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Human vulnerability
 Agricultural vulnerability
 Structural vulnerability
 Social Vulnerability
 Natural hazards and human intervention

20
UNIT 2 EARTHQUAKES AND
VOLCANOES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Causes of Earthquakes
2.2.1 Types of Plate Boundaries
2.2.2 Concept of Stress, Strain and Rock Failure
2.2.3 Focus and Epicentre
2.2.4 Seismic Waves (P-, S- and Surface-waves)
2.2.5 Shallow and Deep Focus Earthquakes

2.3 Location of an Earthquake Epicentre and Focus

2.4 Measuring the Size of an Earthquake

2.5 Nature of Destruction

2.6 Effects of Earthquakes

2.7 Volcanoes

2.8 Nature, Extent and Causes of Volcanism

2.8.1 Volcanic Features: Background and Associated Terminology
2.8.2 Volcanic Features Formed in the Crust
2.8.3 Volcanic Features Formed on the Surface
2.8.4 Nature and Extent of Volcanoes/ Volcanism
2.8.5 On the Basis of Frequency of Volcanic Eruptions
2.8.6 On the Basis of Morphology/ Appearance
2.8.7 On the Basis of Tectonic Settings
2.8.8 On the Basis of Volcanic Eruption Style/ Strength
2.8.9 On the Basis of Different Mechanisms of Eruptions
2.8.10 Causes of Volcanism

2.9 Geographic Distribution of Volcanoes

2.9.1 Volcanoes of India

2.10 Volcanism and Climate

2.11 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

2.12 Lets Sum Up

2.13 Key Words

2.14 References and Suggested Further Readings

2.15 Answers to Check Your Progress 21

Natural Hazards
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Natural geological phenomenon such as earthquakes, tsunamis, floods,
landslides, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions have haunted mankind from
time immemorial. Earthquake literally means shaking of the earth. The
occurrences of earthquakes have been mentioned in the ancient european, greek,
chinese and Indian scripts. They attributed the shaking of earth to the movement
giant creatures dwelling underneath the ground such as serpents, turtles, etc.
The philosophers before the medieval period have mentioned about the
devastation caused by the earthquakes. It is important to mention Greek
philosopher Aristotle attempted to explain earthquake with the concept of winds
blowing in the underground caves within the earth in 330 BCE and his view
was widely accepted till the 15th century! (Agnew, 2002).
The great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 and the destruction it brought along set
the impetus for scholars in the 18th century to give serious scientific reasoning
for the cause of earthquakes. The devastation caused by seismic waves was
always felt, but it was in 19th century that the branch of seismology evolved
and a systematic study of earthquakes started. Prediction of an earthquake
startled the geoscientists and seismologists until 1960’s. The Plate Tectonic
theory was a big respite to the seismologists. Seismographs were devised which
could accurately measure the seismic waves and their intensities and large
number of seismic observatories with seismographs were setup to locate the
earthquakes. The seismology also helped in identification of seismic zones
around the globe. Based on plate movements with respect to each other and
the mammoth data collected from seismic observatories throughout the world.
This helped the seismologists in identifying locations vulnerable to earthquakes.
Accordingly, scientists and local governments have devised measures to reduce
the destruction caused by earthquakes and made people aware of how to cope
up with this natural calamity in sensitive areas prone to earthquakes.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit on earthquakes, you should be able to:
 understand the causes of earthquakes;
 list the vulnerable locations on earth prone to earthquakes;
 appreciate the significance of plate tectonics in understanding the
shallow and deep foci earthquakes;
 learn the concept of epicentre, focus and magnitude of earthquake; and
 recognise the nature of destruction earthquake brings along and how its
effects are enhanced if tsunami, landslides, fire etc are triggered by it.
 define volcano and associated volcanic features;
 classify volcanoes based on their varied characteristics;
 explain the causes of volcanism;
 show spatial distribution of volcanoes on world map;

22  understand evaluate the natural hazards caused by volcanism;

 describe role of volcanism in climate change; and Earthquakes and Volcanoes

 recognize the effects of volcanism on environment and occupation.

2.2 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES

The myths about the causes of earthquakes were put to rest with scientific
quest, reasoning and understanding of the makeup of the internal structure of
the planet ‘Earth’. The Plate Tectonic theory was propounded by John Tuzo
Wilson (a Canadian geophysicist and geologist) in the year 1965. This theory
advocates the idea that the rigid lithosphere (crust and upper part of mantle) is
broken into thirteen major plates and numerous smaller plates which are
continuously in motion over the weaker ductile asthenosphere. The plate
tectonic theory gained momentum by the end of 1970’s and was widely accepted
by seismologists to explain earthquakes vis-a-vis plate boundaries.

2.2.1 Types of Plate Boundaries

Let us examine the types of plate boundaries and plate motions in order to
quickly recapitulate theory of plate tectonics,. These plate boundaries are
associated with large scale geologic features such as volcanic and island arcs
and mid ocean ridges. Thus the plate boundaries are the locations where
earthquakes, volcanoes, rifts, fault occur. Three types of plate boundaries have
been documented on account of movement of plates with respect to each other:
1. Divergent Plate Boundary: Opening of new oceanic crust when two
plates diverge from each other (e.g. Mid Atlantic ridge).
2. Convergent Plate Boundary: Plates collide with each other as a result
lighter plate overrides and the denser plate gets subducted into the mantle
(Volcanic and island arcs; e.g. Andes mountain, Indonesian arc).
3. Transform Faults: Plates slide past each other (San Andreas fault, US;
transform faults offsetting the mid oceanic ridges)

2.2.2 Concept of Stress, Strain and Rock Failure

The plate motion is responsible for the above three types of plate boundaries.
These boundaries are the sites of enormous stresses operational in between the
plates. The stress is defined as force exerted per unit area and is responsible
for strain which causes the brittle rocks to deform. The brittle rocks can withhold
stress up to a critical limit beyond which they fail and results in faulting/breaking
of rocks. The faulting results in displacement (slip) of rocks on both sides of
the fault, and cause an earthquake. Most earthquakes have been attributed to
geologic faults and when there is sudden displacement along the faults (slip)
energy in form seismic waves is released. Many faults active in the past and
are still active eg. San Andreas Fault, USA. The faults can also be hidden
beneath the surface of the earth and have not been exposed on the surface of
the earth are called blind faults. The active faults are concentrated mostly along
plate boundaries where stress and strain are operational on a large scale by
plate movements.

2.2.3 Focus and Epicenter

Focus is the point inside the earth where an earthquake initiates and the point
directly above the focus on the surface of the earth is defined as an epicentre. 23
Natural Hazards The rupturing of the fault starts from the focus and travels along the fault
surface up to the surface, i.e. epicentre and at times the rupturing dose not
reach the surface in case of blind faults. The intensity of the stresses and nature
of the rocks define the extent of faulting. The faulting ceases where the stresses
become mellow or the where the rocks are more competent to be affected by
stresses and also where material becomes ductile. Minor earthquakes which
occur on everyday basis along the plate boundaries are low magnitude
earthquakes so they fail to rupture the ground surface. The large earthquakes
with high magnitude have the potential to rupture faults for 1000’s of km and
can cause displacement of rock blocks on either side of the fault on scale of
10’s of meter. San Andreas fault in 1906 is a classic example of transform
fault, where the Pacific and American plate moved past each other and the
earthquake developed a slip of almost 10 m. Everyday earthquakes in the San
Andreas fault zone varying in magnitude as low as less than 1 are recorded.

2.2.4 Sesmic Waves (P, S and Surface Waves)

The energy released during an earthquake is in form of seismic waves. The
seismic waves trigger outwards from the focus of the earthquake where the
rupture initiates. The seismic waves are of three types viz.:
P waves or the Primary waves;
S waves or the Secondary waves; and
Surface waves.
P waves are compressional waves and propagate like sound waves. The P waves
are the fastest of all the three types of seismic waves and can travel through
solid, liquid and gaseous materials. These waves travel at a speed of 6 km/sec
through the solid rock of Earth’s crust. Both P waves and S waves travel
through Earth’s interior. The S waves are transverse waves and are slower than
the P waves. Unlike P waves, S waves can only travel through solid materials
(they cannot pass through liquids, molten materials or gases). The S waves
travel at a speed approximately half that of P waves through earth’s crustal
rocks. Surface waves are of two types: Love and Rayleigh waves and are the
most destructive waves.
Table 1.1 Three types of seismic waves
Source:http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm
Type Particle motion Typical velocity Other characteristics

P waves Compressional VP ~ 5 – 7 km/s in Pmotion travels fastest

(Compressional waves move in the typical Earth’s crust : in materials, so the
/ Primary/ same direction as the >~ 8 km/s in Earth’s P-wave is the first-
Longitudinal) wave is propagating mantle and core arriving energy on a
seismogram.

S waves Transverse waves VS ~ 3 – 4 km/s in S-waves do not travel

(Shear/ moves perpendicular typical Earth’s crust : through fluids, so do not
Secondary/ to the direction >~ 4.5 km/s in Earth’s exist in Earth’s liquid
Transverse) of propagation. mantle; ~ 2.5-3.0 km/s outer core or molten
in (solid) inner core rock (magma). S-waves
travel slower than P-
waves in a solid and,
therefore, arrive after
24 the P-wave.
 L Love Surface Transverse horizontal VL ~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in Love waves exist Earthquakes and Volcanoes
waves motion, perpendicular the Earth depending because of the Earth’s
to the direction of on frequency of the surface. They are
propagation and propagating wave largest at the surface and
generally parallel to decrease in amplitude
the Earth’s surface with depth.

R Rayleigh Motion is both in VR ~ 2.0 - 4.5 km/s in Rayleigh wave’s

Surface waves the direction of the Earth depending amplitudes generally
propagation and on frequency of the decrease with depth in
perpendicular (in a propagating wave the Earth. Appearance
vertical plane) and particle motion
are similar to water
waves.

2.2.5 Shallow and Deep Focus Earthquakes

Shallow earthquakes with focus < 50 km have been recorded all along the mid
ocean ridges which are prominent feature of divergent pate boundaries on ocean
floor. The transform-fault boundaries which displace mid-oceanic ridges
horizontally on ocean floors record high incidence of earthquake activity
compared to mid ocean ridges. The largest (in terms of magnitude) and deep
(>600 km deep focus) earthquakes rock the convergent plate boundaries (e.g.
Sumatra earthquake of 2004; Chile earthquake of 1960). Most of the
earthquakes occurring at convergent plate margins are also responsible for
Tsunamis that cause havoc at the coastlines. Tsunamis are large sea waves
which can be generated by displacement of seafloor initiated by large
earthquakes affecting seafloor. Tsunamis are also triggered by large scale
landslides and volcanic eruptions. The deepest earthquakes (> 700 km focus)
have known to occur where the old, cold plate gets subducted e.g. west coast
of South America and Ring of Fire (Circum - Pacific Belt). All the earthquakes
do not originate at plate boundaries, some earthquakes also are recorded within
plates (intraplate). The intraplate earthquakes are shallow focus (< 30 km) and
mostly occur on continents. Bhuj earthquake of India in 2001 is an example of
intraplate earthquake.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What were the earlier notions on the causes of earthquakes?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Which theory was a big respite for earth scientists to explain the location
of earthquakes?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
25
Natural Hazards 3. What is the difference between the epicentre and focus of an earthquake?
Draw a sketch to illustrate your answer.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4. Have you ever experienced an earthquake? If yes, describe your
observations during an earthquake.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
5. How many types of plate boundaries are there? Describe them in details
and how are they related to earthquakes?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

2.3 LOCATION OF AN EARTHQUAKE

EPICENTRE AND FOCUS
Seismic waves emanate as a result of sudden faulting move out from the focus.
They are recorded by an instrument called Seismograph. Seismograph record
all the three types of seismic waves and are extremely helpful in delineating
the location of epicentre and focus of an earthquake. The velocity relationship
between the three types of seismic waves is used to calculate the distance of an
epicentre from the seismic observatory where a seismograph is housed. We
know that P waves are the fastest and are recorded first by the seismograph
followed by S and Surface waves. A seismologist uses the time difference in
the arrival of the three types of seismic waves with respect to the velocity to
calculate the distance of epicentre from a seismic observatory. More the
difference in the arrival time of P, S and Surface waves greater the distance
between the seismic observatory and the epicentre. Using the recorded time
interval at a seismic station with the known travel-time curves it is possible to
delineate the distance between a seismic observatory and the earthquake
epicentre. To locate the focus and epicentre of an earthquake the seismic data
from three or more seismographs is collected. The distances calculated from
individual seismographs from at least three seismographic observatories can
locate the focus. Using the above information it is also possible to detect the
time at which the earthquake occurred in an investigated area. Data pertaining
to the earthquake, is collected from these seismic observatories helps us in
knowing its epicenter, depth of focus and time of origin. The seismic
observatories are well equipped with sophisticated instruments with state of
the art sensors and large quantity of data.
26
 Earthquakes and Volcanoes
2.4 MEASURING THE SIZE OF AN
EARTHQUAKE
Magnitude of an earthquake is very important to measure besides detecting
the epicentre, depth of focus and time of origin of an earthquake. Magnitude
of an earthquake depends on the intensity of the P, S and Surface waves which
cause shaking of the ground. The magnitude of an earthquake also speaks of
the volume of destruction an earthquake can cause. For example earthquakes
of magnitude 2/3 causing no devastation are happening all the time in
seismically active zones but an earthquake with magnitude > 6 can be
destructive. Richter magnitude was devised by an American seismologist
Charles Richter in 1935. It is a scale for measuring the ground movement of an
earthquake He assigned a numerical size (1 to 10) to each earthquake on a
logarithmic scale based on the amplitude of ground movement caused by the
seismic waves and recorded by a seismograph. For example earthquakes of
magnitude 2 and 3 differ in terms of ground movement by a factor of 10, i.e.
the earthquake of magnitude 3 will cause ground movement 10 times more
compared to magnitude 2 earthquakes. Thus earthquake with magnitude 3 will
be more destructive than magnitude 2. Likewise if we compare earthquakes of
magnitude 6 and 8; magnitude 8 earthquake will cause 100 times more ground
movement compared to earthquake of magnitude 6. Thus earthquake of
magnitude 8 is more destructive. Every year approximately 1 million
earthquakes with magnitude >2 and < 3 are recorded all over the world over.
The number of earthquakes with magnitude >3 and <4 drop by the factor of 10
on logarithmic scale which implies approximately 0.1 million earthquakes of
magnitude >3 and <4. Moment magnitude is preferred over Richter magnitude
by seismologists to measure the severity of an earthquake. Moment magnitude
defines the size of an earthquake based on the physical properties of a fault
that caused the earthquake. The calculation of moment magnitude is based on
the average slip caused at the site of the faulting, area of faulting and the nature
or strength of the rock undergoing faulting whereas the Richter magnitude is
based on the ground shaking.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What is a seismograph?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. Which is the most destructive seismic wave during an earthquake?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
27
Natural Hazards 3. What is basis of devising magnitude scale for an earthquake? Differentiate
between Richter magnitude and moment magnitude.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
4. What are seismic waves? Discuss their nature and how they behave with
respect to earth.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

2.5 NATURE OF DESTRUCTION

We know that the earthquakes are the most dreaded natural disaster faced by
mankind and earthquakes alone have killed over 2 million people around the
globe in the last century (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2014). During the last 15
years some of the deadliest earthquakes that have occurred are Sumatra
earthquake, Indonesia in 2004; Tohuku earthquake, Japan in 2011; Bhuj
earthquake, India in 2001; Nepal Earthquake, Nepal in 2015, which have caused
grave loss of life and property. The loss of life is indeed a great casualty but a
high magnitude earthquake also disrupts the economy of the affected country.
The ground shaking during earthquakes cause tsunamis, landslides, avalanches,
fires, which aggravate the quantum of destruction of life and property. In 2011
Tohuku earthquake of Japan, with magnitude 9 created tsunamis (large oceanic
waves) that were as high as approximately 40 m. They inundated land up to 10
kms inwards in the low lying city of Sendai. There was enormous loss of life
and approximately 0.23 million people became homeless. The destruction was
multiplied by knocking down of Fukushima- Daiichi power plant (nuclear
power plant) which suffered a level 7 nuclear meltdown causing deadly
radioactive leaks from the nuclear power plant. People in Japan have still not
fully recovered from this shock. The earthquake damaged approximately 1
million buildings and caused severe damage to road and railways infrastructure.
The earthquake and the tsunami rendered millions of people in northern Japan
without electricity and water. Japanese Premier Naoto Kan admitted that after
World War II, this is the most difficult time for Japan. The Tohoku earthquake,
till now has been the most destructive and economy draining natural disaster!

2.6 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

The shaking and trembling of earth during earthquake can lead to tsunamis,
landslides, avalanches, depending on its intensity. The direct impact of ground
shaking is collapsing of manmade structures, such as buildings, dams, nuclear
power plants to name a few. The collapsing of structures can cause a great loss
of life and monetary loss to a nation. In densely populated areas maximum
destruction is caused by collapsing of buildings since people get buried under
the rubble. Loss of life is accelerated during high magnitude earthquakes in
countries where building codes are not followed and seismicity resistant
28 structures are not built in seismically prone areas.
The earthquakes commonly generate landslides. When water saturated soils Earthquakes and Volcanoes
are acted upon by seismic waves, they behave like a liquid (liquefaction). The
ground starts to flow like liquids and carry along buildings, bridges, etc along
with it. In the multiple earthquakes in 2010–2011 in Christchurch, New Zealand,
liquefaction destroyed the infrastructure of the city. Peru earthquake of 1970,
triggered an avalanche which devastated the towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca
and killed approximately18,000 people. Tsunamis are the most common and
the most destructive natural hazard triggered by an earthquake. . Their impact
is most noticeable around the subduction zones and near the arc systems, e.g.
in Circum-Pacific region. The oceanic waves created by earthquakes travel
with a speed of up to 800 km/hour. The impact of a tsunami is most dramatic
when it reaches shallow coastal waters. The destruction caused by tsunami
was at its peak during the Tohoku earthquake which rocked Japan on 11th March,
2011. The city of Miyako saw water mass rising up to 40 m above sea level
and causing enormous destruction of life and property. Another example of a
destructive tsunami was during 9.2 magnitude Sumatra earthquake of 26th
September, 2004. The tsunamis devastated the coasts of Indonesia, Thailand,
Sri Lanka, India, and even the far off east coast of Africa. More than .15 million
people residing in the coastal areas lost their lives. Besides, the natural hazards
triggered by earthquakes, some secondary hazards like fires, leak of nuclear
material, etc may also cause destruction of life and property. The gas lines,
electric poles, petrol pumps get ruptured leading to fires which causes havoc
in thickly populated regions. Example of Kanto earthquake of Japan in 1923
led to loss of 0.14 million lives due to fire in the cities of Tokyo and Yokohama
triggered by an earthquake.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What is liquefaction?
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2. Give example of an earthquake which gave rise to a tsunami.
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3. Discuss in detail the destruction caused by a tsunami triggered during
Tohoku earthquake of Japan.
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Natural Hazards 4. Write your views on the destruction caused due to earthquakes in the
Himalayas. Give examples to support your answer.
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2.7 VOLCANOES
Volcanoes make an amazing sight and are one of the most dynamic geological
feature present on the Earth. The word volcano comes from the Greek word
‘Vulcan’ which means ‘God of fire’. In simplest words, a volcano is an opening
on Earth’s surface through which hot molten material escapes from its deep
interior. Volcanism includes all those processes by which molten rock/ magma
and gases rise and discharge into the Earth’s surface/ crust and atmosphere. It
is one of the most spectacular geologic phenomena of our Mother Earth and
results in most varied health, occupational and environmental hazards than
any other type of natural disaster.

2.8 NATURE, EXTENT AND CAUSES OF

VOLCANISM
According to the U.S. Geological Survey, more than 80% of the Earth’s surface,
both above and below sea level, actually has volcanic origins. The study of
Earth’s history shows volcanism is a constructive process because emissions
from volcanoes during Earth’s early history played a significant role in the
origin of the atmosphere. Not only this, they are believed to have created all
the oceans and mountains we see today as well as will continue to do this into
the future. Volcanology is the study of volcanoes.

2.8.1 Volcanic Features: Background and Associated

Terminology
Volcanism refers to all the processes encompassing origin of volcanoes, volcanic
features, eruptions and volcanic (i.e. extrusive igneous rocks) rocks. A volcano
is a hill or mountain landform formed around a vent when molten rock known
as magma from deep interior the earth erupts on the surface in the form of
lava, gases and pyroclastic materials. It is usually conical in shape and the tip
of the cone is breached by the erupting magma. Magma erupting from a volcano
is called lava and is the material which builds up the cone surrounding the
vent.

2.8.2 Volcanic Features Formed in the Crust

Magma chamber comprises the store house of magma found below Earth’s
surface. Batholith is a huge mass of magma in the crust and is composed of
granite. It is a discordant pluton which is irregular in shape having at least 100
Km2 of surface area. It forms the root or core of a mountain chain. Laccolith is
a concordant pluton with mushroom-like geometry. Sill is a planar sheet of
magma parallel to the surrounding rock/s. Dyke is a mass of magma which is
deposited/ intruded in such a way that it cuts across surrounding rocks.
30
2.8.3 Volcanic Features Formed on the Surface Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Vent is a hole through which magma reaches Earth’s surface. Fissure is a

crack in the subsurface rocks through magma reaches Earth’s surface. Lava
plain or lava plateau is a landform formed when magma ejected lava through
a fissure. Volcano is a cone-shaped hill formed when magma ejected lava
through a vent. The mound of a volcano is named as cone which may consist
of lava or a mixture of lava and other pyroclastic material. Pipe of a volcano is
used for the channel through which lava rises and the exit of the pipe is called
the crater, which is usually a shallow depression. Pyroclastic material includes
all the solid material ejected from volcano. It includes volcanic blocks/ bombs
(partially molten solid material > 64mm in diameter), cinder/ lapilli (fragment
size varies between 2-64mm in diameter), ash/ dust (fragment size < 2mm in
diameter).
Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Differentiate between magma and lava.
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2) What is pyroclastic material?
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2.8.4 Nature and Extent of Volcanoes/ Volcanism

Volcanoes greatly vary in shape and size; however all are characterized by
having magma chamber beneath the surface rising through a conduit or conduits.
We can classify volcanoes and volcanic eruption on the basis of nature and
extent of volcanism as discussed below.

2.8.5 On the Basis of Frequency of Volcanic Eruptions

We can classify volcanic eruption on the basis of frequency into three types:
 Active
 Passive
 Dormant
Active volcanoes can erupt at any time. Active volcanoes keep erupting lava
and/ or gas, even generating seismicity. Examples: Barren Island in the Andaman
Islands (India), Sakurajima volcano (Japan), Mayon in Albay (Philippines),
volcanoes Kilauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii. Dormant volcanoes
have not been known to erupt for a long time but could erupt again in the
future. Examples: Mt. Apo and Mt. Isarog (Philippines). 31
Natural Hazards Extinct volcanoes have not been erupted since historic times. An extinct volcano
is one which has been dormant for more than 10,000 years. Example/s: Mount
Kenya in Kenya, Mount Ashitaka in Japan, Dhinodhar hills in Gujarat (India),
Dhosi hill in Haryana (India).
Are volcanoes always active? No, they are active during their early stage.
Volcanoes like other landforms pass through three stages in their life cycle.
The early stage is the active stage as it has frequent eruptions, then becomes
dormant (i.e. sleeping stage) and finally the old stage i.e. extinct stage, which
is represented by long historic periods of inactivity.

2.8.6 On the Basis of Morphology/ Appearance

Volcanoes vary in size and shape with some showing perfect cone shapes
while others are deep depressions (Fig. 2.1). Some have steep slopes whereas
others have very gentle slopes.

Fig. 2.1: Different types of volcanoes on the basis of morphology

Shield: These volcanoes are characterized by broad, flattened dome-like shape

with the convex side up. Thus, they have low, rounded profiles. These are
formed almost entirely of mafic lava flows having low viscosity that cools and
form basalt. Because of this lava flows easily and gradually spread over great
distance in the form of thin layers with very gentle slopes. Slopes commonly
range between 2-10 degrees. These dominantly comprise basalt lava flows
and are most common in the ocean basins. These pose little danger to humans
because the lava flows are sufficiently slow and quiet. Example/s: Volcanoes
Kilauea and Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii.
Composite (Strato volcano): As the name suggests these consist of pyroclastic
layers as well as lava flows. They are made up of intermediate magma
composition (i.e. andesite). These have steep slopes (i.e. as much as 30 degrees)
near their summits, but the slope reduces to less than 5 degrees towards the
base. These are typical large volcanoes occurring on continents and island
arcs. Volcanic mudflows called lahars are common on composite volcanoes.
These volcanoes erupt regularly and sometimes very violently. Example/s: Fuji
(Japan), Colima (Mexico), Narcondom and Barren Island in the Andaman
Islands (India), Mayon volcano in the Philippines.
Lava domes: They are also known as volcanic domes or plug domes. Lava
domes are viscous bulbous masses of lava, dominantly consisting of felsic
magma (occasionally may comprise intermediate magma). These form steep
sided mountains. Lava domes are one of the most dangerous and destructive
because they erupt violently and explosively. Examples: Lava domes Augustine
and Mount St. Helens (USA) and Unzen volcano (Japan). Mount Pelee on the
island of Martinique.
Caldera: When the volcanism is so explosive that the top of volcano is blown
32 off and only little material builds up near the vent, then the underlying magma
chamber is partly or entirely removed. It further sinks or collapses under its Earthquakes and Volcanoes
own weight with time. This result in creation of a huge crater-like depression
called caldera. This basin-like depression is roughly circular and several
kilometers in diameter. It dominantly comprises rhyolitic magma. Caldera
volcanoes are most dangerous but are uncommon. Many times calderas become
sites of lakes. Examples: Yellowstone caldera in Wyoming (USA), Crater Lake
caldera in Oregon (USA).
Cinder cone: These volcanoes comprise particles resembling cinders which
form when pyroclastic materials that accumulates around the volcanic vent.
These are small, rarely exceed 400 m high, and steep-sided conical hills. Many
of these volcanoes represent final stage of volcanism and commonly form on
the flanks or within calderas of huge volcanoes. For example a small cinder
cone volcano, Wizard Island in Crater Lake (Oregon) is the outcome of Mount
Mazama whose summit collapsed to form a caldera. Examples: Cinder cone
volcanoes Eldfell (in Iceland) and Paricutin (in Mexico).
Three major types of volcanoes are Composite, Shield and Cinder Cone
volcanoes. They differ from each other significantly in composition and in
their overall shape. For example, shield volcanoes comprise basaltic magma
and are broad with very low slopes whereas cinder cone volcanoes comprise
dominantly rhyolitic magma and are small, steep-sided conical hills. In contrast,
composite volcanoes comprise andesitic magma and are steep-sided near their
summits but becomes very gentle towards base.

2.8.7 On the Basis of Tectonic Settings

Different types of volcanoes have been classified on the basis of their occurrence
along tectonic plate margins (Fig. 2.2).
Subduction Volcano: These occur on continental margins or island arcs along
subduction zones where the edge of one plate thrusts beneath another plate.
They comprise 80% of active volcanoes and are most explosive and destructive
in nature. Examples: Barren Island (India); Volcano Vesuvius (Italy); Circum
Pacific ring like Pinatubo (Philippines), Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount St Helens
(USA) are some other examples.
Rift Volcano: This is generally less explosive and occurs along divergent/
spreading plate boundaries, particularly on the ocean floor. Example/s:
Volcanoes in the African Rift Valley.
Hot Spot Volcano: They are not related to tectonic plates and can occur at
great distances from plate boundaries. They form above hot mantle plumes/
upwellings which rise due to convective processes operating within the Earth’s
mantle. These occur in both oceanic and continental regions. Example:
Volcanoes of Hawaii and Yellowstone in USA.

Fig. 2.2: Volcanoes on the basis of tectonic setting 33

Natural Hazards 2.8.8 On the Basis of Volcanic Eruption Style/ Strength
The explosive and effusive nature of a volcanic eruption also depends on how
easily magma can flow and the amount of trapped gas. They can be grouped
into two:
Destructive/Explosive: Gas driven eruptions are explosive which propel
magma and tephra. Large amounts of water and carbon dioxide are dissolved
in magma causing it to behave in a similar way to gas expanding in fizzy
drinks, which forms bubbles and escapes after opening.
As magma rises quickly through the Earth’s crust, gas bubbles form and expand
up to 1000 times their original size. They are characterised by voluminous
lava flows and the magma is sticky (less fluid) with lots of gases. Extreme
violent eruptions eject pyroclastics. Heavy particles settle near crater whereas
lighter particles can be deposited hundreds of miles away by the action of
wind. Examples: Climatic eruption of Pinatubo (Philippines) in 1991.
Non-destructive/Effusive: These form quiet emissions of lava. Such types of
eruptions are characterized by lava outpouring without significant explosion
due to lesser quantities of gases and so are more fluid. Example/s: Kilauea,
Hawaii.

Can volcanic eruptions be measured?

Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI) is used to measure strength of volcanic
eruptions which is a simple descriptive index ranging from zero to eight.
The volume of material erupted with the height of an eruption plume/
column and the duration of the eruption are considered irrespective of
fatalities and property damage.

2.8.9 On the Basis of Different Mechanisms of Eruptions

There are three different major mechanisms through which volcanic eruptions
arise.
Magmatic eruptions are the most well documented which are driven by the
decompression of gas within magma.
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are driven by the compression of gas within
magma. In other words, thermal contraction from due to chilling process on
contact with water cause these types of volcanic eruptions.
Phreatic eruptions are driven by superheating of steam when contacted with
magma. Several subtypes of these major eruptions include Icelandic, Hawaiian,
Strombolian, Vulcanian, Vesuvian, Kratatoan, Pelean, Plinian eruptions which
are shown in Figure 2.3.

34 Fig. 2.3: Various subtypes of volcanic eruptions

Chemically, magmas are further subdivided which greatly influences volcanic Earthquakes and Volcanoes
eruptions: basaltic magmas are rich in elements such as Mg, Ca and Fe with
about 50% silica and rhyolitic magmas are are rich in alkali elements such as
Na, K and as much as 75% silica. There are many other magma types
intermediate between basaltic magma and rhyolitic magma, the most common
being andesitic magmas. Basaltic magmas are less viscous compared to
andesitic and rhyolitic magmas.
Check Your Progress 5
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Distinguish between a crater and a caldera.
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.............................................................................................................
2) Why do some volcanoes erupt violently?
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2.8.10 Causes of Volcanism
In simplest way, scientists explain that movement of plates actually causes
earthquakes and volcanoes/ volcanism. However, for a layman to understand
what actually causes a volcano to form or volcanism to take place, think of a
chimney of fireplace/ furnace. The chimney acts a favourable passage which
allows smoke out of the house due to energy source below. In the case of a
volcano, chimneys are the zones of structural weakness/ fissures/ conduits and
hot magma chamber inside Earth’s mantle is the fireplace/ furnace. Therefore,
presence of a magma chamber or molten rock reservoir is the basic requisite
for the origin of volcanoes. Now question arises that from where comes the
energy for these rocks to remain molten and in constant flux inside the Earth.
Deep interior the Earth, various radioactive substances generate a lot of heat
through varied chemical reactions and therefore keep the molten/ semi-molten
material (i.e. magma) in constant flux. Also, this magma is under sufficiently
high pressure and the various gases create outward pressure. This when
combined with the friction of the moving tectonic plates and even the crust of
the Earth results in rising of the magma from the mantle to the Earth’s surface
causing volcanic eruptions. Intensity of volcanic eruption depends on the
composition, buoyancy and viscosity of the magma as well as pressure from
the gases in the magma. The erupted material can be liquid rock, gas, ash and/
or cinders which gives rise to different types of volcanoes and volcanism as
already been discussed. The three important ways by which magma rises to
the surface and causes volcanism are along divergent plate boundaries,
convergent plate boundaries and intraplate/ hot spot volcanism. Magma rises
to fill up the space between diverging tectonic plates (i.e. tectonic plates which
slowly move away from each other). This commonly forms underwater/ sea- 35
Natural Hazards floor volcanoes which are called rift volcanoes and are generally less explosive.
Magma also rises when tectonic plates move toward each other or along
convergent plate boundaries. This forms subduction volcanoes which are the
most explosive in nature. Another way that magma rises is over hot spots. As
the name sounds- hot spots are hot areas inside Earth. These areas heat up
magma because of which it becomes less dense and therefore rises up.
Check Your Progress 6
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Are the causes of volcanism related to earthquakes?
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2.9 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF

VOLCANOES
There are about 1500 potentially active volcanoes in the world which have
been erupted in the last 10,000 years. The distribution of these volcanoes is
such that they are located on or near tectonic plate boundaries, particularly
convergent (i.e. destructive) and divergent (i.e. constructive) plate boundaries.
Active volcanoes commonly occur close to the major tectonic plate boundaries.
Following are the major areas of active volcanoes:
i. Circum Pacific region around the Pacific Ocean (also known as ‘Ring of
Fire’)
ii. Southern Europe
iii. Along Mid Atlantic Ridge
iv. East Coast of Africa
However, majority of the world’s active volcanoes occur in well defined belts
rather than random occurrence. Majority of active volcanoes are located in
and around the Pacific Ocean and others are in the Mediterranean belt across
the Mediterranean Sea, Alpine-Himalayan belt and in the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans.
The circum-Pacific belt is known as the ‘Ring of Fire’ because of the largest
number, more than 60%, of active volcanoes. It includes volcanoes in the Andes
of South America; volcanoes in the Alaska; volcanoes of Central America,
Mexico, and Cascade Range of North America; volcanoes in Japan as well as
those of Philippines, Indonesia and New Zealand.
The Mediterranean belt comprises the second region of active volcanoes. The
Italian volcanoes like Mounts Etna and Vesuvius as well as the Greek volcano
Santorini in this belt comprise 20% of all active volcanism.

36
The African continent occupies third place having active volcano on the west Earthquakes and Volcanoes
coast, an extinct one in Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) and several others in
the rift valley belt (such as Nyiragongo in Zaire and Erta Ale in Ethiopia)
passing through the Red Sea and extending up to Palestine. However except
circum-Pacific and Mediterranean belts, all the remaining active volcanoes
occur dominantly at or near mid-oceanic ridges or on the extensions of these
ridges on continents/ land. These largely include the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (which
is the longest of all mid-oceanic ridges located nearly in the centre of the Atlantic
Ocean basin) and East Pacific Rise.

2.9.1 Volcanoes of India

The Indian plate separated from the Gondwanaland and later collided with the
Eurasian plate at about 50 Ma ago to form the Himalayan mountain belt. Deccan
trap volcanism took place about 66 Ma ago by the reunion hotspot whereas
subduction volcanism resulted in the formation of volcanoes in the Andaman
Islands of India. Following are the major volcanoes of India:
Barren Island volcano is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It was
formed due to subduction of the Indian Plate under the Burmese Plate along
the Andaman Trench. It is a kind of active, stratovolcano with summit elevation
of about 350m. Recent eruptions (i.e. February 17, 2017) have been reported
at Barren Island volcano.
Narcondom volcano is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India)
and is a kind of andesitic, dormant, stratovolcano with summit elevation of
about 710m.
Barren 1 Volcano is an active mud volcano located in the Baratang Island of
Middle Andaman
Andaman Islands with summit elevation of about 76m.
Deccan Traps are located on the Deccan Plateau in the west-central India and
represents ~66 Ma ago volcanic eruption. It is considered to be an outcome of
deep mantle plume and consists of multiple layers of flood basalt lava flows.
Dhinodhar Hills are considered to consist of an extinct volcano located in
Gujarat (India) with summit elevation of about 386m.
Dhosi Hill is considered to consist of an extinct volcano located in the north-
west end of Aravalli mountain range on the borders of Haryana and Rajasthan
states of India, with maximum summit elevation of 1170m.
Check Your Progress 7
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Which country has the most active volcanoes?
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37
Natural Hazards 2) Are there volcanoes elsewhere in our solar system?
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2.10 VOLCANISM AND CLIMATE

Volcanism directly or indirectly affects Earth’s climate at regional and/ or global
scale. It can significantly produce both long-term and short-term climatic
changes. Indeed it is considered as one of the important natural factor
responsible for climate change at various timescales. For example, after the
eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 average global temperatures dropped to
about a degree Fahrenheit for almost two years. Volcanism drastically changes
gaseous composition of the atmosphere resulting in increase in temperature of
the atmosphere and blocking solar radiation resulting in a decrease in
temperature. Volcanism brings primary and secondary climatic hazards that
must be identified and assessed accordingly. The change in climate ranges
from ice age, global warming, and fire to raining mud. It not only affects the
lower atmosphere (i.e. troposphere) but also the upper atmosphere (i.e.
stratosphere) because large volcanic eruptions can significantly release ozone-
depleting chemicals, particularly by injecting sulfur gases in to the stratosphere.
Even though volcanoes and volcanic chains occur at specific places on Earth,
their effects are widely distributed because gases, ash, and dust particles released
easily spread into the atmosphere. Further, volcanic eruptions in the tropical
belt can have a dominant effect on the climate in both hemispheres due to
specific atmospheric circulation patterns. In contrary, volcanic eruptions
occurring within mid or high latitudes only have impact on climate of the
hemisphere they are within.
In general, three major types of material injected through volcanism result in
specific changes in climate. Three major types of material include: particles of
ash or dust, sulfur and greenhouse gases.
Particles of Ash or Dust: Explosive volcanic eruptions inject ash and tephra
into the atmosphere resulting in darkness of the atmosphere and cause temporary
cooling. Falling volcanic ash accompanied with rainfall leads to raining mud.
Huge concentration of volcanic ash into the atmosphere can be transported by
prevailing winds hundreds to thousands of kilometers. This airborne ash in the
atmosphere is one of the major hazards in civil aviation. The size and
concentration of ash particles control the intensity and duration of cooling.
Sand grain-size ash particles stay closer to the volcano and have little effect on
the climate because they remain into the atmosphere for only few minutes as
they fall out of the air quickly. Tiny dust-size ash particles usually reach lower
moist atmosphere and stay there for hours to days forming ash cloud and cause
darkness and cooling beneath. These particles are washed out of the atmosphere
with rainfall. However, tiny ash particles travel faster, reach the dry upper
atmosphere, the stratosphere and remain there for months. They significantly
affect climate as they block sunlight for longer duration, thereby causing cooling
over large regions of Earth.
Radar is the main navigation aid for aircraft. However volcanic ash is not
visible by radar thereby damaging aircraft engines and therefore the volcanic
38 ash clouds pose major hazard in aviation.
Sulfur: Volcanic eruptions can also release large amounts of sulfur and Earthquakes and Volcanoes
compounds like sulfur dioxide or sulfur oxides which are by far much more
effective in cooling of climate than the ash particles. Sulfur dioxide released
from volcanic eruptions easily moves in to stratosphere and there combines
with water to form a haze of tiny droplets of sulphuric acid (aerosols). These
tiny droplets cause cooling of the Earth’s surface by reflecting larger percent
of incoming solar radiation. These sulfur hazes eventually grow larger from
tiny droplets and fall back to the Earth’s surface; however this takes years to
happen as the stratosphere lacks sufficient moisture. It is believed that global
cooling happened after Pinatubo and Tambora volcanic eruptions was due to
these sulfur hazes.
Greenhouse gases: Volcanic eruptions emit large amounts of greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide and water vapor which could cause a temporary warming
in climate. Global amounts of these gases do not very much change even after
large volcanic eruptions because the atmosphere already comprises larger
concentration of water and carbon dioxide. These have much significant indirect
effects like larger amounts of water vapor bring intense rainfall. Likewise,
larger concentration of carbon dioxide either readily dissolves in the ocean or
is absorbed by plants leading to greater plant cover. Nevertheless, there have
been times in Earth’s history which records increased carbon dioxide levels in
the atmosphere due to intense volcanism triggered global warming. For
example, multiple giant volcanic eruptions such as flood basalts over thousands
to millions of years would cause significant global warming due to greater
release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Check Your Progress 8
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Do volcanic eruptions cause ozone depletion?
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2.11 EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Volcanic eruptions are considered as one of the Earth’s great natural disasters.
Many powerful eruptions not only change Earth’s climate at varied timescales
but also pose threat to environment and health of exposed living beings as
well as deterioration of social and economic conditions. Indeed, volcanic
eruptions result in a wide range of health and occupational impacts. At least
500 million people worldwide live within exposure range of an active volcano.
Further, atmospheric winds result in dispersion of volcanic gases and materials
to areas hundreds or thousands of kilometers away from the place of volcanic
activity. Airborne ash is a major hazard for aviation. Volcanic eruptions eject
not only magma and steam (H2O) but also various other gases in to the
atmosphere like CO2, CO, SO2, H2S, HCl, H2, CS, CS2, CH4, HBr, HF along- 39
Natural Hazards with heavy metals as well as various other organic compounds. The hazardous
effects of volcanic eruptions depend on the distance from volcano, magma
viscosity and composition particularly gas concentrations. Volcanic hazards
like pyroclastic flows, earthquakes, mud flows/ lahars, gases and steam, blasts
of air and tsunamis occur in the close vicinity of volcanoes. Whereas effects of
toxic volcanic gases and ashes create problems of the respiratory system, skin
and eyes as well as psychological effects, injuries, water availability and
pollution, transport and communication problems, waste disposal issues,
collapse of buildings and power outage are some of the distant volcanic hazards.
Further effects are abrupt changes in weather conditions, crop and vegetation
damages, and destruction of other means of livelihood. Broadly, volcanic
hazards can be divided into primary and secondary hazards. Primary hazards
are the direct result of eruption, for example lava flows, lava bombs (tephra),
pyroclastic flows (nuee ardentes), ash clouds and poisonous gases whereas
secondary hazards are those which have been caused due to primary hazards,
for example acid rains, lahars, fires and climate change. All these hazards are
discussed briefly in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Various volcanic hazards (after Hansell et al., 2006)
Hazard type Brief description Potential health effects Example

Acid rain Rain becomes acidic Irritant to eyes, skin. Masaya, Nicaragua
while falling through Secondary effects on which has been
the volcanic gas and vegetation, property and degassing since
acid particleemissions water quality. Rainwater 1986 till present.
and may dissolve collected from metal roofs
metal roofs may be contaminated with
metals such as lead.

Ash and tephra Ash is a collective Airborne ash–respiratory Soufriere Hills,

term for fine and cardio-vascular hazard Montserrat 1995
pyroclasts (solid (asthama, bronchitis, to present.
frangments< 2mm in pneumoconiosis), irritant
diameter, ejected to eyes and skin. Mount St. Helens,
from volcanoes). Ash falls – can lead USA, 1980
Tephra is a collective to property damage,
term for solid contaminate water (eg. Laki, Iceland,
fragments such as ash With fluorine carried 1783-84.
and pumice ejected on ash or by causing
from volcanoes that turbidity), contaminate and Biancavilla,
have fallen to ground bury agricultural land. Eastern Sicily
from eruption clouds. Mesothelioma risk
reported from weathered
volcanic ash in certain
areas.

Ballistics Rocks or lava lumps Impact injuries, burns. Galeras, Columbia,

(bombs and ejected during major Secondary property 1993.
blocks) and minor eruptions. damage.

Global Climate Massive eruptions Indirect impact via Laki fissure

Change cause release of acid reduced crop yield. eruption, Iceland,
aerosols and fine ash 1783-84.
into stratosphere that
block sunlight and are Krakatau eruption
associated with global Indonesia, 1883.
and may accelerate
ozone loss.
40
Earthquakes Earthquakes can be Property damage resulting El Chichon, Earthquakes and Volcanoes
associated with in impact injuries. Mexico, 1982.
volcanic activity. May cause Tsunami.

Gas and acid Emissions of SO2, Acid gases: Acid gas effects:
particle sulphuric acid, bronchoconstriction, occupational study
emissions aerosol, HCl, HF, aggravation of respiratory of park rangers in
CO2, H2S, radon and disease, eye and skin Hawaii Volcanoes
other gases may occur irritation National Park.
in association with
eruptions and through
degassing activity.

Soil gas emissions of CO2: asphyxiation, CO2: Sinila

gases such as CO2, secondary effects on volcano, Dieng
H2S and radon are vegetation, eg. Areas Plateau, Indonesia,
common in many of tree kill. 1979.
volcanic areas (radon H2S: asphyxiation, low
emissions are level long term population H2S: death in a
problematic only in exposures potentially geothermal power
houses with ground impacting on respiratory, plant.
gas diffusion where cardio-vascular and No specific studies
CO2 forms a nervous system. in relation to
carrier gas). Radon: lung cancer risk volcanic
with long term exposure. exposures.

Ground Subsidence and Secondary effects on Mount Etna, Italy,

deformation ground cracking. property and roads. 2001.
Meltwater flood Those of flooding,
resulting from a drowning and impact
volcanic eruption injuries.
under a glacier. Secondary effects on
property and agricultural
land.

Landslides, Debris avalanches are Drowning impact injuries. Nevado del Ruiz/
debris fast moving, gravity Secondary impact to Armero, Columbia,
avalanches and driven currents of property and agricultural 1985.
lahars partially or fully water land.
saturated volcanic Mount St. Helens,
debris. If the debris USA, 1980
flow consists of a
significant fraction of
clay sized particles it
is called a lahar or
mudflow. May be
triggered by eruptions,
gravity, earthquakes
and heavy rain.

Lava flows Flows of molten Usually relatively slow Nyiragongo,

rock. May emit acidic moving, therefore allowing Congo, 1977 and
gases. Steam evacuation. Thermal 2002.
explosions may result injuries. May cause
from contact with forest and property fires.
groundwater. Methane explosions can
occur as lava moves over
vegetation.

Laze HCl gas clouds Chemical conjunctivitis Lava from Puu’Oo

resulting from lava and respiratory effects. vent, Hawaii.
entering sea water.
41
Natural Hazards Lightening in Common in volcanic Electrocution. Paricutin, Mexico,
volcanic clouds ash clouds related 1943.
to eruptions.

Pyroclastic Flows of hot gas, ash Thermal injury and death. Vesuvius, Italy AD
density and rocks resulting A high death: injury ratio 79. The major
currents from the effects of of 10: 1 among exposed cause of death in
gravity on a volcanic individuals. Herculaneum,
eruption cloud. Pompeii, Mont
Pelee, Martinique,
1902.
Tsunami Tidal wave from Drowning and injuries Krakatau eruption
volcanic debris from property damage. Indonesia, 1883.
avalanches into
oceans or lakes or
occasionally
volcanogenic
earthquakes.

Check Your Progress 9

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) Is volcanism always hostile/ destructive?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2) Which proved the most destructive volcano to human beings in known
history?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

2.12 LET US SUM UP

Seismology is a field and laboratory based science of earthquakes. The
earthquakes and the other natural hazards triggered by them such as tsunamis,
landslides etc. which cause destruction and devastation of human life and
property. The advancement in the field of seismology has led to many new
concepts to explain the causes of earthquakes, contrary to the old beliefs and
myths which were prevalent until 18th century. The better networking of seismic
observatories, mammoth data on seismic events (generated through state-of-
the-art seismographs) of the past and present has led to explain the vulnerable
location on earth which are prone to seismicity. The plate tectonics theory has
been instrumental in delineating earthquake prone zones on earth. The plate
boundaries which experience stress conditions due to movement of plates are
the most vulnerable sites for earthquakes. To date, it is not possible to predict
with certainty the location and time of an earthquake in spite of the enormous
42 advancement in understanding of seismic activity around the globe. The
governments of earthquake prone countries have implemented various measures Earthquakes and Volcanoes
to mitigate the effects of earthquake destruction and have launched programmes
to educate people to deal with such natural calamities.
Volcanoes are always a subject of fascination because they are one of the most
dynamic geological features, believed to have created all the Earth’s oceans
and mountains. Further, they have the most varied health, occupation and
environment hazards. Volcanoes greatly vary in shape, size, nature and extent
of volcanism and so are divided in to a number of types, however all consists
of a magma chamber beneath the surface. Depending on the magma composition
and percentage of gases in the magma, their eruptions vary. Presence of magma
reservoir is the basic requisite for the origin of volcanoes and friction of moving
tectonic plates and even the crust of the Earth results in rising of magma from
the mantle to the Earth’s surface causing volcanism. The energy for the same
is from various radioactive substances as well as high pressure deep inside the
Earth.
There are about 1500 potentially active volcanoes in the world and the
distribution of these volcanoes is such that they are located on or near tectonic
plate boundaries, particularly convergent (i.e. destructive) and divergent (i.e.
constructive) plate boundaries. The circum-Pacific belt is known as the ‘Ring
of Fire’ because of the largest number, more than 60%, of active volcanoes.
Volcanism directly or indirectly affects Earth’s climate at regional and/ or global
scale. It can significantly produce climatic changes for both long-term and
short-term periods of time. Three major types of material injected through
volcanism are particles of ash or dust, sulfur and greenhouse gases which result
in specific changes in climate. The change in climate ranges from ice age,
global warming, and fire to raining mud. It not only affects the lower atmosphere
(i.e. troposphere) but also the upper atmosphere (i.e. stratosphere) because
large volcanic eruptions can significantly release ozone-depleting chemicals,
particularly by injecting sulfur gases in to the stratosphere.
Volcanic hazards can be divided in to primary and secondary hazards. The
hazardous effects of volcanic eruptions depend on the distance from volcano,
magma viscosity and composition particularly gas concentrations. Volcanic
hazards like pyroclastic flows, earthquakes, mud flows/ lahars, gases and steam,
blasts of air and tsunamis occur in the close vicinity of volcanoes. Whereas
effects of toxic volcanic gases and ashes create problems of the respiratory
system, skin and eyes as well as psychological effects, injuries, water availability
and pollution, transport and communication problems, waste disposal issues,
collapse of buildings and power outage are some of the distant volcanic hazards.
Further effects are abrupt changes in weather conditions, crop and vegetation
damages, and destruction of other means of livelihood.

2.13 KEY WORDS

Seismology : Science of earthquakes by studying seismic
waves.
Active fault : A fault that is likely to slip again and cause an
earthquake. Faults are termed active faults if they
have moved one or more times in the last 10,000
years.
43
Natural Hazards Tsunamis : Sea waves created by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and landslides. Tsunamis of great
amplitude can be highly destructive if they reach
coastal regions.
Liquefaction : A process by which water-saturated sand, soil act as
a fluid caused by an earthquake shaking.
Seismogram : Record by a seismograph in response to ground
motions produced by seismic waves produced by
an earthquake, natural or artificial explosion.
Lava domes : They are also known as volcanic domes or plug
domes. Lava domes are viscous bulbous masses of
lava, dominantly consisting of felsic magma.
Cinder cone : These volcanoes comprise particles resembling
cinders which form when pyroclastic materials that
accumulates around the volcanic vent. These are
small, rarely exceed 400 m high, and steep-sided
conical hills.

2.14 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Agnew, D. C. 2002: History of seismology. International handbook of
earthquake and engineering seismology. Pg 2-11.
Blong, R.J. (2013), Volcanic Hazards: A Sourcebook on the Effects of Eruptions,
Elsevier.
Decker, Robert and Decker, Barbara (1997), Volcanoes, W.H.Freeman & Co.
Duff. P.M.D (1992 edited): Holme’s principles of Physical Geology, 4th Edition,
Chapman and Hall, 791p.
Fisher, Richard V., Heiken, Grant, Morris, A.K. (1998), Volcanoes: Crucibles
of Change, Princeton University Press.
Geographic distribution of volcanoes by United States Geological Survey
(USGS), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H., 2014: Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman
and company, New York. 672p.
Hansell, A.L., Horwell, C.J., Oppenheimer, C., 2006. The health hazards of
volcanoes and geothermal areas. Occup Environ Med. 63(2), 149–156.
Li, Q., Liu, M. and Yang, Y. 2002: The 01/26/2001 Bhuj, India, Earthquake:
Intraplate or Interplate?, Plate Boundary Zones - AGU Geophysical Monograph,
(edited by S. Stein and G. Freymuller), pp. 255-264.
Mishra, O.P., Zhao D., and Wang, Z. 2008: The genesis of the 2001 Bhuj,
India Earthquake(Mw 7.6): A puzzle for peninsular India? Indian Minerals,
Vol.61(3-4) & 62 (1-4), pp. 149-170.

44
Rajendran C. P., Biju, J. and Rajendran, K. 2013: Medival pulse of great Earthquakes and Volcanoes
earthquakes in the central Himalaya: Viewing past activities on the frontal
thrust, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 120(3), DOI: 10.1002/
2014JB011015
Verma, M. And Bansal, B. K. 2013: Seismic hazard assessment and mitigation
in India: An overview. Int J Earth Sci (Geol Rundsch) vol. 102, pp1203–1218.

2.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Your answers should include the following points:
1. To answer this question, you have to read historic account on earthquakes
briefly described by Agnew, 2002. The paper can be downloaded and you
will enjoy reading the text about how this science of seismology evolved.
The earlier notions were based on movement of giant creature beneath
the earth’s surface etc.
2. Plate tectonics theory propounded by Wilson in 1965.
3. Epicentre is a location point on the surface of the earth directly above
focus which is a point inside the earth where an earthquake actually initiates
in form of seismic waves. You can draw a simple sketch from section 1.3.
4. You have to write about your experience during an earthquake. Write about
your awareness during an earthquake. If you walk towards an open ground
and alert your friends etc. Write down your about your initial reaction and
how mentally prepared you are for an earthquake.
5. Three types: Convergent; Divergent and Transform. Read section 1.2
carefully and write about the movement of plates with respect to each
other. Also give example for each boundary type. Draw simple sketches
to show movement of plates with respect to each other. Take help from
USGS sites and list the major plates. After reading section 1.2 you will be
able to answer the second part that is the relationship between plate margins
and earthquakes!
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
Your answers should include the following points:
1. An instrument to measure ground movement in different directions and
record the arrival of seismic waves created by earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and artificial explosions.
2. Surface waves are the most destructive waves.
3. Richter magnitude is based on ground movement whereas moment
magnitude is based on the attributes of the fault itself i.e. area of the fault,
slip and the nature of the rocks which suffered faulting. Read section 1.4
to answer this question.
4. Seismic waves (P, S and surface waves). Read sections 1.2 and 1.3 to
answer this question. A table in the section on seismic waves will also
help you with the answer.
45
Natural Hazards Answers to Check Your Progress 3
Your answers should include the following points:
1. During ground shaking caused by earthquakes the sand and silt saturated
with water can behave as liquids and start to flow just like liquids.
2. Tohoku earthquake of Japan in 2011 and Sumatra earthquake of 2004.
3. Read sections 1.5 and 1.6 to answer this question. Take help from media
reports and think of destruction that can be caused in coastal areas to
answer this question.
4. First you should know how Himalayas were formed. Think of Indian plate’s
movement with respect to the Eurasian plate. If a mountainous regions
experiences an earthquake it can also lead to landslides, avalanches and
mass movement. In the light of above facts try to answer this question.
Try to give facts of the recent 2015 Nepal earthquake.
Answers to Check Your Progress 4
Your answers should include the following points:
1. Magma is the molten rock within the Earth’s crust whereas when the same
molten rock erupts or comes on Earth’s surface it is called lava.
2. Tephra is a general term for any fragmentary material originally ejected
by volcanoes, while ash refers to tephra particles less than 2 mm in
diameter.
Answers to Check Your Progress 5
Your answers should include the following points:
1. A Crater is a circular depression at the summit of volcanoes or on their
flanks which forms due to explosion or collapse. Craters are generally
less than 1 Km across whereas calderas are larger than 1 Km depressions.
2. Some volcanoes erupt violently because of the presence of large percentage
of gases in their magma. This magma with gases is under great pressure
and it rises, the sudden decrease in pressure causes the gases to expand
very rapidly which results in violent explosions.
Answers to Check Your Progress 6
Your answers should include the following points:
1. Some but not in all cases the two phenomena are directly related to each
other. Though most volcanoes and earthquakes are along the edges of
tectonic plates (e.g. along subduction zones of ‘Ring of Fire’), however
the former is caused by movement of magma whereas the latter by the
interaction of plates.
Answers to Check Your Progress 7
Your answers should include the following points:
1. Indonesia comprises a chain of more than 13,000 islands, having 147
volcanoes and out of which 76 are still active making it the world’s most
46 active volcano country.
2. Yes there are lots of volcanoes on other planets. According to NASA, Earthquakes and Volcanoes
some places in our solar system have active volcanoes erupting right now,
for example moons of Saturn, Jupiter and Neptune have ongoing eruptions.
Venus and Mars are covered with extinct volcanoes.
Answers to Check Your Progress 8
Your answers should include the following points:
1. Scientists have observed that although volcanic gases from large volcanic
eruptions do not play a direct role in destroying ozone and their effects
are short-lived (i.e. a few years) but they do play an indirect role in
accelerating ozone destruction. They enhance chlorine-driven depletion
by providing a surface suitable for such chemical reactions. They account
for about 3% of chlorine in the stratosphere and if the concentrations of
hydrogen chloride released from them reach high levels (about 15-20 ppb
by volume) can cause drastic ozone depletion.
Answers to Check Your Progress 9
Your answers should include the following points:
1. No, not always because in many volcanic environments, lavas weather to
fertile soils especially in the equatorial/ humid tropical regions; many
results in formation of precious stones and minerals; water resources are
commonly plentiful; formation of hot springs and geysers can be used for
geothermal systems.
2. The most destructive volcano to human beings, in the world is Mount
Tambora (Indonesia). The eruption was 100 times more powerful than
Mount Vesuvius and killed 100,000 people along the way.

47
Natural Hazards
UNIT 3 FLOODS AND LANDSLIDES
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Floods
3.2.1 Overview of Floods
3.2.2 Causes of Floods
3.2.3 Types of Floods

3.3 Environmental Effects of Flooding

3.3.1 Primary Effects
3.3.2 Secondary Effects
3.3.3 Tertiary Effects

3.4 Droughts
3.4.1 Drought Consequences
3.4.2 Stages of Drought

3.5 Landslides
3.5.1 Causes of Landslides
3.5.2 Failure of Slope
3.5.3 Factors that Affect Mass Movement
3.5.4 Effects of Landslides

3.6 Let Us Sum Up

3.7 Key Words
3.8 References and Suggested Further Readings
3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces you to the natural phenomena of floods, droughts and
landslides. These are natural processes and affect human life and property.
They can be due to natural or anthropogenic factors. Torrential rains, flash
floods and landslides have killed many people. They also have ravaged farms,
pasture and damaged buildings. These hazards have forced people to migrate.
The science of forecasting and prediction of the hazards is to be understood.
Landslides cause hazards that are accidental and dynamic. They occur in
mountainous regions and on slopes. Climate controls the form of the
precipitation and snowmelt. These changes include the frequency, intensity,
magnitude, and seasonality including the occurrence of cyclones. They are the
significant external drivers for these hazardous events. Land use changes, field
drainage, changes in forest covers can multiply runoff and floods. Further, a
decrease in vegetation enhances landslide activity. Take an example of Southern
Europe, where there is a reported increase in shallow landslides. This is due to
soil erosion and the abandonment of the lands in the terraced slopes. In this
unit, you will also learn about the hydrological cycle, the different causes of
48
floods and the types of floods. Further, you will be able to distinguish floods Floods and Landslides
and droughts, along with the different stages of drought. The unit will finally
deal with landslides, its causes and effects.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 describe the nature of floods;
 understand the different types of droughts; and
 analyze the causes and effects of landslides.

3.2 FLOODS
Dear Learners, let us now learn about floods in the following paragraphs.

3.2.1 Overview of Floods

Water is in constant motion in the earth in various forms powered by the solar
energy. This cycle is called hydrological cycle. Even small additional amounts
of precipitation more than the average amounts can result in streams to run out
of its confines. This leads to flooding. Rivers are sources of water for
consumption. It is of utility to agriculture, and industry. Transportation routes,
energy, and means of waste disposal are some other services. Also, the
topography of the stream valleys is relatively flat, suitable for constructions.
Throughout the history of human civilizations, cities have grown along streams.
Human populations that live along and near the streams by default face the
risk of floods as the flow of water in streams is not constant. When large
amounts of water enter into the streams, it can cause flooding. Some of the
causes for flooding can be that during heavy rainfall the rivers overflow its
bank or when the ocean waves come onshore. Flooding can also occur when
rapid snow melt occurs or due to dam/ levees failures. Flooding can range
from a few inches of water to covering a house rooftop. Floods that occur in a
very short time are called flash floods. A flood occurs when the stream overflows
its bank. This submerges surrounding areas. Flood plain is that area which is
flat or nearly flat land adjacent to a stream or river. It experiences occasional
or periodic flooding. (Figure 3.1, 3.2) This consists of floodway (stream channel
and adjacent areas that carry flood flows) and the flood fringe (areas covered
by the flood which do not experience a strong current).

Fig.3.1: Flood Plain

Source: Baskar S and Baskar R, 2009. Natural Disasters. 49
Natural Hazards

Fig. 3.2 Cross Section of a Flood Plain

Source: Baskar S and Baskar R, 2009. Natural Disasters.

Floods have caused several hazards, more damaging especially in the less
developed and developing countries. High population densities, absence of
land use planning, and reduced flood control measures, lack of early warning
systems are cited as some of the reasons. One classic example of a country that
is most vulnerable to flood disasters is Bangladesh. Floods and tropical cyclones
have caused approximately 200,000 deaths in 1991.
In the developed countries, on a relative scale the flood hazard causing loss of
life is lesser. This is due to the existence of proper flood control structures,
land use planning that do not allow the habitation of vulnerable areas, and also
emergency preparedness. Additionally, advanced engineering techniques such
as levees, bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are also used to prevent and reduce the
impact of flooding. Sea walls and artificial beach nourishment have been
constructed to prevent coastal flooding in several cities in Europe. For example,
in the city of London a huge mechanical barrier, the Thames barrier, across the
River Thames has been constructed to prevent flooding. This barrier is raised
when the water level reaches a certain point. Another interesting example is
Venice, which has a similar arrangement, although it is already unable to cope
with very high tides. Needless to mention even in these developed countries,
there are always reports of property damage and disruption of life. Despite the
availability of flood control structures and proper land use planning, floods
still do occur. This disrupts normal life.
Because of the topography, areas in the low-lying coastal areas and rivers are
at the greatest threat from flood disasters. Heavy rain can result in increase in
the water level of streams and rivers. The people living near the coastal regions
also are at risk from floods.

Case Study: Kerala Floods, 2018: Calamity of a severe nature

Kerala in August, 2018 received heavy monsoon rainfall. This was about
256% more than the usual rainfall in the state. Further, approximately
65% of the dams in the state were opened. All five overflow gates of
the Idukki Dam were opened simultaneously. The secondary effects of
heavy rains were severe with landslides in some regions. It was the worst
flood in Kerala. The Government of India classified it as a Level 3
Calamity, or “calamity of a severe nature”. About one-sixth of the total
50
 populations of the state were directly affected by the floods. The rescue Floods and Landslides
and relief operations were coordinated by the National Crisis Management
Committee. Some reasons for the disaster of this scale are because for
the first time, 35 of its 54 dams were opened. Added to this, the sudden
release of water from the Mullaperiyar Dam by the Tamil Nadu
government aggravated the situation. Another factor could be due to the
discharge of excess water from 80 reservoirs across the state.

Source: https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/kerala-floods-reveal-the-
horror-that-is-climate-change-61435

3.2.2 Causes of Floods

Floods have been occurring throughout geological history of the earth. It will
occur as long as the water cycling occurs. Precipitation is one of the main
sources for water for streams. For example, in drainage basins, the precipitation
amount falling varies on a daily, yearly and centennial basis. Thus, from a
geological point of view, floods are a natural outcome of stream flow in a
dyanamic environment.
a) Precipitation: Weather patterns determine and control the amount and
location of precipitation. This includes rainfall and snow. This can vary
from area to area. Overall, the water cycle is a balanced system. Though
water flowing into one part of the cycle is balanced by water flowing back
to the ocean, sometimes the amount flowing in to one area is greater than
the capacity of the system to hold it within natural confines. This results
in a flood. Various factors along with exceptional precipitation can also
lead to flooding. For example, heavy snow melts, water saturated ground,
unusually high tides, and drainage modifications when combined with
heavy rain can result in flooding.
b) Coastal Flooding: Coastlines get subjected to flooding as a direct result
of tsunamis, hurricanes and unusually high tides. Even long term processes
like subsidence and rising sea level as a result of global warming can lead
to the encroachment of the sea on to the land.
c) Dam and Levee Failures: Dams can be either natural or man-made.
Natural dams are created by natural processes. For example, volcanic
events (lava flows and pyroclastic flows), landslides, or blockage by ice.
Dams are constructed or single or multiple purposes. The utility of dams
is for storing water, electrical power generation and to act as flood control
structures. All dams can fail. This can cause sudden release of water into
the downstream drainage. Some examples of dam and levee failures
include that resulting in flooding downstream include: 51
Natural Hazards  The St. Francis Dam, near Saugus, California, failed in 1929 killing
450 people.
 The Johnstown, Pennsylvania dam, built of earthen material (soil
and rock) collapsed after a period of heavy rainfall in 1889. 2,200
people were killed by the flood.
 The Vaiont Dam in Italy did not fail in 1963, but the landslides that
moved into the reservoir behind the dam caused water to overtop the
dam killing over 3,000 people.
 During the Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans (August 2005), levee
systems designed to prevent flooding failed and lead to catastrophic
flooding and loss of life.
d) Cloudbursts: It is an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period of
time. It can be accompanied by hail and thunder that is capable of creating
flood conditions.

3.2.3 Types of Floods

Let us now learn about the different kinds of floods and the extent of floods.
Floods can be rapid or slow. It could also be classified as riverine, estuarine,
coastal, catastrophic or muddy floods.
a) Riverine Floods: Heavy rains from monsoons, hurricanes and tropical
depressions causes riverine floods which are slow but rapid riverine
flooding is caused by intense thunderstorm.
b) Estuarine Floods: Storm force winds generate sea tidal surges which
can flood estuarine areas.
c) Coastal Floods: Tsunami, hurricanes and severe sea storms are known to
flood coastal areas.
d) Catastrophic Floods: Catastrophic events like earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and dam failure cause these types of floods.
e) Muddy Floods: Runoffs on croplands can result in muddy floods.

Case Study: Assam floods, 2016

The Assam floods in July 2016 were caused by large rains over the state
of Assam, India. The state of Assam received around 60% more rains
when compared with the rainfall in July 2015. The flooding had affected
about 1.8 million people. People abandoned their households and livestock
and escaped with help of homemade rafts. The rainfall resulted in flooding
of various rivers. The Brahmaputra River had crossed its danger mark
level in the seven districts of Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Nagaon, Jorhat,
Golaghat, Morigaon and Biswanath. It also flooded the Kaziranga
National Park-famous for the Rhinos. Severe flooding affected the mobile
phone networks. Power transmission in many regions of the state was out
of gear. Around 200,000 hectares of farming land was affected by the
floods.

52
Check Your Progress 1 Floods and Landslides

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What are the causes of flooding?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. Describe the types of floods.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF FLOODING

Let us see how the flooding affects the environment. Hazards associated with
flooding can have primary or secondary or tertiary effects. Primary effects
occur due to direct contact with water. Secondary effects occur because of the
flooding event. They cause famine and health disease outbreaks. They can
also cause disruptions in essential services. Tertiary effects include changes in
the position of river channels.

3.3.1 Primary Effects

They occur as a result of immediate and direct contact with the flood waters.
In this case, the velocities of the flood waters tend to be high. As discharge
increases the velocity also increases.
a. Higher velocities can transport larger particles such as suspended particles,
rocks and sediment. Further, large objects such as automobiles, houses
and bridges can also be disrupted and transported.
b. Erosion can occur at very large scales due to floods. These erosion
processes can undermine bridge structures, levees, and buildings. As a
result these structures can collapse.
c. Water entering human built structures cause water damage. Even with
minor flooding of homes, furniture, floors and walls are damaged.
Automobiles are also affected by flooding.
d. When the flood waters retreat, sediment or a thick layer of stream deposited
mud is deposited.
e. Flooding of farmlands causes damages to crops. Livestock, pets, and other
animals are often carried away by floods.
f. Human beings can get drowned in the flood waters in extreme cases.

53
Natural Hazards 3.3.2 Secondary Effects
Secondary effects are those that occur as a consequence of the primary effects.
Among the secondary effects of a flood are:

a. Drinking water supplies can get contaminated and there are health risks,
if sewerage treatment plants are affected. This is more commonly observed
in under developed countries.

b. Floodwaters can result in the accumulation of solid wastes and some

pollutants. This can cause the secondary effects of health hazards.

c. Gas lines may leak and electrical service may be disrupted.

d. Transportation systems may be affected. It can result in the reduction of

food supplies. Such food shortages have been reported to cause starvation
in many under developed countries.

3.3.3 Tertiary Effects

Tertiary effects occur as a result of the long term changes that take place. They
include the following:

a. Shifting of river channels may occur. New river new channels can form
and the old channels may dry.

b. Sediment deposited as a result of flooding can totally devastate vast

agricultural lands. The silt deposited by floodwaters is useful in increasing
agricultural productivity.

c. Changes in of ecology of the area.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What are the primary effects of floods?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. What are the secondary and tertiary effects of floods?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
54
 Floods and Landslides
3.4 DROUGHTS
Unlike cyclones, tornadoes, hurricanes which tend to bring high quantities of
rainfall; a drought is a period of abnormal dryness in a region. When a region
experiences a noticeable deficit in water supply or rains for extended periods
such as months or years, a drought occurs. A region is termed drought affected
when it receives consistent below average precipitations. Intense drought can
cause significant damage to the local economy. Droughts as hazards are unique
in the sense that they are slow onset hazards. They may lead to secondary
effects like famine. It damages the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected
region.
3.4.1 Drought Consequences
It can have significant environmental, agricultural, health, socio-economic
consequences. The consequences of drought vary according to vulnerability.
People working on farming and agriculture migrate during drought because
they do not have alternative food sources. Drought can reduce the quality of
water and result in contamination. This is because the lower water flows reduce
dilution of pollutants and thereby contaminate water supplies.
Do you think drought can have consequences? Let us now learn them in
following paragraph.
 Decreased crop growth
 Decreased carrying capacity for livestock
 Erode the landscapes
 Dust storms
 Famine can occur as a result of low water for irrigation
 Health problems such as malnutrition and dehydration
 Habitat and ecosystem damage
 Mass migration, resulting in internal displacement
 Shortage of water for industrial users
 Disputes over natural resources, including water and food and social unrest
 Wildfires.
3.4.2 Stages of Drought
Droughts undergo three critical stages before their ultimate manifestation.
 Meteorological drought: This precedes the other kinds of drought. This
occurs when there is an extended period with less than average
precipitation.
 Agricultural droughts: They affect the crop production of the region. It
also occurs as a result of extended periods of below average precipitation.
 Hydrological drought: This stage of drought occurs when the water
reserves in aquifers, lakes and other reservoirs falls down below the
statistical average.
55
Natural Hazards
Some Case studies: Drought in India
The Indian agriculture is dependent on the climate of India which is a
favourable southwest summer monsoon. This is critical in securing water
for irrigating Indian crops. In certain parts of India, the failure of the
monsoons result in water shortages, resulting in below average crop yields.
This is particularly true for the major drought-prone regions such as
southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. In the past, droughts have periodically
led to major Indian famines, including the Bengal famine of 1770, in
which up to one third of the population in affected areas died; the 1876–
1877 famine, in which over five million people died; and the 1899 famine,
in which over 4.5 million died.

Source: https://www.deccanherald.com/national/stares-drought-rains-elude-
682491.html

3.5 LANDSLIDES
Down slope movement of small stones, soil and rock fragments, even if very
slow should not be underestimated. These processes can ultimately result in
landslide hazards. When rocks, soils, artificial fill move downward, landslides
can occur. These are also known as slope forming materials. These materials
can move by the following ways: falling, toppling, sliding, spreading, or
flowing. Landslides or mass wasting is the down-slope movement of regolith
(loose uncemented mixture of soil and rock particles that covers the Earth’s
surface) due to gravity. It occurs without the help of geological agents such as
water, ice, or wind. Contributory factors include soil saturation from rainfall
or seepage, or human activity (i.e. vegetation removal, construction of roads,
railways or buildings on steep terrain). In some cases they can also be natural
hazards like earthquakes, volcanoes. Down slope displacements of regolith,
rock, and soil are referred to as landslides. It can also occur under the sea, it is
better to term them as mass movements. Mass movements are one of the most
serious hazards in areas with steep slopes. Mass-wasting is part of a continuum
of erosion processes between weathering and stream transport. Mass-wasting
causes regolith to move down-slope. Sooner or later the loose particles will be
picked up by another geological agent. It will eventually be moved to a site of
deposition such as an ocean basin or a lake bed. In order for regolith to move
in a mass wasting process, it must be on a slope, since gravity will only cause
56 motion if the material is on a slope.
3.5.1 Causes of Landslides Floods and Landslides

When the stability of the slope changes landslides occur. The change is from a
stable to an unstable condition. Such changes in slope stability may be caused
due to multiple factors. They can act together or alone. They can be due to
natural or anthropogenic reasons.
a) Natural causes include:
 pressure of groundwater that causes slope destabilization
 little or no vertical vegetative structure,
 absence of soil nutrients/structure
 erosion of the top of a slope by rivers or ocean waves
 weakening of a slope through saturation by snowmelt, glaciers
melting, or heavy rains
 earthquakes adding loads to barely-stable slopes or earthquake-caused
liquefaction destabilizing slopes volcanic eruptions
b) Human induced causes include:
 vibrations from machinery or traffic
 mine and blast activities
 certain types of earthwork which changes the slope shape
 the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock
 Construction, agricultural, or forestry activities which change the
amount of water which infiltrates into the soil

3.5.2 Failure of Slope

Failure of slope is a significant natural hazard. Slope failure can be defined as
a downward movement of a large amount of material. They can occur suddenly
in one easily recognized movement. It may also occur almost imperceptibly
over a long period of several years. A slope failure is classified based on its
movement and the material type being moved. It damages highways, homes,
and other property. These occur due to natural events like earthquakes, heavy
rainfall from thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions, floods, freezing and thawing
of soil. Slope failure events and their scientific analysis have confirmed that
almost any modification of a slope by people increases the risk of slope
movement. This is particularly true in areas already susceptible to natural
hazards.
1. Factors Leading to Slope Failures:
Regions situated in the mountainous terrains, hills and coastlines are prone
to slope failures. Tectonically active regions are prone to slope failures.
Earthquakes and volcanic activity in most cases accompany slope failures.
Sinkholes are a common geological feature in karst landscapes, where
water has dissolved underlying bedrock, typically limestone or gypsum.
It causes subsidence and slope failures. Slope failures can occur in any
season. But, they can be triggered by extreme weather events such as rain, 57
Natural Hazards snow, or freezing and thawing of soil water. Slopes can become unstable
when streams erode their banks or surf action undercuts a slope
(Figure.3.3).

Fig. 3.3: Undercutting

Slope failures can occur nearly everywhere slopes exist. This can be
triggered by weather conditions, geologic events, human modification of
the landscape, or most commonly, some interaction of all of the above
(Figure 3.4).

Fig. 3.4: Unstable Slopes due to Slope Modification

3.5.3 Factors that Affect Mass Movement

 Rate of Land Movement: This can be exceptionally slow, only a few
centimetres per year (which can damage roads, buildings, pipelines, etc).
This can also be sudden total collapse or avalanche of perhaps millions of
tonnes of debris, with the potential to crush vehicles, buildings and people,
or to sweep away roads, power and telephone lines.
 Degree of Land Movement: The distance travelled by landslide debris
can also vary by many degrees. This may range from a few centimetres to
many kilometres. It can occur when large mudflows follow river valleys.
Two types of forces combine in any type of mass movement: Driving
forces that promote movement and resisting forces that deter movement.
The material on the slope breaks loose and moves down slope whenever
the driving forces are greater than the resisting forces.
1. Driving Forces:
i) Gravity: Steeper the slope, the greater is the tendency of materials to
move down slope. Gravity is the primary driving force. It can be influenced
by human activity. When a portion of a slope moves downward as a result
of either, natural conditions or human activity, this process is known as
slope failure.
58
ii) Rock Structure: Rock structure can be an important driving force. Rocks Floods and Landslides
are far from being completely solid and most have pore spaces. These
pore spaces allow water and air to infiltrate. Rocks can break along natural
fractures and joints in the rock caused by stress. In all highway and building
construction, engineering geologists conduct studies to determine the
stability of the slopes when building highways, railways, canals, and any
type of construction site. Plate tectonic movements may cause rock layers
to become tilted. The slope can become unstable if they’re tilted in the
same direction as the slope itself.
iii) Water: Water is an important driving force. Its role is complex as it acts
as resisting force in certain circumstances. Water increases the weight of
slope material by filling previously empty pores and fractures. This
promotes mass movement. For example, a sandy slope can have up to
35% pore space. After a prolonged period of rain, the pores may be
completely filled, increasing the weight of the sediment. This will increase
the probability for movement by gravity. Water can decreases the strength
of the rock or sediment by reducing cohesion among the particles. For
example, water circulating in limestone can dissolve the calcium carbonate
particles, reducing cohesion of the rock. Water can also infiltrate pore
space, then freeze (frost heaving), breaking the rock apart. Water can create
shrink-swell clays, which are a common hazard in the construction of
building foundations. In clay-rich sediments, clay-sized particles attract
and absorb water molecules, causing the sediment to swell to many times
its original volume. The best known of these clays is bentonite. Between
rains, these clay-rich sediments can shrink and contract, forming large
surface cracks that can damage any structures built on top. Finally, clays
can be turned to liquid in a process called liquefaction. Quick clay is
formed by this process, and can occur when saltwater ions, which normally
help to hold the sediment together, are flushed out and replaced with
freshwater. Solid clay-rich sediment transforms to very unstable quick
clay.
2. Resisting Forces
Water can also act as a resisting force to mass movement in certain cases.
In sediment pore spaces that are not completely filled, the thin film of
water actually makes the particles stick together due to cohesion. Water
molecules that line the pore spaces tend to hold other molecules - this
attraction is called surface tension, a force that holds water together.
The complex role of water can be appreciated by taking the sand castle as
an example. Without water, it is impossible to build a sand castle. With
just the right amount of water, one can build a sand castle because the
water creates surface tension that holds particles together. When the sand
castle becomes saturated with high tide, the castle breaks apart, because
the pore spaces have been completely filled with water which is now a
driving force.
The angle of repose is the maximum angle on a slope to which sediment
particles can be piled. Some sediment can accumulate in large volumes,
yet remain stable. Some factors that affect the stability of particles on a
slope include:
59
Natural Hazards  Particle Size: larger particles maintain a steeper slope than smaller
particles.
 Particle Shape: particles with angular edges can have a steeper slope
than ones with rounded edges
 Particle Sorting: poorly sorted particles have all sizes represented. These
can have steeper slopes because the smaller particles can fill the spaces
between the larger particles.
 Particle Moisture: particles with some water can have a steeper slope
than particles with no or too much water.
Finally, particle packing will affect the ability of sediment to move down slope.
Packing describes the arrangement of particles in sediment. Cubic packing
occurs when grains are aligned with their centers above one another, and
represents loose sediment. Rhombohedron packing occurs when the centers
of the grains of sediment are located over the spaces between the grains. This
type of packing occurs in sediments that have “settled” due to shaking or sorting
by water movement.

Case Study: Landslides in Uttarakahand, 2010

Tectonic activities in the Himalayas contribute to hill slope
instability.Anthropogenic interventions are additional factors contributing
to terrain instability. This is the reason for the increasing frequency and
magnitude of landslides observed since 1970. During the month of August
and September 2010, Uttarakhand Himalaya witnessed large scale slope
destabilization. This was evident along the roads where widening work
was in progress. The landslides killed about 220 people in the entire rainy
season of 2010 and 2138 houses were partially damaged due to heavy
precipitation. The cause of regional-scale landslides has been attributed
to exceptionally high rainfall in the region during September. In September
2010, 336% higher rainfall was received by the area when compared
with the average rainfall for the month of August and September from
2000 to 2009. There are also suggestions that inadequate consideration
of geology and geomorphology during the road alignment and poor, faulty
engineering techniques were additional factors responsible for the recent
landslides.

3.5.4 Effects of Landslides

 Landslides and Water: One of the main causes of landslides is the slope
saturation by water. This effect can occur in the form of intense rainfall,
snowmelt, changes in ground-water levels, and water-level changes along
coastlines, earth dams, and the banks of lakes, reservoirs, canals, and rivers.
 Land Sliding and Flooding: They are closely connected. Both are related
to precipitation, runoff, and the saturation of ground by water. These two
events often occur simultaneously in the same area. Landslides can cause
overtopping of reservoirs and/or reduced capacity of reservoirs to store
water. In addition, debris flows and mudflows usually occur in small,
steep stream channels and often are mistaken for flood. Landslides can
cause flooding by forming landslide dams that block valleys and stream
60
 channels, allowing large amounts of water to back up. This causes Floods and Landslides
backwater flooding and, if the dam fails, subsequent downstream flooding.
Also, solid landslide debris can “bulk” or add volume and density to
otherwise normal stream flow or cause channel blockages and diversions
creating flood conditions or localized erosion.
 Landslides and Seismic Activity: The occurrence of earthquakes in steep
landslide-prone areas greatly increases the likelihood that landslides will
occur. This is due to ground shaking alone or shaking-caused dilation of
soil materials, which allows rapid infiltration of water. Widespread rock
falls also are caused by loosening of rocks as a result of ground shaking.
The 1964 Great Alaska Earthquake caused widespread land sliding loss
due to the earthquake. Many mountainous areas that are vulnerable to
landslides have also experienced at least moderate rates of earthquake
occurrence in recorded times.
 Landslides and Volcanic Activity: Volcanic lava can melt snow at a rapid
rate, causing a deluge of rock, soil, ash, and water that accelerates rapidly
on the steep slopes of volcanoes, devastating anything in its path and are
some of the most devastating types. These volcanic debris flows (also
known as lahars) reach great distances and can damage structures in flat
areas surrounding the volcanoes. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens,
in Washington triggered a massive landslide on the north flank of the
volcano, the largest landslide in recorded times.
 Landslide Effects on Buildings: Landslides can occur where the terrain
has been altered geologically or anthropogenically and can damage
buildings. As pressures on the ground increase, so does the likelihood of
buildings being devastated.
 Landslide Effects on Plant-life: Landslides can affect plant-life and
ecology. Any kind of plant-life in the slides way will get washed down
with the slide. The steeper a slope, the more likely a slide will occur. The
weaker rock and sediments are, the more prone they become to a landslide
occurring. If land becomes saturated, the land may flow more easily.

Case Study: Good Landslide Risk Management Practice

This good management practice is reported in Hong Kong, China. On
18th June 1972, heavy rainfall resulted in two destructive landslides in
Sau Mau Ping and Po Shan Road in Hong Kong. It killed one hundred
and thirty-eight people and a high-rise building also collapsed. In 1977,
a Geotechnical Engineering Office was set up. The main objective was to
implement a comprehensive system to maintain slope safety. The key
components of the system included: comprehensive enforcement of
geotechnical standards, community participation for slope safety, systems
for early warning and emergency response., They also created
comprehensive databases of landslide events and implemented various
risk mitigation measures. As a result of the implementation of the Slope
Safety System. For about a decade, there has been no fatalities. Among
the natural hazards Landslides are considered potentially manageable.
There are now available a range of approaches and techniques to reduce
the level of hazard. There is ample scope to reduce their impacts.
61
Natural Hazards Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. What are landslides?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
2. How does slope failure occur?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

3.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about the floods, its types and causes of floods.
We have also understood why drought occurs. The unit also discusses how
drought proceeds from the initial stage to the most severe stage and when
famine can occur. We have also discussed the driving and resisting forces in
the landslide occurrence. We have analyzed the causes and effects of landslides.
In conclusion, the chapter gives an overview of these hazards.

3.7 KEY WORDS

Floods : Additional amounts of precipitation more than the
average amounts can result in streams to run out of
its confines. This results in flooding.
Landslides : Down slope movement of small stones, soil and
rock fragments, even if very slow should not be
underestimated. These processes can ultimately
result in landslide hazards.
Droughts : A drought is an extended period (of months or
years) when a region experiences a noticeable
deficiency in water supply.
Hydrological cycle : Water is in constant motion in the earth in a cycle.
This is called hydrological cycle.
Sinkholes : They are a common geological feature in karst
landscapes, where water has dissolved underlying
bedrock, typically limestone or gypsum.

3.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Baskar, S and Baskar, R. 2009. Natural Disasters. Unicorn books, Pustak Mahal,
62 India. 159p.
Bryant, E. 2005. Natural Hazards. 2nd Edition, Cambridge university press, Floods and Landslides
330p.
Burton, I. And Kates, R.W. (1964). The perception of natural hazards in resource
management, Natural Resources Journal 3, 412-41.
Keller, E.A. 2010. Environmental Geology, 9th Edition, Pearson publication,
624 p.

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
 Precipitation
 Coastal Flooding
 Dam and Levee Failures
 Cloudbursts
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Riverine floods
 Estuarine floods
 Coastal floods
 Catastrophic floods
 Muddy floods
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
 The primary effects of floods are those due to direct contact with the
flood waters. Water velocities tend to be high in floods. As discharge
increases velocity increases.
 Give examples
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Secondary effects are those that occur because of the primary effects
 Tertiary effects are the long term changes that take place.
 Give examples
Answers to Check Your Progress 3
1. Your answer should include the following points:
 Downward movement of slope-forming materials (like rock, soil,
artificial fill, or a combination) can lead to landslides. These materials
can move by the following ways: falling, toppling, sliding, spreading,
or flowing.
63
Natural Hazards  Landslides or mass wasting is the down-slope movement of regolith
(loose uncemented mixture of soil and rock particles that covers the
Earth’s surface) due to gravity.
 Write with case studies
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Failure of slope is a significant natural hazard.
 Slope failure can be defined as a downward movement of a large
amount of material.
 These occur due to natural events like earthquakes, heavy rainfall
from thunderstorms, volcanic eruptions, flooding, or even freezing
and thawing of soil moisture.
 Write some factors leading to slope failures

64
UNIT 4 WEATHER RELATED/
COASTAL HAZARDS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Tropical Cyclones: Hurricane, Typhoon and Cyclones
4.2.1 Classification of Cyclones
4.2.2 Formation of Cyclones

4.3 Thunderstorms
4.3.1 Formation of Thunderstorms

4.4 Tornadoes
4.4.1 Formation of Tornadoes
4.4.2 Tornadoes Destruction

4.5 Introduction to Coastal Hazards

4.6 Introductions to Tsunamis

4.7 El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

4.8 Let Us Sum Up

4.9 Key Words

4.10 References and Suggested Further Readings

4.11 Answers to Check your Progress

4.0 INTRODUCTION
The last few years have seen enormous damage and loss of life from weather
related disaster and hazards. A disaster or catastrophe is defined as ‘a situation
or event which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request to a national
or international level for external assistance, an unforeseen and often sudden
event that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering’. Nine out of
every 10 of these disasters are now climate related. High impact weather events
have drastic impacts on society, natural ecosystems and leads great economical
and personal damage. Extreme events are of both natural and anthropogenic
origin and are of widespread concern mainly because of their damaging
consequences. The most damaging weather related hazards or disaster includes
tropical cyclones or hurricanes, thunderstorm, tornadoes, coastal storms,
tsunami, ElNino, floods etc. This unit will describe tropical cyclones also
popularly known as hurricanes or typhoons, thunderstorm, tornadoes, coastal
storms, tsunami, and global warming.
65
Natural Hazards
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 describe tropical cyclones (Hurricane, Typhoon and Cyclones) and the
process of their formation;
 explain the characteristics and the process of formation of thunderstorm;
 describe the process of formation of tornadoes and destruction caused by
them; and
 explain Tsunami and El Nino.

4.2 TROPICAL CYCLONES: HURRICANE,

TYPHOON AND CYCLONES
Tropical region is considered as the region between the Tropic of Cancer (230
North) and the Tropic of the Capricorn (230 South) of the earth. The weather
characterized in this region is called tropical weather and Tropical cyclones
(TC) are one of the most important tropical weather system and among the
most devastating of all natural hazards. Tropical cyclones are capable of
producing very strong winds, particularly near its centre, torrential rainfall and
associated storm surge. Globally, tropical cyclones rank with floods as the
most lethal geophysical hazards. Tropical Cyclone can also be very destructive,
often causing severe and widespread damage to coastal communities,
infrastructure and ecosystems.
Technically, a tropical cyclone is a cyclone that originates over tropical oceans
and is driven principally by heat transfer from the ocean. Intense synoptic
scale cyclones in the tropics are called tropical cyclones. As for all cyclones,
tropical cyclones have low pressure in the cyclone centre near sea level. Also,
the low altitude winds rotate cyclonically (counter clockwise in the N.
Hemisphere) around the storm and spiral in towards the centre. Tropical
cyclones are called hurricanes over the Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico
and eastern Pacific Oceans. They are called typhoons over the western Pacific.
Over the Indian Ocean and near Australia they are called cyclones. Hurricanes
differ from mid latitude cyclones in that hurricanes do not have fronts.
Hurricanes have warm cores while mid latitude cyclones have cold cores.
Hurricanes can persist two to three times longer than typical mid latitude
cyclones.
At maturity, the tropical cyclone is one of the most intense and feared storms
of the world; winds exceeding 90 ms-1 (175 knots) have been measured, and
its rains are torrential. Tropical cyclones are initiated by a large variety of
disturbances, including easterly waves and monsoon troughs. Once formed,
they are maintained by the extraction of heat from the ocean at high temperature
and heat export at the low temperatures of the tropical upper troposphere.
After formation, tropical cyclones usually move to the west and generally
slightly pole ward, then may “recurve,” that is, move into the mid latitude
westerlies and back toward the east. Not all tropical cyclones recurve. Many
dissipate after entering a continent in the Tropics, and a smaller number die
over the tropical oceans.
66
4.2.1 Classification of Cyclones Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
Cyclones are classified as tropical or extra-tropical based on their place of
origin and the temperature of their centre or core region.
1. Tropical Cyclones (TCs) derive their energy from latent heat acquired
from evaporation of water at the ocean surface that is subsequently released
upon condensation at greater heights. Earth’s rotation drives cyclonic winds
at low levels in the atmosphere toward the resulting low pressure (the
eye). Although other factors are involved, the three primary conditions
for TC formation are:
 sufficiently high (>26 °C) sea surface temperatures (SSTs);
 sufficiently low vertical wind shear (change in wind velocity with
height);
 sufficiently high contribution from Earth’s rotation (formation >5
degrees N and S).
2. Extratropical Cyclones (ETCs) unlike tropical cyclones derive much of
their energy from the ambient horizontal temperature (and associated
density) difference (gradient) in the atmosphere. This gradient represents
a pool of potential energy that a developing storm can convert to rotational
wind, or kinetic, energy. As colder, denser air wedges itself under the
warmer air, the center of gravity is lowered and the resulting reduction in
potential energy is manifested as kinetic energy by the developing cyclone.
The density difference across the temperature front is supported by vertical
wind shear or increasing westerly wind speed with height in the mid
latitudes.
3. Subtropical Cyclone (STCs) are a non frontal low pressure system that
has characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones. Like tropical
cyclones, they are non frontal, synoptic scale cyclones that originate over
tropical or subtropical waters, and have a closed surface wind circulation
about a well-defined center. In addition, they have organized moderate to
deep convection, but lack a central dense overcast. Unlike tropical
cyclones, subtropical cyclones derive a significant proportion of their
energy from baroclinic sources, and are generally cold-core in the upper
troposphere, often being associated with an upper level low or trough. In
comparison to tropical cyclones, these systems generally have a radius of
maximum winds occurring relatively far from the center (usually greater
than 60 nm), and generally have a less symmetric wind field and
distribution of convection.
Although cyclone is the general meteorological term applied to a large low-
pressure system with winds circulating inward toward its center, various terms
are used to describe these systems in different parts of the world.
The terminology for strong tropical cyclones:
Hurricane, Typhoon and Cyclones are different terms used for tropical cyclones.
The term Hurricane is used in the western North Atlantic, Central and Eastern
North Pacific, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico and the term Typhoon are
used in the Western North Pacific in the Indian Ocean and Western South
Pacific, tropical cyclones are called Cyclones. In the case of tropical cyclones, 67
Natural Hazards when the maximum sustained wind near the centre exceeds 119 km/h, they are
called “severe cyclonic storm” in the North Indian Ocean. The possibility for
the formation of tropical cyclones in the South Atlantic Ocean and the South
Atlantic Ocean and the South Eastern Pacific is very low due to the cooler sea
surface temperature and higher vertical wind shear. TC’s develop at latitudes
usually greater than 05O from the equator and they reach their highest intensity
while they are located over warm tropical waters.
 In the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans, these storms are called
hurricanes after a Caribbean word for an evil god of winds and destruction.
 In the Pacific Ocean west of the International Dateline (180o longitude)
and north of the equator, the storms are called typhoons after a Chinese
word for “scary wind” or “wind from four directions”.
 Hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean south of the equator and Indian Ocean
are referred to using some variation of cyclone, a term coined from the
Greek word meaning “coil of a snake”.
Table 4.1: Classification of Cyclones/Hurricanes/Typhoons Based on
Geographic Location
Hurricane North Atlantic Ocean the northeast Pacific Ocean
east of the dateline, or the South Pacific east of
160E
Typhoon Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline
Severe Tropical Cyclone Southwest Pacific Ocean west of 160E or
southeast Indian Ocean east of 90E
Severe Cyclone North Indian Ocean
Tropical Cyclone Southwest Indian Ocean
The oceanic basins where tropical cyclones form on regular basis are:
1. Atlantic basin (including the North Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico,
and the Caribbean Seal.
2. Northeast Pacific basin (from Mexico to about the dateline)
3. Northwest Pacific basin (from the dateline to Asia including the South
China Sea)
4. North Indian basin (including the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea)
5. Southwest Indian basin (from Africa to about 100 E)
6. Southeast Indian/Australian basin (100 E to 142 E)
7. Australian/Southwest Pacific basin (142 E to about 120 W)
Naming Cyclones
Only a small percentage of all cyclones are given names, either to identify
where they form or to track their movement. Extratropical cyclones, especially
those that become snowstorm, are sometimes named for the geographic area
where they form (e.g., Alberta Clipper). In contrast, all tropical depressions
68 that develop into tropical storms and hurricanes are given individual names by
government forecasting centers. These names are established by international Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
agreement through the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). An official
name is assigned once the maximum sustained winds of a tropical depression
exceed 63 km (~39 mi.) per hour and it becomes a tropical storm. Names are
assigned sequentially each year from a previously agreed upon list for the region
in which the storm forms. For example, in the Atlantic Ocean the first three
names for 2014 are Arthur, Bertha, and Cristobal; for 2015 they are Ana, Bill,
and Claudette, and for 2016 Alex, Bonnie, and Colin. Naming tropical storms
and hurricanes helps forecasters keep track of multiple storms moving across
the ocean at the same time.
A Tropical Cyclone has different names throughout its average 12 day life
cycle, depending on the wind speed.
Tropical Disturbance - A slight rotary circulation with no strong winds. A
common occurrence in the tropics. There are several different types of Tropical
Disturbances: an easterly wave, a West African Disturbance Line (WADL), a
disturbance in the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a trough or cold
Low in the upper troposphere, or an old polar front.
Tropical Depression - A rotary counterclockwise circulation with the highest
sustained wind of 39 miles per hour. It is at this point the hurricane people
recognize it as a possible threat and give it a strange name like TD4 (Tropical
Depression number four).
Tropical Storm - A distinct rotary counterclockwise circulation with sustained
wind of 39 miles per hour to 73 miles per hour. Now the Hurricane Center in
Miami, FL, gives it a real name, like TROPICAL STORM EMILY. The eye
becomes visible.
Hurricane - Strong, very pronounced counterclockwise rotary circulation with
winds of 74 miles per hour and higher. The eye is very pronounced.
Table 4.2 gives the criteria followed by Meteorological Department of India
(IMD) to classify the low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal and in the
Arabian Sea as adopted by World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) are as
under:
Table 4.2: Classification of low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal
and in the Arabian Sea
Type of Disturbances Associated Wind Speed in the
Circulation
Low pressure Area Less than17 knots (<31 kmph)
Depression 17 to 27 knots (31 to 49 kmph)
Deep Depression 28 to 33 knots (50 to 61 kmph)
Cyclonic Storm 34 to 47 knots (62 to 88 kmph)
Severe Cyclonic Storm 48 to 63 knots (89 to 118 kmph)
Very Severe Cyclonic Storm 64 to 119 knots (119 to 221 kmph)
Super Cyclonic Storm 120 knots and above (222 kmph and above)
69
Natural Hazards 4.2.2 Formation of Cyclones
A major contributing factor for the formation of tropical cyclones is the sea-
surface temperature. Higher loads of solar radiation over the region during the
period feeds sensible heat required to maintain the ocean temperature of over
26.27o which is a critical requirement for cyclogenesis. Sensible heat maintains
the vertical coupling between the lower and upper tropospheric flow pattern in
the cyclone. The cumulus convection acts as prime mechanism for vertical
coupling. The absence of sensible heat leads to the degeneration of cyclone.

At the initial stage, a cyclone is usually a major cloud cluster with rainy weather.
Once they develop into a depression, they become almost circular in shape. A
well-developed cyclone consists of eye, eye wall and Spiral Bands (Feeder
Bands). The centre or eye of a tropical cyclone is at the area of lowest pressure
and is characterized by little or no wind and often a cloudless sky. In severe
cyclones the eye usually shows up a as a circular hole in the central cloud
mass. The eye is usually about 40 km in diameter, but can vary between less
than 10 km and more than 100 km. Surrounding the eye is a wall of dense
convective cloud rising about 15-17 km into the atmosphere. This is the eye
wall and is where the most violent winds and heaviest rainfall occur. Spiral
Bands (Feeder Bands) often extend up to 1,000 km from the cyclone centre,
and contain heavy rain and strong winds. Distinctive pattern of convective
cloud bands are spiraling into the eye

What is a hurricane?

A hurricane is a type of tropical cyclone, which is a generic term for a low

pressure system that generally forms in the tropics. Hurricane is a system of
spiraling winds converging with increasing speed toward the storm’s center
(the eye of the hurricane). cyclone is accompanied by thunderstorms and, in
the Northern Hemisphere, a counter clockwise circulation of winds near the
earth’s surface. All Hurricanes are dangerous, but some are more so than others.
The way storm surge, wind and other factors combine determines the hurricanes
destructive power. Hurricanes develop under a specific suite of conditions
including warm surface waters, cyclonic circulation, and divergent flow in the
upper troposphere.

Hurricanes are classified by their wind speed on a damage-potential scale

developed by Herbert Saffir, a consulting engineer, and Robert Simpson, a
National Weather Service (NWS) meteorologist, in the 1970s (Table 4.2).
The scale was formulated in 1969 by Herbert Saffir, a consulting engineer, and
Dr. Bob Simpson, director of the National Hurricane Center. To make
comparisons easier and to make the predicted hazards of approaching hurricanes
clearer to emergency managers, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration’s hurricane forecasters use a disaster potential scale which
assigns storms to five categories. This can be used to give an estimate of the
potential property damage and flooding expected along the coast with a
hurricane.

70
 Table 4.3: Saffir, and Simpson Scale for Hurricanes Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
CATEGORY WINDS STORM EFFECTS
SURGE

One 74-95 mph 4-5 ft No real damage to building

structures. Damage primarily to
unanchored mobile homes,
shrubbery, and trees. Also, some
coastal road flooding and minor pier
damage

Two 96-110 mph 6-8 ft Some roofing material, door, and

window damage to buildings.
Considerable damage to vegetation,
mobile homes, and piers. Coastal and
low-lying escape routes flood 2-4
hours before arrival of center. Small
craft in unprotected anchorages
break moorings.

Three 111-130 9-12 ft. Some structural damage to

mph mall residences and utility buildings
with a minor amount of curtain wall
failures. Mobile homes are destroyed.
Flooding near the coast destroys
smaller structures with larger
structures damaged by floating
debris. Terrain continuously lower
than 5 feet ASL may be flooded
inland 8 miles or more

Four 131-155 13-18 ft More extensive curtain wall

mph failures with some complete roof
structure failure on small residences.
Major erosion of beach. Major
damage to lower floors of structures
near the shore. Terrains continuously
lower than 10 feet ASL may be
flooded requiring massive evacuation
of residential areas inland as far as 6
miles.

Five greater than 18+ ft. Complete roof failure on

155 mph many residences and industrial
buildings. Some complete building
failures with small utility buildings
blown over or away. Major damage
to lower floors of all structures
located less than 15 feet ASL and
within 500 yards of the shoreline.
Massive evacuation of residential
areas on low ground within 5 to 10
miles of the shoreline may be
required.

Box 1 provides a list of few most disastrous hurricanes and the damage caused
by them. 71
Natural Hazards
Box 1: Few most disastrous Hurricanes
Katrina (2005) was the most costly hurricane on record causing an
estimated $108 billion in damage in Louisiana and Mississippi. It also
caused an estimated 1500 deaths.
Sandy (2012) was the second most costly hurricane on record causing
$71 billion in damage on the eastern seaboard of the USA.

Andrew (1992) was a Category 5 hurricane which hit south-east Florida

and south-east Louisiana causing $26.5 billion of damage
Cyclone Tracy (1974) was a small but intense cyclone which struck the
Australian city of Darwin destroying most of the city’s buildings and
causing many deaths.
The most deadly tropical cyclone ever recorded hit Bangladesh in 1970
killing approximately 300,000 people as a result of the storm surge.
Typhoon Haiyan (2013) was a category 5 typhoon with 1-minute average
winds of 195 m.p.h. It hit the central Philippines.
Patricia (2015) was a Category 5 hurricane in the eastern North Pacific
with 1-minute average winds of 215 m.p.h. and a central pressure of 872
mb. It was the strongest recorded tropical cyclone in the western
hemisphere.
Cyclone Pam (2015) was one of the most intense southern hemisphere
cyclones recorded with an estimated central pressure of 896 mb. It caused
much destruction and loss of life as it passed through the islands of Vanuatu
in the South Pacific.
Hurricane Harvey (2017) was the wettest hurricane to hit the USA with
an observing station in Texas recording over 64" (1640 mm) rain.
Typhoon Tip in the western North Pacific on 12 October 1979 was
measured to have a central pressure of 870 mb and estimated 1-minute
average winds of 190 m.p.h., making it the most intense tropical cyclone
on record as measured by central pressure.
Hurricane Wilma in 2005 was the most intense hurricane recorded in the
North Atlantic, with an estimated central pressure of 882 mb.
Source: https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/tropicalcyclone/facts
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. How will you classify cyclones/hurricanes/typhoons Based on Geographic
Location?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
72 .............................................................................................................
2) What is a hurricane? Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
.............................................................................................................
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.............................................................................................................

4.3 THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms are a common feature of the Earth’s environment. There are
about 1800-2000 storms per hour or 44 000 per day. In tropical regions, they
occur daily in the wet season. However, in these regions thunderstorms may
not represent a hazard because they do not intensify. As thunderstorms represent
localized areas of instability, their intensity is dependent upon factors that
increase this instability. On a world scale, instability is usually defined by the
rate at which the base of the atmosphere is heated by incoming solar radiation,
especially where evaporation at the ground and condensation in the atmosphere
both occur. In this case, the saturated adiabatic lapse rate prevails. Under these
conditions, large quantities of heat energy (2400 joules gm-1 of liquid water
that condenses) are released into the atmosphere. This process causes convective
instability, which terminates only when the source of moisture is removed. On
a localized scale, the degree of instability is also dependent upon topography
and atmospheric conditions such as convergence. If air is forced over a hill,
then this may be the impetus required to initiate convective instability.
Convergence of air masses by topography, or by the spatial arrangement of
pressure patterns, can also initiate uplift. The most likely occurrence of
instability takes place along cold fronts, mainly the polar front where it intrudes
into moist tropical air.
Basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a thunderstorm:
Three basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a thunderstorm:
1. Warm humid air must be available in the lower atmosphere to feed clouds
and precipitation and provide energy to the storm as it develops.
2. A steep vertical temperature gradient must exist in the environment such
that the rising air is warmer than the air through which it is moving. This
gradient places colder air over warmer, moist air.
3. An updraft must force moist air up to colder levels of the atmosphere.
Thunderstorms form where warm, humid air is forced upward to altitudes of
up to 15 km. Condensation occurs as the air cools, releasing latent heat and
ensuring that the rising air remains unstable (warmer than surrounding air).
Thunderstorms may occur as relatively isolated, short-lived events or as longer-
duration severe storms depending upon the conditions that cause the air to
rise. Thunderstorms form where warm, humid air is forced upward at cold
fronts or as a result of differential heating at Earth’s surface.

4.3.1 Formation of Thunderstorm

 Thunderstorm formation starts as moist condenses to from a puffy cumulus
cloud. Initially the cloud will form and then evaporate with little increase
in height. If the moisture supply and updraft continue, the relative humidity 73
Natural Hazards increases in the air surrounding the cloud and it grows in size instead of
evaporating.
 The upward growth in size of a cumulus cloud begins the cumulus stage
of thunderstorm development. In this stage, the cumulus cloud becomes
a cumulonimbus cloud with the growth of domes and towers that look
like a head of cauliflower. This growth required a continuous release of
latent heat from water vapour condensation to warm the surrounding air
and cause the air to rise farther.
 As the domes and towers grow upward, precipitation starts by one of two
mechanisms:
1. First, growth of the cloud into colder air causes water droplets to
freeze into ice crystals and snowflakes. The larger snowflakes fall
until they enter air that is above freezing and melt to form raindrops.
2. Second, in warm air in the lower part of the cloud, large cloud droplets
collide with smaller droplets and coalesce to become raindrops. Once
raindrops are too large to be supported by updrafts in the cloud, they
begin to fall, creating a downdraft.
 The mature stage of thunderstorm development begins when the downdraft
and falling precipitation leave the base of the cloud. At this stage, the
storm has both updrafts and downdrafts, and it continues to grow until it
reaches the top of the unstable atmosphere. Commonly this upper limit
of growth is the tropopause. At this point, the updrafts may continue to
build the cloud outward to form a characteristic anvil shape. During the
mature stage, the storm produces heavy rain, lightning and thunder, and
occasionally large chunks of ice, known as hail.
 The final or dissipating stage begins when the upward supply of moist air
is blocked by downdrafts at the lower levels of the cloud. Downdrafts
incorporate cool, dry air surrounding the cloud and cause some of the
falling precipitation to evaporate. This evaporation further cools the
downdraft and limits the updraft of warm humid air. Deprived of moisture,
the thunderstorm weakens, precipitation decreases, and the cloud
dissipates. Most individual thunderstorm, sometimes called air-mass
thunderstorms, last less than an hour and do little damage.

4.4 TORNADOES
A tornado is a rapidly rotating vortex of air protruding funnel-like towards the
ground from a cumulonimbus cloud. Most of the time, these vortices remain
suspended in the atmosphere, and it is only when they connect to the ground or
ocean surface that they become destructive. Tornadoes are related to larger
vortex formation in clouds. Thus, they often form in convective cells such as
thunderstorms, or in the right forward quadrant of hurricane at large distances
(> 200 km) from the area of maximum winds. In the latter case, tornadoes
herald the approach of the hurricane. Often, the weakest hurricanes produce
the most tornadoes. Tornadoes are a secondary phenomenon, in which the
primary process is the development of a vortex cloud. Given the large number
of vortices that form in the atmosphere, tornadoes are generally rare; however,
because vortices can be generated by a myriad of processes, tornadoes have no
74
one mechanism of formation. Tornadoes, similar to tropical cyclones, are almost Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
always accompanied by heavy precipitation.

4.4.1 Formation of Tornadoes

Tornadoes are narrow, funnel-shaped spirals of rapidly rotating air that form in
association with thunderstorms. Like hurricanes and mid-latitude cyclones,
tornadoes are near circular low pressure systems. However, the pressure gradient
is much more intense for tornadoes. Pressure differences across mid latitude
cyclones are in the range of 20 to 30 mb (millibars) over hundreds of kilometers
(pressure gradient, 0.02-0.03 mb/km). Hurricanes may experience pressure
gradients of more than 100 mb over shorter distances (~0.2-2 mb/km) but
large pressure differences in tornadoes occur over distances measured in
hundreds of meters. Extreme pressure gradients of up to ~0.1 to 1 mb/mare
possible for tornadoes, generating the strongest natural winds on Earth with
wind velocities of up to 500 km/hr. Tornadoes are classified using the Fujita
Intensity scale which places tornadoes in one of six categories (F0-F5) according
to level of destruction which is taken as a proxy for wind speed. The scale
divides tornadoes into three subgroups:
 Weak (F0,F1);
 strong(F2, F3), and
 violent(F4, F5).

4.4.2 Tornado Destruction

Tornadoes are one of the most intense and destructive winds found on the
Earth’s surface. Their destructive effects are due to the lifting force at the funnel
wall, and to the sudden change in pressure across this boundary. The lifting
force of tornadoes is considerable, both in terms of the weight of objects that
can be moved, and the volume of material that can be lifted. Large objects
weighing 200–300 tonnes have been shifted tens of metres, while houses and
train carriages weighing 10–20 tonnes have been carried hundreds of meters.
Tornadoes are also able to suck up millions of tonnes of water, which can be
carried in the parent cloud. Tornadoes have been known to drain the water
from rivers, thus temporarily exposing the bed. The most destructive mechanism
in a tornado is the dip in barometric pressure across the wall of the funnel. Air
pressure in buildings affected by a tornado is the main reason for the total
devastation of buildings, whereas adjacent structures or remaining remnants
appear untouched.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1) Discuss the basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a
thunderstorm?
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................. 75
Natural Hazards 2) What is a tornado?.
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

4.5 INTRODUCTION TO COASTAL HAZARDS

Coastal areas are dynamic environments that vary in their topography, climate,
and organisms. In these areas, continental and oceanic processes converge to
produce landscapes that are capable of rapid change.
The impact of hazardous coastal processes is considerable because many
populated areas are located near the coast. In the United States, it is expected
that most of the population will eventually be concentrated along the nation’s
150,000 km (~93,000 mi.) of shoreline, including the Great Lakes. Today, the
nation’s largest cities lie in the coastal zone, and approximately 40 percent of
the population lives in coastal countries, even though those counties is account
for only 10 percent of the land area (not including Alaska). In fact, population
density for coastal counties is six times greater than that of inland counties.
The population is coastal counties becomes even larger during peak vacation
periods. For example, Ocean City, Maryland, receives an estimated 4 million
visitors between Memorial Day and Labor Day. Coastal problems will increase
as more people live in coastal areas where the hazards occur. Once again, our
activities continue to conflict with natural processes. Hazards along the coasts,
such as coastal erosion, may become compounded by global warming, which
is contributing to a worldwide rise in sea level.
The most serious coastal hazards include:
 Strong coastal currents, including rip currents generated in the surf zone
and tidal currents in narrow bays and channels.
 Coastal erosion, which continues to produce considerable property damage
that required human adjustment.
 Storm surge from tropical and extratropical cyclones, which claims many
lives and causes enormous amounts of property damage every year.
 Tsunamis, which are particularly hazardous to coastal areas of the Pacific
Ocean.

4.6 INTRODUCTION TO TSUNAMIS

Tsunamis (the Japanese word for “large harbor waves”) are produced by the
sudden vertical displacement of ocean water. These waves are a serious natural
hazard that can cause a catastrophe thousands of kilometers from where they
originate. They may be triggered by several types of events, including a large
earthquake that causes a rapid uplift or subsidence of the seafloor; an underwater
landslide that may be triggered by an earthquake; the collapse of part of a

76
volcano that slides into the sea; a submarine volcanic explosion; and an impact Weather Related/Coastal
Hazards
in the ocean of an extraterrestrial object, such as an asteroid or comet. Asteroid
impact can produce a “mega” tsunami, a wave that is about 100 times higher
than the largest tsunami produced by an earthquake that could put hundreds of
millions of people at risk. Fortunately, the frequency of large asteroid impact
is low. Of the previously mentioned potential causes, tsunamis produced by
earthquakes are by far the most common.

Box 2
TSUNAMI PRODUCED BY EARTHQUAKES
1. The 1755 (~M 9) Lisbon, Portugal, earthquake produced a tsunami
that, along with the earthquake and resulting fire, killed an estimated
20,000 people.
2. Tsunami waves that crossed the Atlantic Ocean amplified to heights
of 7 m (~23 ft.) or more in the West India.
3. The 1883 violent explosion of Krakatoa volcano in the Sundra Strait
between Java and Sumatra cause the top of the volcano to collapse
into the ocean. This sudden collapse produced a giant tsunami more
than 35 m (~115 ft.) high that destroyed 165 villages and killed more
than 36,000 people.
4. The 1946 (M 8.1) Aleutians (Alaska) earthquake produced a tsunami
in the Hawaiian Islands that killed about 160 people.
5. The 1960 (M 9.5) Chile earthquake triggered a tsunami that killed
61 people in Hawaii after traveling for 15 hours across the Pacific
Ocean.
6. The 1964 (M 9.2) Alaska earthquake generated a deadly tsunami
that killed about 130 people in Alaska and California.
7. The 1993 (M7.1) Papua New Guinea earthquake triggered a
submarine landslide that produced a tsunami that killed more than
2100 people.
8. The 2004 (M 9.1) Sumatra earthquake generated a tsunami that killed
about 230,000 people.
9. The 2009 (M 8.1) Samoa earthquake generated, a tsunami that killed
about 200 people.
10. The 2010 (M 8.8) Chile earthquake generated a tsunami that killed
about 700 people in coastal towns.
11. The 2011 (M 9.1) Japan earthquake generated a tsunami that killed
over 20,000 people. Source: Keller EA, DeVecchio DE (2014)

4.7 EL NINO/SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO)

The El Nino/ Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a naturally occurring phenomenon
involving fluctuating ocean temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial
Pacific, coupled with changes in the atmosphere. The El Nino/Southern 77
Natural Hazards Oscillation comprise three phases: El Nino, La Nina and neutral. El Nino,
meaning “boy child” in Spanish, was first used in the nineteenth century by
fishermen in Peru and Ecuador to refer to the unusually warm waters that
reduced their catch just before Christmas. El Nino events often begin in the
middle of the year with large-scale warming of surface water in the central and
eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean and changes in the tropical atmospheric
circulation (i.e. winds, pressure and rainfall). In general, El Nino reaches a
peak during November to January and then decays over the first half of the
following year. It occurs every two to seven years and can last up to 18 months.
Strong and moderate El Nino events have a warming effect on average global
surface temperatures. The opposite of El Nino within the ENSO cycle is known
as La Nina, which means “little girl” and refers to the large scale cooling of the
ocean surface temperatures in the same region in the equatorial Pacific, coupled
with a reversal of the overlying atmospheric conditions. In many locations,
especially in the tropics, La Nina (or cold episodes) produces the opposite
climate variations to El Nino. During ENSO neutral phases, atmospheric
patterns are controlled more by other climate drivers.

4.8 KEY WORDS

Centre of a : Varies according to the analysis method;
Tropical Cyclone typically one of geometric centre of eye,
minimum pressure, zero wind, or end of a spiral
band.
Extratropical Cyclone : A synoptic scale low pressure system which
derives its energy primarily from available
potential energy in a pre-existing horizontal
temperature gradient.
Eye : The roughly circular area of comparatively light
winds that encompasses the center of a severe
tropical cyclone. The eye is either completely
or partially surrounded by the eyewall cloud.
Hurricane/Typhoon : A tropical cyclone in which the maximum
sustained surface wind (using the U.S. 1- minute
average) is 64 kt (74 mph or 119 km/hr) or more.
The term hurricane is used for Northern
Hemisphere tropical cyclones east of the
International Dateline to the Greenwich
Meridian. The term typhoon is used for Pacific
tropical cyclones north of the Equator and west
of the International Dateline.
El Nino : Change in global weather patterns caused by
anomalous warming of the eastern Pacific Ocean
by at least 3 degrees. Associated with droughts
affecting some areas and incessant storms and
rainfall inundating others.
Tornado : A funnel cloud which reaches the ground.

78
 Weather Related/Coastal
4.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER Hazards
READINGS
Keller EA, DeVecchio DE (2014) Natural Hazards: Earth’s Processes as
Hazards, Disasters, and Catastrophes , Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River
Keller EA (2012) Introduction to Environmental Geology, 5th Edition, Pearson,
ISBN-13: 9780321727510
Richard J. Murnane ( 2004), Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present, and
Future, Ed Kam Biu Liu, Columbia University Press, New York.

4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
Hurricane North Atlantic Ocean the northeast Pacific Ocean
east of the dateline, or the South Pacific east of
160E
Typhoon Northwest Pacific Ocean west of the dateline
Severe Tropical Cyclone Southwest Pacific Ocean west of 160E or
southeast Indian Ocean east of 90E
Severe Cyclone North Indian Ocean
Tropical Cyclone Southwest Indian Ocean
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Hurricane is a system of spiraling winds converging with increasing
speed toward the storm’s center (the eye of the hurricane).
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
1. Your answer should include the following points:
Basic atmospheric conditions that are required to produce a thunderstorm:
a. Warm humid air must be available in the lower atmosphere to feed clouds
and precipitation and provide energy to the storm as it develops.
b. A steep vertical temperature gradient must exist in the environment such
that the rising air is warmer than the air through which it is moving. This
gradient places colder air over warmer, moist air.
c. An updraft must force moist air up to colder levels of the atmosphere.
2. Your answer should include the following points:
 Tornadoes are narrow, funnel-shaped spirals of rapidly rotating air
that form in association with thunderstorms.

79