Discrete Mathematical Structures

Dr Chandan Kr Thakur

Department of Mathematics
School of Advanced Sciences (SAS)

May 22, 2024

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 1 / 66

About Me !

Name: Dr Chandan Kumar Thakur

Affiliation : Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics, VIT-AP
Office : Cabin No. 320-F, Faculty Area-2, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Block.
Contact : 7992395798, [email protected]
Open Hrs : Will update soon
Education : Ph.D. in Mathematics from IIT(ISM) - Dhanbad
Research : Groundwater Hydrology, Contaminant Movements, Fluid Flow
in Porous Media.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 2 / 66

Course Objective's

Ê To understand the notion of mathematical thinking and mathematical

proofs, and to apply them in problem solving.
Ë To prove and disprove mathematical statements using a variety of tech-
niques.
Ì To learn number theory, modular arithmetic in particular and appreciate
its role in cryptography and computer science.
Í To perform combinatorial analysis, not on applying formulae, to solve
counting problems and analyse algorithms.
Î To address the challenges of the relevance of lattice theory, coding theory
and other algebraic structures in computer science and engineering.
Ï To understand the concepts of graph theory and related concepts of algo-
rithms.
Ð To perform scientific communication in the language of mathematics pre-
cisely without any ambiguity.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 3 / 66

CO’s Mapping with PO’s

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 4 / 66

Syllabus for Discrete Mathematical Structure

Module 1 Logic and Proofs 14 Hr.

Review of Basic Structures: sets, functions, Introduction to (Propositional) Logic,
Propositional Logic and Equivalences, Predicates and Quantifiers, Nested Quantifiers,
Rules of Inference, Introduction to Proofs, Normal Proofs, Proof Methods and Strate-
gies.

Module 2 Number Theory 08 Hr.

Divisibility and Modular Arithmetic, Integer Representations, Primes and the Great-
est Common Divisor, The Euclidean algorithm, Extended Euclidean algorithm. Solv-
ing Congruences: Linear Congruences, Chinese Remainder Theorem, Fermat's little
theorem, Primitive Roots and Discrete Logarithms.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 5 / 66

Continued...

Module 3 Introductory Counting 09 Hr.

The Basics of Counting, The Pigeonhole Principle, Binomial Coefficients and Iden-
tities, Basic and Generalized Permutations and Combinations, Recurrence Relations
and Generating Functions, Inclusion - Exclusion.

Module 4 Algebraic Structures 08 Hr.

Groups and Subgroups, Cosets and Lagrange's Theorem, Homomorphism, Rings and
Fields - Properties and applications to Cryptography.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 6 / 66

Continued...

Module 5 Relations 07 Hr.

Binary and n-ary relations, Closures of Relations, Representing Relations, Closures
of Relations, equivalence relations, Partially Orderings: Hasse diagram, lattices and
their properties.

Module 6 Graphs and Trees 14 Hr.

Graphs and Graph Models, Graph Terminology and Special Types of Graphs, Rep-
resenting Graphs and Graph Isomorphism, Connectivity, Euler and Hamilton Paths,
Shortest-Path Problems, Introduction to Trees, Minimum Spanning Trees, Planar
Graphs, Graph Colouring: independence number and clique number and chromatic
number.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 7 / 66

Book

Text Book

Referred Book

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 8 / 66

Evaluation Component

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 9 / 66

Paper Patterns for CAT/FAT

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 10 / 66

Introduction

Introduction

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 11 / 66

Introduction

Mathematics
The study of any and all absolutely certain truths about any and all
perfectly well-defined concepts.

/ It is not just about numbers !

/ These concepts can be about numbers, symbols, objects, images, sounds,

anything !

/ It is a way to interpret the world around you.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 12 / 66

Motivation

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 13 / 66

Discrete vs Continuous

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 14 / 66

Discrete vs Continuous

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 15 / 66

Why do we study discrete mathematics?

n There are lots of intrinsically discrete problems that cannot be solved by

“calculus” type techniques.

n Computers (in the present time) can only handle discrete structures.

n A discrete model can be used to approximate a continuous model to a

very high degree of accuracy. (such as digital photos and digital music)

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 16 / 66

Discrete Structure

n What is Discrete Mathematics ?

n How is Discrete Mathematics relevant to the world of mathematics as a

whole and in particularly to us ?

n Discrete mathematics is the study of discrete objects.

n An object is discrete if it is not continuous.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 17 / 66

Continued...

n Discrete mathematics is the part of mathematics devoted to the study of

discrete objects. Kenneth H. Rosen.

n An object is discrete if it is not continuous.

n In other words, discrete objects is something that is

countable.

n Discrete means: ”Distinct or not connected.”

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 18 / 66

Examples
Discrete Object

é People, Chairs, Tables, Balls etc.

é The integers I, rational number Q.
é Function from {1, 2, ...., n} → {0, 1}.
é (x, y) ∈ N2 such that y = x 3 .

Non-Discrete Objects

n The Real Line (R), Real Plan (R2 ).

n The ratio of the circumference and diameter of any
circle (i.e the number π ) is not a discrete object.
n (x, y) ∈ R2 such that y = x 3 .

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 19 / 66

Example of Discrete

n Sorting the list of Integers (Z).

n Finding the Shortest Path from your home to your friend’s home.
n Drawing a graph with two conditions:
n You are not allowed to lift your pen.
n You are not allowed to repeat edges.
n How many different Combinations of password are possible with just 8
alphanumeric characters.

n Encrypt a message and delivery it to your friends and you don’t want
anybody to read message except your friends.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 20 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 21 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Computers run software and store files. The software and files are
both stored as huge strings of 1s and 0s. Binary math is discrete mathe-
matics.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 22 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Networks are, at base, discrete structures. The routers that run the
internet are connected by long cables. People are connected to each other
by social media (Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, etc.). The US highway
system connects cities with roads.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 23 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Doing Web Searches in multiple languages at once, and returning a

summary, uses linear algebra.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 24 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Google Maps uses discrete mathematics to determine fastest driving

routes and times. There is a simpler version that works with small maps
and technicalities involved in adapting to large maps.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 25 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Railway Planning uses discrete math: deciding how to expand train rail
lines, train timetable scheduling, and scheduling crews and equipment for
train trips use both graph theory and linear algebra.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 26 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Designing Password Criteria is a counting problem: Is the space of

passwords chosen large enough that a hacker can’t break into accounts just
by trying all the possibilities? How long do passwords need to be in order
to resist such attacks?

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 27 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Electronic Health care records are kept as parts of databases, and there
is a lot of discrete mathematics involved in the efficient and effective design
of databases.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 28 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

o Power grids: Graph theory is used in finding the most vulnerable aspects
of an electric grid. Graph theory and linear algebra are used in power grid
simulations.

o Design of radar and sonar systems uses graph theory via Golomb
rulers.

o Chemistry: Balancing chemical equations uses linear algebra, and under-

standing molecular structure uses graph theory.

o Graph theory is used in DNA sequencing. Graph theory is used in

neuro-science to study brain network organization and understand neuro-
pathology for nervous system disorders.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 29 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 30 / 66

Example Based on Cryptography

1 Decipher the message EVZCJZXDFE that was enciphered using a 17 shift

cipher i.e.
f (p) = (p + 17) mod 26
2 Using the transposition cipher based on the permutation σ of the set {1; 2; 3; 4}
with σ(1) = 4; σ(2) = 1; σ(3) = 2 and σ(4) = 3; encrypt the plaintext message
PIRATE ATTACK
3 Aliens have detected that humans have been breaking their encrypted messages.
They frantically try to make their code more sophisticated by using larger shifts.
Help humanity by answering the following using below table of letters.

What letter would 39(mod 12) correspond to in this language?

What letter would −39(mod 12) correspond to in this language?

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 31 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 32 / 66

Application of Discrete Mathematics

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 33 / 66

Set Theory

A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

A well-defined set has no ambiguity as to what objects are in the set or not.
Example:
o Let X = {apple, tomato, orange}. Here, orange ∈ X , but potato ∈
/ X.

o X = {a1 , a2 , ..., a10 }. Then, a100 ∈

/ X.

o Observe that the sets {1, 2, 3}, {3, 1, 2} and {digits in the number 12321}
are the same as the order in which the elements appear doesn’t matter.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 34 / 66

Example

o The set of 5 rivers in India. This set contains 5 elements i.e.

{Ganga, Yamuna, Beas, Narmada, Kaveri}.

o The collection of vowels in English alphabets. This set contains five ele-
ments i.e.{a, e, i, o, u}.

o The set of former Nobel Prize winners is a well-defined set.

o The set of tall students in our university is not a well-defined set.

o The collection of good cricket players of India is not a set

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 35 / 66

Representation of A Sets

Roster Form

Set Buider Form

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 36 / 66

Remark:

à Use curly braces to designate sets.

à Use commas to separate set elements.

à The variable in the set-builder notation does not have to be x.

à Use ellipses (. . . ) to indicate a continuation of a pattern established before

the ellipses i.e. {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 100}.

à The symbol | is read as “such that.”

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 37 / 66

Set Membership

An element or member of a set is an object that belongs to the set.

The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”
The symbol ∈
/ means “is not an element of”
Generally capital letters are used to represent sets and lowercase letters are used
for other objects i.e.
S = {2, 3, 5, 7}
Thus a ∈ S means a is an element of S

Is 2 ∈ {0, 2, 4, 6} ?
Is 2 ∈ {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}?

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 38 / 66

Some Important Sets

o N - Natural or Counting numbers: {1, 2, 3, . . . }.

o W - Whole numbers: {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.

o I - Integers numbers: {. . . , −3 − 2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }.

o Q - Rational numbers:
p
{ p, q ∈ I, q 6= 0}.
q
o R - {x | x is a number that can be written as a decimal}.

o Irrational numbers: {x | x is a real number and x cannot be written as a

quotient of integers }.
√
Examples: π, 2, and 4

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 39 / 66

Remarkable Point

Any rational number can be written as either a

o Terminating decimal (like 0.5, 0.333, or 0.8578966)

or a

o repeating decimal (like 0.333 or 123.392545).

The decimal representation of an irrational number never terminates and

never repeats.

The set {φ} is not empty, but is a set which contains the empty set.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 40 / 66

Mid-lecture Problem

o Consider the list of digits 1, 2, 1, 4, 2. Is it a set?

o Is φ ∈ {a, b, c} ?

o Is φ ∈ {φ, {φ}} ?

o Is φ ∈ {{φ}} ?

o Is 3
2 / {x | x = p1 , p ∈ N } ?
∈

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 41 / 66

Set Cardinality

The cardinality of a set is the number of distinct elements in the set.

o The cardinality of a set A is denoted n(A) or | A |.

o If the cardinality of a set is a particular whole number, we call that set a

finite set.

o If a set is so large that there is no such number, it is called an infinite set.

Note:
Sets do not care about the order or how many times an object is included. Thus,
{1, 2, 3, 4}, {2, 3, 1, 4}, and {1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4} all describe the same
set.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 42 / 66

Mid-lecture Problem

A = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11}, B = {2, 4, 6, 10, . . . } and C = {1, 3, 5, 7, . . . }

D = {1, 2, 3, 2, 1}, E = {x | x is odd, and x ≤ 30}

n(A) = ? n(B) = ? n(C ) = ? n(D) = ? n(E) = ?

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 43 / 66

Set Equality

Set Equality:
The sets A and B are equal (written A = B) provided:
o Every element of A is an element of B, and every element of B is an element
of A
In other words, if and only if they contain exactly the same elements

B = {a, b, c} = {b, c, a} = {c, b, a, a, c, b} ?

C = {3} = {x | x ∈ N and 1 < x < 5} ?

D = {x | x ∈ N and x < 0} = {y | y ∈ Q and y is irrational} ?

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 44 / 66

Venn Diagrams & Subsets

Universe of Discourse
The set containing all elements under discussion for a particular problem.
In mathematics, this is called the universal set and is denoted by U.
Venn diagrams can be used to represent sets and their relationships to each
other

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 45 / 66

Definition

Let X and Y be two sets.

1 Suppose X is the set such that whenever x ∈ X , then x ∈ Y as well.
Here, X is said to be a subset of the set Y , and is denoted by X ⊆ Y .
When there exists x ∈ X such that x ∈ / Y , then we say that X is not a
subset of Y ; and we write X ( Y .
2 If X ⊆ Y and Y ⊆ X , then X and Y are said to be equal, and is denoted
by X = Y .
3 If X ⊆ Y and X Y , then X is called a proper subset of Y .
Thus, X is a proper subset of Y if and only if X ⊆ Y and X Y

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 46 / 66

The Complement of a Set

0
The set A , the shaded region, is the complement of A
0
A is the set of all objects in the universe of discourse that are not elements of
A. 0
A = {x | x ∈ U and x ∈ / A}

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 47 / 66

Another Method for Generating Power Sets

Power Sets
A tree diagram can be used to generate P(A). Each element of the set is
either in a particular subset, or its not.

The number of subsets of a set with cardinality n is 2n

The number of proper subsets is 2n − 1 (why ?)

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 48 / 66

Set Operation

Intersection
The intersection of two sets, A ∩ B, is the set of elements common to both:

A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

In other word for an object to be in A ∩ B it must be a member of A and B.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 49 / 66

Disjoint Set

The Disjoint of two sets, which have no elements in common.

A∩B =φ

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 50 / 66

Set Union

The union of two sets, A ∪ B, is the set of elements belonging to either set A
and set B:
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
In other word for an object to be in A ∪ B it must be a member of either A or
B.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 51 / 66

Set Difference

The difference of two sets, A − B, is the set of elements belonging to set A

and not to set B:

A − B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}

0
Note: x ∈
/ B means x ∈ B
0 0
A − B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B } = A ∩ B

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 52 / 66

Logic

What is Logic?

Logic is the study of reasoning. It is concerned with how to evaluate

arguments and reasoning to be correct.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle is regarded as the father of logic. Others

before him discussed the nature of arguments and how to evaluate them, but
he was the one who first created systematic criteria for doing it. His
conception of syllogistic logic remains a cornerstone of the study of logic even
today.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 53 / 66

Propositional Logic

Consider the following:

é What is your name?

é He is very talented.

é Delhi is Capital of India.

é x + 10 = 20.

é Prime numbers are infinite.

é There are life forms on other planets in the universe.

Proposition is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both.

The area of logic that deals with propositions is called as propositional logic.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 54 / 66

Applications of Discrete Mathematics

Computers run software and store files. The software and files are both stored
as huge strings of 1s and 0s. Binary math is discrete mathematics.
Networks are, at base, discrete structures. The routers that run the internet
are connected by long cables. People are connected to each other by social
media (Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, etc.). The US highway system connects
cities with roads.
Doing web searches in multiple languages at once, and returning a summary,
uses linear algebra.
Google Maps uses discrete mathematics to determine fastest driving routes
and times. There is a simpler version that works with small maps and techni-
calities involved in adapting to large maps.
Railway planning uses discrete math: deciding how to expand train rail lines,
train timetable scheduling, and scheduling crews and equipment for train trips
use both graph theory and linear algebra.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 55 / 66

Continued...
Designing password criteria is a counting problem: Is the space of passwords
chosen large enough that a hacker can’t break into accounts just by trying all
the possibilities? How long do passwords need to be in order to resist such
attacks?
Electronic health care records are kept as parts of databases, and there is
a lot of discrete mathematics involved in the efficient and effective design of
databases.
Power grids: Graph theory is used in finding the most vulnerable aspects
of an electric grid. Graph theory and linear algebra are used in power grid
simulations.
Design of radar and sonar systems uses graph theory via Golomb rulers.
Chemistry: Balancing chemical equations uses linear algebra, and understand-
ing molecular structure uses graph theory.
Graph theory is used in DNA sequencing.
Graph theory is used in neuroscience to study brain network organization
and understand neuropathology for nervous system disorders.
(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 56 / 66
Basic Structure

Set, Relations, and Functions

Georg Cantor
(1845 - 1918)

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 57 / 66

Introduction of Set

The Theory of set was developed by German mathematician Georg Cantor (1845
- 1918). He first encountered set while working on problems on Trigonometrical
series. We study the fundamental discrete structure on which all other discrete
structures are built, namely, the set. Sets are used to group objects together.
They are generally denoted by a capital letters such as A, B, C, ... etc.

1 A = Most of us have a different kind of playlists of songs present in smart phones

and computers. Rock songs are often separated from classical or any other genre.
Hence, playlists also form the example of set.

2 B = As we all know that there are millions of galaxies present in our world which
are separated from each other by some distance. Here, the universe act as a set.

3 C = Kitchen is the most relevant example of sets. Our mother always keeps the
kitchen well arranged. The plates are kept separate from bowls and cups. Sets
of similar utensils are kept separately.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 58 / 66

Continued...

Definition
A set is an unordered collection of objects, called elements or members of the
set. A set is said to contain its elements. We write a ∈ P to denote that a is
an element of the set P. The notation a ∈ P denotes that a is not an element
of the set P.
Sets can be represented in three forms:
Roster Form: P = Set of even numbers less than 8 = {2, 4, 6}
Statement Form: Q = { Set of Odd numbers less than 9}
Set Builder Form: R = {x : x = 2n, n ∈ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}

The concept of a datatype, or type, in computer science is built upon the concept
of a set. In particular, a datatype or type is the name of a set, together with a
set of operations that can be performed on objects from that set.
For example, boolean is the name of the set {0, 1} together with operators on
one or more elements of this set, such as AND, OR, and NOT.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 59 / 66

Important Concept

Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. Therefore, if A
and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and only if ∀x (x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B).We
write A = B if A and B are equal sets.

Empty Set: There is a special set that has no elements. This set is called the
empty set, or null set, and is denoted by ∅. The empty set can also be denoted by {}

Recall the notation for intervals of real numbers. When a and b are real numbers
with a ≤ b, we write
[a, b] = {x|a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a, b) = {x|a ≤ x < b}
(a, b] = {x|a < x ≤ b}
(a, b) = {x|a < x < b}
Note that [a, b] is called the closed interval from a to b and (a, b) is called the
open interval from a to b.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 60 / 66

Kind of Set

1 Set, they usually mean a collection of objects where ordering does not
matter and no element is repeated.
Example: A = {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4} is actually thought as B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
2 But in certain context, we might have to use these repetitions. These are
called multi-sets. So multi-set is a set where order and repetitions matter.
Thus multi-set of A = {1, 1, 2} is different from the set of B = {1, 2}.
3 The third kind of set is what we call as ordered sets. So these are the sets
where the ordering matters. We sometimes call it as strings or vectors.
Example: Set P = {1, 2, 3} this is different from the set Q = {3, 2, 1}.
4 We can also have ordered multi-sets meaning sets where both repetitions
as well as ordering matters.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 61 / 66

Operations of Set

1 Union (∪). A ∪ B where A and B are two sets is the set of all elements that is
contained in either A OR B.

2 Intersection (∩). A∩B where A and B are the set of all elements that are contained
in A AND B.

3 Complement (Ac or A). Ac or A is the set of element NOT contained in A.

Some Important Formulas: For any three sets A, B, & C :

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

If A ∩ B = φ, then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)
n(A − B) + n(A ∪ B) = n(A)
n(B − A) + n(A ∪ B) = n(B)
n(A ∪ B) = n(A − B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B − A)
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) − n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 62 / 66

Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is a widely used diagram style that shows the logical relation
between sets.

Union Intersection Complement

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 63 / 66

Important Formula

Let P, Q, and R be the set.

1 Commutative law:
(P ∪ Q) = (Q ∪ P) and (P ∩ Q) = (Q ∩ P).
2 Associative law:
(P ∪ (Q ∪ R)) = ((P ∪ Q) ∪ R)
(P ∩ (Q ∩ R)) = ((P ∩ Q) ∩ R)
3 Distributive law.
(P ∪ (Q ∩ R)) = (P ∪ Q) ∩ (P ∪ R)
(P ∩ (Q ∪ R)) = (P ∩ Q) ∪ (P ∩ R)
4 De Morgan's law
c
(P ∪ Q) = (P c ∩ Qc )
c
(P ∩ Q) = (P c ∪ Qc )

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 64 / 66

Exercise

Problem (1)
Which of the following are are null (empty) sets ?
(i) Set of odd natural number divisible by 2.
(ii) {x : 3 < x < 4, x ∈ N }
(iii) {x : x 2 = 25 and x is an odd integer}
(iv) {x : x 2 − 2 = 0 and x is rational number}
(v) {x : x is common point of any two parallel line}

Problem (2)
Are the following pairs of sets equal ? Give reasons.
(i) A = {2, 1}, B = {x : x is solution of x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0}.
(ii) A = {x : x is a letter in the word FOLLOW},
B = {y : y is a letter in the word WOLF}.

(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 65 / 66

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(Dr Chandan Kr Thakur) (VIT-AP, University) May 22, 2024 66 / 66