Information: One of an organization’s most valuable resources, collection of data programs at the same time on one computer Multiprocessing:

ltiprocessing: supports running a from any Internet-connected computer Public Cloud Computing A service provider owns
organized in such a way that they have value beyond the facts themselves Data: raw facts program on more than one CPU Multitasking: allows more than one program to run and manages the infrastructure with cloud user organizations (tenants) accessing slices of
Process: set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined outcome. Turning concurrently Multithreading: allows different threads of a single program to run shared hardware resource via the Internet Public cloud computing can be a faster,
data into information is a process Knowledge: awareness and understanding of a set of concurrently Real time: responds to input instantly Networking Capability Allows cheaper, and more agile approach to building and managing your own IT infrastructure.
information and the ways it can be made useful to support a task. The process of defining computers in a network to send and receive data and share computing resources Access However, data security is a key concern. Because when using a public cloud computing
relationships among data to create useful information requires knowledge information to System Resources and Security Provides protection against unauthorized access to the service, you are relying on someone else to safeguard your data Infrastructure as a
system (IS) is a set of interrelated elements that: Collect (input) Process Store users’ data and programs Establishes a logon procedure May control access to specific service (IaaS) Software as a service (SaaS) Platform as a Service (PaaS) A single tenant
Disseminate/propagate data and information Provides a feedback mechanism to monitor system resources Tracks who is using the system, length of use,attempted security File cloud. Organization often implement due to concerns that their data will not be secure in
and control its operation to meet its goals and objectives computer-based information Management Ensures that files in secondary storage are available when needed Protects a public cloud Hybrid cloud Composed of both private and public clouds integrated
system (CBIS) is a single set of hardware, software, databases, networks, people, and files from access by unauthorized users Embedded system: a computer system (including through networking. Organizations typically use the public cloud to run applications with
procedures. That are configured to collect, manipulate, store, and process data into a processor) implanted in and dedicated to the control of another device Popular OSs for less sensitive security requirements Runs more critical applications on the private portion
information. Operation,maintenance, and security system org’s technology infrastructure embedded systems Windows embedded Proprietary Linux-based systems: Sony’s Wii; and of the hybrid cloud Autonomic computing The ability of IT system to manage themselves
includes all the hardware, software, databases, networks, people, and procedures. That OSs in e-book readers, ATMs, smartphones, networking devices, and media players and adapt to changes in the computing environment, business policies, and operating
are configured to collect, manipulate, store, and process data into information Personal IS Middleware Software that allows different systems to communicate and exchange data objectives The goal: To create complex systems that run themselves, while keeping the
includes information systems that improve the productivity of individual users Group IS Can also be used as an interface between the Internet and private corporate systems system’s complexity invisible to the end user Addresses four key functions: Self-
includes information systems that improve communications and support collaboration Enterprise application integration (EAI): tying together of disparate applications Service- configuring, self-healing, self-optimizing, and self-protecting A network has many
among members of a workgroup Enterprise IS includes information systems that oriented architecture(SOA)software design approach using modules to provide specific fundamental components, which enable people to meet personal and organizational
organizations use to define structured interactions among their own employees and/or functions as services to other apps. Application software programs that help users solve objectives Together, the Internet and the World Wide Web provide a highly effective
external customers, suppliers, government agencies. Value chain: a series (of activities particular computing problems primary function To apply the power of the computer to infrastructure for delivering and accessing information and services Organizations are
that an organization performs to transform inputs into outputs. The value of the input is enable people, workgroups, and the entire enterprise to solve problems and perform using the Internet of Things (IoT) to capture and analyze streams of sensor data to detect
increased Innovation: the application of new ideas to the products, processes, and specific tasks Many software options are available Software can be selected that best patterns and anomalies in order to have a considerable impact on the event outcome
activities of a firm, leading to increased value. A catalyst for the growth and success of an meets the needs of the individual, workgroup, or enterprise Proprietary software: a one- Cloud computing provides access to state-of-the-art technology at a fraction of the cost of
organization. Can lead to cutting-edge products. New revenue streams. Increased profits. of-a-kind program for a specific application. Owned by the company, organization, or ownership and without the lengthy delays that can occur when an organization tries to
Sustaining innovation: results in enhancements to existing products, services, and ways of person that uses it Off-the-shelf software: software mass-produced by software vendors acquire its own resources Hierarchy of data: bits, characters, fields, records, files, and
operating Enable an organization to continually increase profits, lower costs, and gain Addresses needs that are common across businesses, organizations, or individuals databases bit (binary digit) represents a circuit that is either on or off A byte is made up of
market share Disruptive innovation: one that initially provides a lower level of Organizations typically use off-the-shelf software to meet common business needs and eight bits Each byte represents a character Field: a name, number, or combination of
performance than the marketplace has grown to accept Improved to provide new proprietary software to meet unique business needs and provide a competitive advantage characters that describes an aspect of a business object or activity Record: a collection of
performance characteristics Reengineering: process redesign and business process Software as a service (SaaS) Businesses subscribe to Web-delivered business application related data fields File: a collection of related records Database: a collection of integrated
reengineering (BPR). Involves the radical redesign of business processes, organi ational software. Vendors include Oracle, SAP, NetSuite, Salesforce, and Google Enterprise and related files Entity: a person, place, or thing for which data is collected, stored, and
structures, information systems, and values of the organization to achieve a breakthrough application software Software that benefits an entire organization. Helps managers and maintained Attribute: a characteristic of an entity Data item: the specific value of an
in business results. Continuous improvement: Constantly seeking ways to improve workers stay connected. Cost, installation and ability to integrate with other software are attribute Primary key: a field or set of fields that uniquely identifies the record Data
business processes and add value to products and services routin Lewin’s Change Model: major considerations in selecting this software. Usability on smartphones and mobile model: a diagram of data entities and their relationships Enterprise data modeling: data
Unfreezing: preparing for change Moving: making the change Refreezing: institutionalizing devices is also an important factor Network topology The shape or structure of a network, modeling done at the level of the entire enterprise Entity-relationship (ER) diagrams: data
Lewin’s Force Field Analysis: Identifies driving (positive) and restraining (negative) forces including the arrangement of the communications links and hardware devices on the models that use basic graphical symbols to show the organization, relationships between
that influence whether change can occur Driving forces: beliefs, expectations, and cultural network Star network: all network devices connect to one another through a single data Relational model: a simple but highly useful way to organize data into collections of
norms that tend to encourage a change and give it momentum Restraining forces: those central hube node. Bus network all network devices are connected to a common two-dimensional tables called relations Each row in the table represents an entity Each
that make it difficult to accept a change or to work to implement a change Leavitt’s backbone that serves as a shared communications medium. Mesh network: use multiple column represents an attribute of that entity Domain: range of allowable values for a data
Diamond: organizational system is made up of four main components people, tasks, access points to link a series of devices that speak to each other to form a network attribute Manipulating Data Selecting: eliminating rows according to certain criteria
structure,technology with interaction Organizational learning The adaptations and connection across a large area. A personal area network (PAN) supports the Projecting: eliminating columns in a table Joining: combining two or more tables Linking:
adjustments based on experience and ideas over time. Adjustments can require interconnection of information technology close to one person A local area network combining two or more tables through common data attributes to form a new table with
reengineering or can result from continuous improvement User Satisfaction and (LAN) connects computer systems and devices within a small area (e.g., an office or a only the unique data attributes Data Cleansing, data cleaning or data scrubbing The
Technology Acceptance: Technology acceptance model (TAM). Specifies the factors that home) A metropolitan area network (MAN) connects users and their devices in an area process of detecting and then correcting or deleting incomplete, incorrect, inaccurate,
can lead to better attitudes about the information system Diffusion of Innovation Theory that spans a campus or city wide area network (WAN) connects large geographic regions irrelevant records that reside in a database The cost of performing data cleansing can be
by E.M. Rogers Explains how a new idea or product gains acceptance and diffuses (or Computer equipment owned by the user Data communications equipment and quite high Different from data validation Which involves the identification of “bad data”
spreads) through a specific population or subset of an organization Shadow IT: to describe telecommunications links provided by various carriers and service providers and its rejection at the time of data entry SQL: a special-purpose programming language
the IS and solutions built and deployed by departments other than the information Communications may involve transborder data flow Client/Server Systems Client/server for accessing and manipulating data stored in a relational database. SQL databases
systems department. Enables business managers to quickly create highly innovative architecture features multiple computer platforms dedicated to special functions, e.g., conform to ACID properties: Atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability. 1986: SQL
solutions to real business problems and to test these solutions out Hardware components database management, printing, or communications A client is any computer that sends was adopted by ANSI as the standard query language for relational databases Database
include devices that perform: Input, Processing, Data storage, Output Central processing messages requesting services from the servers on the network A database server sends Activities Providing a user view of the database Creating and modifying the database
unit (CPU) components: Arithmetic/logic unit, the control unit, and the register areas. Part only the data that meets a specific query not the entire file Channel bandwidth: the rate Storing and retrieving data Manipulating the data and generating reports Schema: a
of the computer that sequences and executes instructions Memory: Provides the at which data is exchanged. Usually measured in bits/sec. Broadband communications: a description of the entire database. A schema can be part of the database or a separate
processor with a working storage area to hold program instructions and data Input/output relative term; a telecommunications system that can transmit data very quickly Guided schema file. The DBMS can reference a schema to find where to access the requested data
devices: Provide data and instructions to the computer and receives results from it (wired) transmission media: signals are guided along a solid medium Wireless: the signal in relation to another piece of data Data definition language (DDL) A collection of
Multiprocessing: Involves the simultaneous execution of two or more instructions at the is broadcast over airwaves as a form of electromagnetic radiation Wireless Technologies instructions and commands used to define and describe data and relationships in a
same time One form uses coprocessors Coprocessor Speeds processing by executing Wireless transmission involves the broadcast of communications in one of three frequency specific database. Allows the database’s creator to describe data and relationships that are
specific types of instructions while the CPU works on another processing activity like GPU. ranges Radio, microwave, or infrared frequencies In some cases, use of wireless to be contained in the schema Data dictionary: a detailed description of all the data used
Multicore processor Has two or more independent processing units, called cores Parallel communications is regulated The signal must be broadcast within a specific frequency in the database Can also include a description of data flows, information about the way
computing: The simultaneous execution of the same task on multiple processors range to avoid interference with other wireless transmissions Near field communication records are organized, and the data-processing requirements Storing and Retrieving Data
Massively parallel processing systems: Systems with thousands of such processors. Links (NFC): a very short-range wireless connectivity technology Designed for consumer When an application program needs data, it requests the data through the DBMS
hundreds or even thousands of processors to operate at the same time Grid computing: electronics, cell phones, and credit cards Wi-Fi A wireless telecommunications technology Concurrency control deals with the situation in which two or more users or applications
The use of a collection of computers that work in a coordinated manner to solve a brand owned by the Wi-Fi Alliance Employs a wireless access point (a transmitter with an need to access the same record at the same time Query by Example (QBE) is a visual
common problem Main memory: Provides the CPU with a working storage area for antenna) that receives the signal and decodes it Translates signals into a radio signal and approach to developing database queries or requests Data manipulation language (DML):
programs and data. Rapidly provides data and instructions to the CPU Types of RAM: sends it to device’s wireless adapter The area covered by one or more interconnected a specific language, provided with a DBMSAllows users to access and modify the data, to
Static random access memory (SRAM) used for high-speed registers and caches. Dynamic wireless access points is called a “hot spot” Microwave Transmission Microwave is a high- make queries, and to generate reports A DBMS can produce a wide variety of documents,
random access memory (DRAM) used for main memory. Double data rate synchronous frequency (300 MHz–300 GHz) signal sent through the air Common forms of satellite reports, and other output that can help organizations achieve their goals Database as a
dynamic random access memory (DDR SDRAM) DR2 SDRAM Read-only memory (ROM) is communications: Geostationary satellite Low earth orbit (LEO) satellite Hist: 1G (first Service (DaaS) The database is stored on a service provider’s servers The database is
nonvolatile. It provides permanent storage for data and instructions that do not change generation) of wireless communications standards: originated in the 1980s; based on accessed by the client over a network, typically the Internet Database administration is
Storage capacity Byte (B): eight bits that together represent a single character of data analog communications 2G (second generation) employed fully digital networks; handled by the service provider Amazon Relational Database Service DBMSs can act as
Secondary storage: Devices that store large amounts of data, instructions,information superseded 1G networks in the early1990s 3G supports wireless voice and broadband front-end or back-end applications Front-end applications interact directly with people
more permanently than allowed with memory Advantages over memory Nonvolatility speed data communications in a mobile environment at speeds of 2 to 4 Mbps 4G wireless Back-end applications interact with other programs or applications Big Data Extremely
Greater capacity Greater economy Secondary storage is not directly accessible by the provides increased data transmission rates 3 to 20 times the speed of 3G networks for large and complex data collections Traditional data management software, hardware, and
CPU Computers usually use input/output channels to access secondary storage and then mobile devices 4G networks are based on Long Term Evolution LTE is a standard for analysis processes are incapable of dealing with them 3 characteristics of big data Volume
transfer the desired data to intermediate areas in primary storage Most common forms: wireless communications for mobile phones based on packet switching 5G Expected Velocity Variety Data management An integrated set of functions that defines the
Magnetic (Tape, HDD) Optical (CD-ROM, Blu-ray) Solid state (SSD): Require less power and characteristics Higher data transmission rates Lower power consumption Higher connect processes by which data is obtained, certified fit for use, stored, secured, and processed in
provide faster access than magnetic data storage devices. Have no moving parts, so they reliability and more coverage Lower infrastructure costs Network operating system (NOS) such a way as to ensure that the accessibility, reliability, and timeliness of the data meet
are less fragile than hard disk drives Enterprise storage: Large secondary storage Storage Systems software that controls the computer systems and devices on a network Linux, the needs of the data users within an organization Data governance Defines the roles,
area networks (SANs) A high-speed, special-purpose network that integrates different UNIX, Windows Server, and Mac OS X are common NOSs Network-management software: responsibilities, and processes for ensuring that data can be trusted and used by an entire
types of data storage devices into a single storage system and connects that to computing Protects software from being copied, modified, or downloaded illegally Locates organizati Data warehouse: a large database that collects business information from many
resources across an entire organization Disk mirroring, data backup and restore, data telecommunications errors and potential network problems Mobile device management sources in the enterprise in support of management decision making ETL process: Extract
archiving, data migration from one storage device to another, and sharing data among (MDM) software Manages and troubleshoots mobile devices remotely, pushing out Transform Load Data mart: a subset of a data warehouse that is used by small- and
other devices Cloud computing storage Storage as a Service Amazon’s Elastic Compute applications, data, patches and settings A central control group can maintain group medium-sized businesses and departments within large companies tosupport decision
Cloud, Apple iCloud, Dropbox, Google Drive, Microsoft SkyDrive, and Mozy Input devices: policies for security, control system settings, ensure malware protection is in place for making Data lake: takes a “store everything” approach to big data, saving all the data in its
allow accurate and rapid entry. Magnetic Stripe Cards Chip Cards Smart Cards. Contactless mobile devices used across the network, and make it mandatory to use passwords to raw and unaltered form Also called an enterprise data hub Raw data is available when
Payment Cards. Point-of-Sale (POS) Devices. Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Devices. access the network Software-Defined Networking (SDN) An emerging approach to users decide just how they want to use the data Only when the data is accessed for a
Bar-Code Scanners. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Devices. Pen Input Devices. networking Allows network administrators to have programmable central control of the specific analysis is it extracted from the data lake NoSQL database Provides a means to
Touch Screens Output devices: produce timely results. Display Screens: Used to show network via a controller without requiring physical access to all the network devices store and retrieve data that is modeled using some means other than the simple two
output from the computer. Printers and Plotters. Two main types of printers: Laser, Inkjet Google is implementing Andromeda The underlying SDN architecture that will enable dimensional tabular relations used in relational databases. Ability to spread data over
Plotters are used for general design work: Blueprints, schematics, and drawings of Google’s cloud computing services to scale better, more cheaply and more quickly multiple servers so that each server contains only a subset of the total data. Don’t require
buildings 3D Printers Server: A computer employed by many users to perform a specific ARPANET Ancestor of the Internet Project started by the U.S. Department of Defense a predefined schema. Data structures are more flexible,can provide improved access
task, such as running network or Internet applications. Usually has special features that (DoD) in 1969 Internet Protocol (IP) enables computers to route communications traffic speed,redundancy Apache Hadoop An open-source software framework that includes
make it more suitable for operating in a multiuser environment Scalability: the ability to from one network to another Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): the widely used several software modules that provide a means for storing and processing extremely large
increase the processing capability. Enable the system to handle more users, more data, or transport layer protocol that most Internet applications use with IP IP address: a 64-bit data sets. A data processing component (MapReduce) A distributed file system (Hadoop
more transactions. Mainframe computer: a large, powerful computer shared by hundreds number that identifies a computer on the Internet Uniform Resource Locator (URL): a Distributed File System, HDFS) Apache Hadoop is a framework handles large datasets in a
of concurrent users connected to the machine over a network Supercomputers: one of Web address that specifies the exact location of a Web page using letters and words that distributed fashion. highly fault-tolerant and does not depend upon hardware to achieve
the most powerful computer systems with the fastest processing speed Server farm: a map to an IP address and a host location Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and high availability. is designed with a vision to look for the failures at the application layer.
room used to house a large number of servers. Access to the machines can be controlled Numbers (ICANN) is responsible for managing IP addresses and Internet domain names Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS): This stores files in a Hadoop-native format and
and authorized support personnel can more easily manage and maintain the servers Domain names must adhere to strict rules local area network (LAN) Internet service parallelizes them across a cluster. It manages the storage of large sets of data across a
Virtual server: a method of logically dividing the resources of a single physical server to provider (ISP) is any organization that provides Internet access to people You must have Hadoop Cluster. Hadoop can handle both structured and unstructured data. YARN: is Yet
create multiple logical servers. Each logical server acts as its own dedicated machine an account with the service provider along with software and devices that support a Another Resource Negotiator. It is a schedule that coordinates application
Green Computing: A program concerned with the efficient and environmentally connection via TCP/IP World Wide Web Consists of server and client software, the runtimes. MapReduce: It is the algorithm that actually processes the data in parallel to
responsible design, manufacture, operation, and disposal of IS-related products Goals: hypertext transfer protocol (http), standards, and markup languages that combine to combine the pieces into the desired result. Hadoop Common: It is also known as Hadoop
Reduce the use of hazardous material, Allow companies to lower their power-related deliver information and services over the Internet Hyperlink: highlighted text or graphics Core and it provides support to all other components it has a set of common libraries and
costs, Enable safe disposal or recycling of equipment Software: Consists of computer in a Web document that, when clicked, opens a new Web page Web browser: Web client utilities that all other modules depend on.Apache Spark is an open-source tool. It is
programs that control the workings of computer hardware System software: includes software used to view Web pages Web site: a collection of pages on one particular topic, focused on processing data in parallel across a cluster, but the biggest difference is that it
operating system (OS), utilities, and middleware that coordinate the activities and accessed under one Web domain Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): the standard page works in memory. It is designed to use RAM for caching and processing the data. Spark
functions of the hardware and other programs Types of systems software Operating description language for Web pages Tells the browser how to display font characteristics, performs different types of big data workloads: Batch processing. Real-time stream
systems Utility programs Middleware. Operating Systems A set of programs that controls paragraph formatting, page layout, image placement, hyperlinks, and the content of a processing. Machine learning. Graph computation. Interactive queries. In-memory
computer hardware and acts as an interface with application programs Combinations of Web page HTML tags tell the Web browser how to format text and elements to be database (IMDB) A database management system that stores the entire database in
OSs, computers, and users Single computer with a single user. Single computer with inserted Extensible Markup Language (XML): a markup language designed to transport random access memory (RAM) Provides access to data at rates much faster than storing
multiple simultaneous users Multiple computers with multiple users Special-purpose and store data on the Web Cascading Style Sheets (CSS): a file or portion of an HTML file data on some form of secondary storage Enables the analysis of big data and other
computers Kernel: The heart of the operating system. Controls the most critical processes that defines the visual appearance of content in a Web page Uses special HTML tags to challenging data-processing applications. Performs best on multiple multicore CPUs
of the OS. Ties all of the OS components together and regulates other programs Functions globally define characteristics for a variety of page elements as well as how those Relational Database A relational database uses relations or two-dimensional tables to
performed by the OS: Control common computer hardware functions Provide a user elements are laid out on the Web page XML The key to Web services Used within a Web store information. Functional Dependencies and Keys: There could be several candidate
interface and input/output management Provide a degree of hardware independence page to describe and transfer data between Web service applications Intranet: an internal keys, where one is picked to be the primary key Super key is a single key or a group of
Manage system memory Manage processing tasks Provide networking capability Control corporate network built using Internet and World Wide Web standards and technologies multiple keys that can uniquely identify tuples in a table. Candidate key is a single key or
access to system resources. Manage files Common Hardware Functions: Get input from Extranet: a network based on Web technologies that links resources of a company’s multiple keys that uniquely identify rows in a table. non-null. All Candidate keys are Super
keyboard or another input device Retrieve data from disks Store data on disks Display intranet with its customers, suppliers, or other business partners Virtual private network keys. id -> first_name, last_name, age, gender (id), (id, first_name)…All tuples with id are
information on a monitor or printer User Interface and Input/Output Management A user (VPN): A secure connection between two points on the Internet Tunneling: the process by super key. Simplest super key is id which is candidate key. And all other tuples without id
interface allows individuals to access and interact with the computer system A command- which VPNs transfer information by encapsulating traffic in IP packets over the Internet are not super key Primary key is the Candidate key selected by the database administrator
based user interface requires text commands A graphical user interface (GUI) The user Internet of Things (IoT) A network of physical objects (things) embedded with sensors, to uniquely identify tuples in a table. Alternate keys are those candidate keys which are
interacts with icons and menus to send commands to the computer system Hardware processors, software, and network connectivity capability to enable them to exchange not the Primary key. Foreign key is an attribute which is a Primary key in its parent
Independence Application program interface (API): a set of programming instructions and data with the manufacturer of the device, device operators, and other connected devices table,but is included as an attribute in another host table. accept non-unique and null
standards for one software program to access and use the services of another software Sensor: a device that is capable of sensing something about its surroundings such as values. Composite key is a Candidate key or Primary key that consists of more than one
program Hardware independence allows software development without concern for the Pressure, temperature, humidity, pH level, motion, vibration, or level of light Cloud attribute. There can be multiple Super keys and Candidate keys in a table, but there can
specific underlying hardware Memory Management Allows the computer to execute computing: a computing environment in which software and storage are provided as an be only one Primary key in a table. One-to-one relationship, one record in a table is
program instructions effectively and to speed processing Virtual memory: hard disk space Internet service and accessed with a Web browser Advantages to businesses: Businesses associated with one and only one record in another table.
is allocated to supplement the immediate, functional memory capacity of RAM Processing can save on system design, installation, and maintenance Increased efficiency and reduce one-to-many relationship or many-to-one, one record in a table can be associated with
Tasks: Five basic task management techniques Multiuser: allows two or more users to run the costs of new product and service launches Employees can access corporate systems one or more records in another table. each customer can have many sales orders. many-
to-many relationship occurs when multiple records in a table are associated with multiple the affected rows are released; the rows are now available for other users to
records in another table. customers can purchase various products, and products can be SELECT last_name, job_id perform new data changes. All savepoints are erased.
purchased by many customers. you can break the many-to-many relationship into FROM employees
two one-to-many relationships by using a third table, called a join table. First normal WHERE job_id DELETE FROM departments
form (1-NF): Table attributes must contain single values. Each record must be unique
NOT IN ('IT_PROG', 'ST_CLERK', 'SA_REP') ; WHERE department_id IN (290, 300);
Second normal form (2-NF): Be in 1-NF. Remove subsets of data belonging to multiple
rows and place them in separate tables (No partial dependency) id + name primary. the
phone only depends on id, and has nothing to do with name. This is Partial Dependency, SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date UPDATE employees
where an attribute in a table depends on only a part of the primary key and not on the FROM employees SET department_id = 80
whole key. Third normal form (3-NF) already in the second normal form and the columns ORDER BY hire_date DESC ; WHERE employee_id = 206;
of the table/entity are non-transitively dependent on the primary key. in 3-NF if its COMMIT; (kalıcı kaydet)
functional dependencies in the form X -> A satisfy one of the following conditions. X is a SELECT department_id, department_name, location_id, city
superkey A is a prime attribute functionally dependent when an attribute or column of a FROM departments State of the Data After ROLLBACK Discard all pending changes by using the
table uniquely identifies another attribute(s) or column(s) of the same table transitive NATURAL JOIN locations ; ROLLBACK statement, Data changes are undone. The previous state of the data is
dependency City column is dependent on ZIPCode column and ZIPCode column is restored. Locks on the affected rows are released.
dependent on ID.It is called transitive dependency of City column on ID i.e. the primary
SELECT employee_id, last_name, location_id, department_id DELETE FROM copy_emp;
key. Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) should be in Third Normal Form. for any
dependency A → B, (b depends on a) A should be a super key Purpose of
FROM employees JOIN departments ROLLBACK ;
Normalization:is to reduce the data redundancy i.e. the data should only be stored once. USING (department_id) ;
This is to avoid any data anomalies that could arise when we attempt to store the same SELECT employee_id, salary, commission_pct, job_id
data in two different tables, but changes are applied only to one and not to the other. SELECT e.employee_id, e.last_name, e.department_id, FROM employees
Denormalization: is a technique to increase the performance of the database. This d.department_id, d.location_id WHERE job_id = 'SA_REP'
technique adds redundant data to the database, contrary to the normalized database that FROM employees e JOIN departments d FOR UPDATE; (Locks the rows in the EMPLOYEES table where job_id is SA_REP.)
removes the redundancy of the data. This is done in huge databases where executing a ON (e.department_id = d.department_id); Lock is released only when you issue a ROLLBACK or a COMMIT.
JOIN to get data from multiple tables is an expensive affair. Thus, redundant data are
stored in multiple tables to avoid JOIN operations. The relational model consists of: SELECT employee_id, city, department_name TRUNCATE TABLE copy_emp; (Removes all rows from a table, leaving the table
Collection of objects or relations Set of operators to act on the relations Data integrity for
FROM employees e empty and the table structure intact)
accuracy and consistency collection of relations or two-dimensional tables. Data Models:
JOIN departments d
Models are the cornerstone of design. Engineers build a model of a car to work out any
details before putting it into production. In the same manner, system designers develop ON d.department_id = e.department_id
models to explore ideas and improve the understanding of database design. Models help JOIN locations l
communicate the concepts that are in people’s minds. can be used to Communicate ON d.location_id = l.location_id;
Categorize Describe Specify Investigate Evolve Analyze Imitate The objective is to produce
a model that fits a multitude of these uses, can be understood by an end user, and SELECT worker.last_name emp, manager.last_name mgr
contains sufficient detail for a developer to build a database system. Entity Relationship FROM employees worker JOIN employees manager
Model In an effective system, data is divided into discrete categories or entities. An entity ON (worker.manager_id = manager.employee_id); self join
relationship (ER) model is an illustration of the various entities in a business and the
relationships among them. An ER model is derived from business specifications or
SELECT e.last_name, e.salary, j.grade_level
narratives and built during the analysis phase of the system development life cycle. ER
FROM employees e JOIN job_grades j
models separate the information required by a business from the activities performed
within the business. Although businesses can change their activities, the type of ON e.salary
information tends to remain constant. Therefore, the data structures also tend to be BETWEEN j.lowest_sal AND j.highest_sal;
constant. Benefits: Documents information for the organization in a clear, precise format
Provides a clear picture of the scope of the information requirement Provides an easily SELECT e.last_name, e.department_id, d.department_name
understood pictorial map for database design Offers an effective framework for FROM employees e LEFT OUTER JOIN departments d
integrating multiple applications Key Components Entity: An aspect of significance about ON (e.department_id = d.department_id) ;
which information must be known. Examples are departments, employees, and orders: This query retrieves all rows in the EMPLOYEES table, which is the left table, even CREATE TABLE hire_dates
Singular, unique entity name Entity name in uppercase Soft box Optional synonym names if there is no match in the DEPARTMENTS table. (id NUMBER(8),
in uppercase within parentheses: ( ) Attribute: Something that describes or qualifies an hire_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);
entity. For example, for the employee entity, the attributes would be the employee
SELECT last_name, department_name
number, name, job title, hire date, department number, and so on. Each of the attributes CREATE TABLE dept
is either required or optional. This state is called optionality. Singular name in lowercase FROM employees
CROSS JOIN departments ; (deptno INT UNSIGNED,
Asterisk (*) tag for mandatory attributes (that is, values that must be known) Letter “o”
dname VARCHAR(14),
tag for optional attributes (that is, values that may be known) Relationship: A named
association between entities showing optionality and degree. Examples are employees SELECT concat(worker.last_name,' works for ‘, loc VARCHAR(13),
and departments, and orders and items A label: for example, taught by or assigned to An manager.last_name) create_date DATE DEFAULT (CURRENT_DATE));
optionality: either must be or maybe A degree: either one and only one or one or more A FROM employees worker, employees manager
unique identifier (UID) is any combination of attributes or relationships, or both, that WHERE worker.manager_id = manager.employee_id; self join primary key enforces the uniqueness of the column and no null.
serves to distinguish occurrences of an entity. Each entity occurrence must be uniquely
identifiable. Tag each attribute that is part of the UID with a hash sign (#). Tag secondary INSERT INTO departments(department_id, department_name, manager_id, CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
UIDs with a hash sign in parentheses (#). Guidelines for Primary Keys and Foreign Keys REFERENCES departments(department_id),
location_id)
You cannot use duplicate values in a primary key. Primary keys generally cannot be
changed. Foreign keys are based on data values and are purely logical (not physical) VALUES (70, 'Public Relations', 100, 1700);
FOREIGN KEY: Defines the column in the child table at the table-constraint level
pointers. A foreign key value must match an existing primary key value or unique key
SYSDATE function records the current date and time REFERENCES: Identifies the table and column in the parent table
value, otherwise it must be null. A foreign key must reference either a primary key or a
unique key column. Structured query language (SQL) is: The ANSI standard language for
ON DELETE CASCADE: Deletes the dependent rows in the child table when a row
operating relational databases Efficient, easy to learn, and use Functionally complete INSERT INTO sales_reps(id, name, salary, commission_pct) in the parent table is deleted
(With SQL, you can define, retrieve, and manipulate data in the tables.) user’s request. SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, commission_pct ON DELETE SET NULL: Converts dependent foreign key values to null
Data definition language (DDL) CREATE ALTER DROP RENAME TRUNCATE COMMENT. Data FROM employees
manipulation language (DML) SELECT INSERT UPDATE DELETE MERGE WHERE job_id LIKE '%REP%'; (Copying Rows from Another Table) CREATE TABLE employees
(... salary NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT emp_salary_min
SELECT * UPDATE employees CHECK (salary > 0),
FROM departments; Selecting All Columns SET department_id = 50
WHERE employee_id = 113; (Updating Rows in a Table) CREATE TABLE dept80
Null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned, unknown, or inapplicable. Null is AS
not the same as zero or a blank space. Arithmetic expressions containing a null UPDATE employees SELECT employee_id, last_name,
value evaluate to null. SET job_id = (SELECT job_id salary*12 ANNSAL,
Column Alias Immediately follows the column name (There can also be the FROM employees hire_date
optional AS keyword between the column name and alias.) WHERE employee_id = 205), FROM employees
Requires double quotation marks if it contains spaces or special characters, or if it salary = (SELECT salary WHERE department_id = 80; (Creating a Table Using a Subquery)
is case-sensitive FROM employees
WHERE employee_id = 205) ALTER TABLE employees ADD birthdate date; (Add a new column)
SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm WHERE employee_id = 113; (Updating Two Columns with a Subquery) ALTER TABLE employees MODIFY last_name varchar(50); (Modify an existing
FROM employees; column definition)
UPDATE copy_emp ALTER TABLE locations ALTER city SET DEFAULT ’İstanbul’; (Define a default value
SELECT concat(last_name,job_id) AS "Employees" SET department_id = (SELECT department_id for the new column)
FROM employees; FROM employees ALTER TABLE employees DROP COLUMN birthdate; (to drop a column)
WHERE employee_id = 100) ALTER TABLE employees RENAME COLUMN birthdate TO birth_date; (Rename a
SELECT concat(last_name,' is a ‘,job_id) WHERE job_id = (SELECT job_id column)
AS "Employee Details" FROM employees ALTER TABLE employees MODIFY first_name VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL; (Add a new
FROM employees; WHERE employee_id = 200); (Updating Rows Based on Another constraint)
Table) ALTER TABLE employees1 ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY
SELECT DISTINCT department_id (employee_id); (Add a new constraint (PK)
FROM employees; DELETE FROM departments ALTER TABLE employees
WHERE department_name = ‘Finance'; ADD CONSTRAINT fk_emp_dept
DESCRIBE employees FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
DELETE FROM employees REFERENCES departments(department_id);
SELECT last_name WHERE department_id = ALTER TABLE employees1 DROP CHECK emp_salary_min; (Drop a constraint)
FROM employees (SELECT department_id ALTER TABLE employees1 DROP PRIMARY KEY;
WHERE hire_date = ‘1996-02-17' ; FROM departments ALTER TABLE employees RENAME TO employees2; (Rename a Table)
WHERE department_name DROP TABLE dept80;
SELECT last_name, salary LIKE '%Public%'); (Deleting Rows Based on Another Table)
FROM employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500; With COMMIT and ROLLBACK statements, you can: Ensure data consistency
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id Preview data changes before making changes permanent Group logically-related
FROM employees operations
WHERE manager_id IN (100, 101, 201) ; Discard the DELETE operation (ROLLBACK;)

% denotes zero or many characters. UPDATE...

_ denotes one character. SAVEPOINT update_done;
SELECT first_name INSERT...
FROM employees ROLLBACK TO update_done;
WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%' ;
Before COMMIT or ROLLBACKThe previous state of the data can be recovered.
SELECT last_name, manager_id The current user can review the results of the DML operations by using the
FROM employees SELECT statement. Other users cannot view the results of the DML statements
WHERE manager_id IS NULL ; issued by the current user. The affected rows are locked; other users cannot
change the data in the affected rows.
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary State of the Data After COMMIT: Make all pending changes permanent by using
FROM employees the COMMIT statement. The previous state of the data is no longer available with
WHERE salary >= 10000 normal SQL queries. All users can view the results of the transaction. The locks on
AND job_id LIKE '%MAN%' ;