·

prefixes ·
Motion Formulas

giga 109 micro 10-6 1 . v = u + at

mega
10 Nano 10-9 2 .
S = u+ + a+ 2

kilo 103 centi 10-3 3 . s =

103
%
milli deci 10

·
Scalar and Vector
-
Scalar

length ,
mass, time , temperature speed , ,
work ,
distance

Vector

force , velocity displacement

, ,
acceleration , momentum , torque

mechanics
·

Distance 2
. 3
Speed
1.
Displacement .

↳
speed x time (d = sxt) ↳ velocity x time (d vxt) = L distance/time (v =
&)
↳ meter (m) ↳ meter (m) ↳ m/s
4.
Velocity 5
. Acceleration

↳ displacement/time (v E) = ↳ change in velocity/time (acc = )

↳ m/s ↳ m/s ?

↳ change in velocity of a body per unit time

. Distance
6 time graph 7
Speed-time graph
-

represents speed ↳ represents acceleration

deceleration : negative change in

decreasing -
acc
velocity per unit time
-
D constant
stationary deceleration
-
D increasing acc

constant v = oac

constant
constant acc
Speed
time time

9
8
. Mass .
weight
↳ force/acceleration (m = ) ↳ massx gravity (w mg) =

↳
kg (measured with balance) ↳ N (measured with spring balance/scale)
↳ quantity of matter possessed by a by force
body of gravity acting on a body in a downward direction

10
.
Density
↳ mass/volume (d =* ) 11 .
Moment 12
. Equilibrium
↳ kg/m3 or g/cm3 L force x distance (m fd) = ↳ no net force

↳ Nm L no net moment
↳
principle = DCw =
Acw (F , l =
Fz(z)
13
. Momentum 14 .
Impulse
↳ massx velocity (p mv) = ↳ force xAt (Ap fxAt)
=

↳ kgm/s or NIs ↳
change in momentum

↳ principle : before collision = after collision (m ,

V
1 =
maV)

15 . Work done 16 . Kinetic energy

↳ force x
displacement (w = f x d) L Exmassx(velocity(2 (KE Emv2) =

↳ Joule (1) ↳
energy possessed by a
body due to its
motion
↳ work = 0 if fd =

17
. Gravitational potential energy 18
. Efficiency
Ly massx gravity x height (EPE mgh)
= L
output/input x 100 %
. Power
19 20
. Pressure

L work done/time (p E) = ↳ force/area (P =E

)
↳ energy/time (P = El ↳ density X gravity x height (P Sgh)
=

↳ Watt (w) or J/s ↳ N/m2 or Pa

21 . Centre of mass 22 . Centre of gravity

)
↳
where all LD where all
point mass can be considered to be concentrated point the weight acts on

Thermal
·

Properties
-

Absolute zero

↳ Okelvin = -273 C
°

↳ the lowest
possible temperature where particles have the least amount of kinetic
energy

Specific Heat Capacity

-

L C= T

J/kg
·
↳ C

↳y
amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of Ikg mass through 10

Specific Latent Heat

-

↳ ( = (m =
mass of gas)
L J/k9
↳y amount of heat
energy needed to change the state of Ikg of a substance
 ·
Thermal Processes

I . Conduction

↳ transfer of thermal
energy in solids and liquids
↳ the delocalised electrons in metal
a can leave the atoms and more
freely among positive ions .

as the metal is heated the

, particles vibrate and collide with other particles and transfer heat energy

from hotter to colder parts

.
2 Convection

↳ transfer of thermal energy in fluids

)
↳
when part of fluid is heated, molecules with more kinetic energy (push) and expands
a move , causing it to

. The less dense particles will rise

dense particles will fall down to take its
become less
up , denser place .

.
3 Radiation

↳)
emission of thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves

↳ dull and black surfaces absorbs best

Thermocouple
·

/causes current)
2) used for
high temperatures which varies
rapidly

T# water
to determine t of metal
cools down to room
as ia

temperature

·
Liquid-in-glass Thermometer

↳ features
necessary for linearity i) : bore of constant cross-sectional area

ii) amount of expansion =

temperature on scale

L to increase
range
: i) wider bore/tube

ii) larger stem

& to i) bigger
increase sensitivity : bulb-b larger liquid reservoir

ii) narrower bore/tube

·
Refractive index

i) air glass (rarer to denser)

to
= [t +x] towards normal
=

ii) glass to air (denser to rarer) = [N =* X] away from normal

iii) n = E (c = 3 0
.
x 108m/s)
-
Total internal reflection

↳ when
light is reflected instead of refracted when moving from denser to rarer medium

↳ i) OC
 -
Critical angle
L the largest angle of incidence at which refracted makes 900 with the normal
angle
b =

Sinc
·
Lenses

1 .
Converging/Convex Lens

↳ to correct
long-sightedness (light rays brought to focus behind retinal
axis of lens

raelray !
·

- object/image
s
-

if , image is real

crefinal if
-

object is on focus, no image

principal
focus (FS if object
>

axis
-

beyond 2F, image is diminished (blur)

- - - - - - - - - - principal

I
I
-

Y
-
Y

!
-
Y

#) focal length (corneal

2 .
Diverging/Concave Lens
↳ to correct short-sightedness (light rays are brought to focus before reaching retinal
L always virtual ,
diminished, upright

-
parallel rays

>
----
-

principal

-
focus

-
----------principal axis
-

- - -

-
-
I
-----
- I-
>

Y -

(f focal
length ! -
·
General Waves

Transverse Waves (P Waves)

↳ perpendicular
↳
electromagnetic waves , water waves

Longitudinal Waves (Swaves)

↳ parallel
↳b sound waves
, slinky spring
-
Formula

(v = fxX

↳ f= no of waves/time taken
·
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Gamma Rays
X-Rays
UV Rays increase in frequency
Visible Light increase in energy
Infrared Radiation decrease in wavelength
Microwaves

Radio waves

.
1
Radio Waves

L used in RFID
,
to transmit TV & radio signals ,
radio a stronomy
↳ least
frequency -b diffracts more

.
2 Microwaves

↳ used in satellites ,
ovens
, phone communication
L
produced by oscillating electrons in wires

↳ danger damage living

:
tissue

3
. Infrared Radiation
)
↳
used in TV remote controls, cooking, thermal alarms, optical fibres
↳
danger :
skin burns
4. Visible Light
↳ the only radiation visible to human
.
5 UV Rays
↳ used in detect take banknotes , sterilise water
phototherapy ,

↳
danger harmful towards eye
:
and skin (cancer)
6 .

X-Rays
L used in X-ray camera photographic plate security ,
cameras

↳ danger harm :
developing cells
7 .
Gamma Rays
) astronomy sterilisation radiotherapy
↳ used in , ,

L danger : kill live cells, create mutations, cause cancer

.
8 Analogue Signal
↳ can be at
any range and varies continuously
9
. Digital Signal
L (off/on)
signal has fixed levels -
1 and O

↳ easier to transmit and receive without errors

·
Sound waves

↳ medium to travel
requires a

↳>
travels fastest in solids (5130m/s in steel, 343m/s in air)
↑ amplitude = louder

↑ ↑ pitch
frequency =

Ultrasound

↳ sounds above 20000 Hz

L used to measure distances, sonar, medical scanning, andlyse materials for damage

Electrical Quantities
·

1 . current 2 . EMF 3
. Potential Difference (v)
↳
charge/time (I ) = ↳ Work
done/charge (E = ) ↳
energy/charge (V =)
)
↳
↳ current
phenomena that enables charge to flow x resistance [V =
IR)

L
placed parallel to component
(DiodeIDF)
↳ Graphs of
PD I
. Resistance
5 6
. Rectification

↳ ↳ AC
signal to DC signal (only 50%

-
V
·

L R= E

T
~ W V

-T1- or wire filament lamp diode

I ⑨

red + -
back

all current go to (t) terminal

.
7 Electrical Power .
8 Energy dissipation
↳ P = IV LD E = IVt

↳
Components (Energy loss) : p =* or P =
=R ↳ kilowatthour

·
Electrical Circuits

-
series Circuit -
Potential Dividers

↳ I total = [l = 12 =
13 ↳
↳ Rtotal =
R , + Rz + R3 ↳ Vout =
(2) E(E =
battery V
↳ Vtotal =
V, + Vz + V3 -

Potentiometer

-
Parallel Circuit ↳ Vout =
Cac E
LD I total = Fi + Iz + 13

↳total
=
+ +
3

L Vtotal = Vi =
Vz =
V3
 Electromagnetic Effects
·

-
AC Generator

↳ Converts ME to EE in the form of AC

↳b
components slip rings
:
,
carbon brushes

↳ when coil rotates inside the

permanent ,
rate of flux changes .

according to faraday's law of EM Induction , rate of in flux will induce EMF in the coil then
change ,

give continuous EMF to the voltmer, which will then produce current
>
-

↳ induced EF is when coil with B

greatest is
parallel
-
DC Motor

↳
Converts EE to KE

L commutator
components : split-ring
↳ direct current runs through the wire and experiences a force exerted on it by a B.
This causes

the coil of the wire to turn and produce DC .

current

-
Transformer

↳ Step up electrical leaves station

: to ↑V and reduce ↓ current of
supply as it

(Power
Station) ↑ no of coils in s

↳ down to ↓V and * current to be

step used in homes
:

(Power Station) ↓ no of coils ins

↳ induced EMF in secondary coil is due to the change in flux in primary coils

*
·
Electrical Safety
-
Hazards
earth /safety feature to prevent electrocution
↳
·
damaged insulation
I ~ neutral (completes the full circuit)
↳
overheating of cables and appliances
↑

&live (carries current)

↳ overloading sockets

↳
damp conditions
safety devices
-

I . Fuse

↳ protects circuit by melting wire (blows) when there is too much current and breaks the circuit, which

turns off the device

2
.
Earthing metal cases

↳ earth wire
provides path for current to flow to the ground to reduce likelihood of it flowing through person
↳ prevent lethal shock if a fault makes the case live
3
.
Trip switch
↳
opens a switch to break circuit when it detects rapid flow of current between live and neutral wires

↳ takes short time to burn through the wire , no need to be

replaced

·
Radioactive Decay
1 .
Alpha X
↳ EX + =Y + EX
↳ highly ionizing weakly penetrating slightly
, , defected by fields

Beta-D
2
.

+ Y + iP -

L and
mildly ionizing penetrating greatly ,
defected by fields
↳ neutron that turns into
a a proton and emits a bet a particle
3
. Gamma V
↳ not deflected
lowly ionizing and highly penetrating , by fields

Space Physics
·

Speed of Earth

L V 365x24x60x60
T
=
=

-
1 light-year = 9 .
5x10'm
Life cycle of a star
-

nebula (cloud of hydrogen dust

Stellar
and

Protostar (H nuclei as fuel => nuclear fusion)

1
Massive Star Average star (stable)
↓ ↓
Red supergiant Red giant (run out of H)
louter layers expand
↓ ↓
Supernova Planetary nebula (layers of dust and gas)
(may form new S1)
(explosion) ↓
↓ White dwarf
Neutron star
and
Black hole

-
Red Shift
L when stars and
galaxies move away causing
, in observed wavelength (+ W =
f)
L universe is
expanding =D Big Bang Theory
-
Hubble Constant
↳ Ho =
v =
Hoxd(V(d)
Ho =
pers(s)
18
Ho = 2 . 2 x 10-

Age of the Universe

-

F =A
↳

Lb = seconds
Ho

↳ . 7 billion
13
approx =
years

# =

z
. 2x10 +8
= 4 .
54x10s

4
. 54x1017s = 14 billion years old
365x24x60x60