Swedish College of Engineering & Technology

Rahim Yar Khan

Civil Engineering Department

Lab File
Transportation Engineering Lab (CE-421L)

Semester- 7th (Fall-2023)

Session 2020

Prepared by: Engr.Noshad Ali Shah

Instructor:Engr.Noshad Ali Shah
 Table of Contents
Subject Name: Transportation Engineering

Subject Code: CE-421L

Page/Annexure
Sr. No. Contents
No.

1 Introduction and Course Learning Outcomes

2 List of Experiments with CLO and PLO Mapping

Learning Methodology
3 Grade Evaluation Criteria
Recommended Text Book and Reference Books

4 .List of Equipment

5 Lab Rubrics

6 Results

2
1. Introduction
Transportation engineering or transport engineering is the application of technology and
scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable,
convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods
transport.

1. LIST OF Course Learning outcome:

CLO# Domain Level CLOs PLO

P1 To recognize the equipment used to perform various tests related to

CLO:1 (Limitation) aggregates and bitumen.
1

P4 To practice the laboratory experiments related to aggregates and

CLO:2 4
(Precision) bitumen

P4
CLO:3 To execute the mix design for bitumen concrete to be used in roads. 4
(Articulation)

P3 To demonstrate material characterization and existing laboratory

CLO:4 (Apply) equipments for the characterization of aggregates and
1

RELEVANT PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES (PLOs):

The course is designed so that students will achieve the following PLOs:

1 Engineering Knowledge:  7 Environment and Sustainability: ☐

2 Problem Analysis: ☐ 8 Ethics: ☐
3 Design/Development of Solutions: ☐  9 Individual and Team Work: ☐
4 Investigation:  10 Communication: ☐
5 Modern Tool Usage: ☐  11 Project Management: ☐

6 The Engineer and Society: ☐ 12 Lifelong Learning: ☐

3
 List of Experiments with CLO and PLO Mapping
Experiment No. and Name CLO Domain Level PLO
Gradation, Flakiness Index & P4
Experiment.01 CLO-2 4
Elongation Index of Aggregates (Precision)
Angularity number of Crush
Experiment.02 CLO-2 P4 4
aggregate. (Precision)
Specific Gravity & Water Absorption P4
Experiment.03 CLO-2 4
of Coarse Aggregate. (Precision)
Los Angeles Abrasion Test on Coarse P4
Experiment.04 CLO-2 (Precision)
4
Aggregate.

Experiment.05 Skid Resistance Test. CLO-2 P4 4

(Precision)
Penetration Value of a Bitumen
Experiment.06 CLO-2 P4 4
sample. (Precision)
Ductility and Viscosity on Bitumen P4
Experiment.07 CLO-2 (Precision)
4
sample.

Experiment.08 Flash Point of Bitumen sample. CLO-2 P4 4

(Precision)
4. Articulation
Specific Gravity and Softening Point
Experiment.09 CLO-3 4
of a Bitumen Sample.
4. Articulation
Marshall Stability Test for Mix
Experiment.10 CLO-3 4
Design.

Psychomotor Domain Levels

P1 (PERCEPTION) - The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory
stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.

P3 (GUIDED RESPONSE) - The early stages of learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial
and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

P4 (MECHANISM) - This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. The student should be able
to execute the motor activity with some confidence.

2. Learning Methodology
The methodology is based on experiment/practical/lab performance, Interactive and
Participative approach. There are following three modes:

i. Pre-Lab: Reading the Lab manual for relevant experiment and watching relevant practical
Videos
ii. In-Lab: Practical performance according to the designated timetable

4
 iii. Post Lab: Quiz, viva, and short performance tasks at the end of the lab

Grade Evaluation Criteria

Following is the criteria for the distribution of marks to evaluate final grade in a semester.

Marks Evaluation Marks in percentage

Quiz-I 30%
Assignment-I 20%
Manual 20%
Psychomotor 15%
Viva 15%
Quiz-I 30%
Total 100%

Recommended Text Books:

• J. H. Banks (1998), An Introduction to Transportation Engineering, McGraw Hill
International
• C. J Khisty and B. K Lall (2003), Transportation Engineering, Printice Hall International
• Robert Horenjeff; Airport Planning and Design
• Pakistan Railways Ways and Works Manual
• Satish Chandra and M.M Agarwal Railway Engineering

5
 Swedish College of Engineering & Technology Rahim Yar Khan

Civil Engineering Department

3. Pre-Lab: List of experiments with relevant equipment and video links/QR codes
Transportation Engineering Lab (CE-421L)
(List of Experiments with apparatus & video QR code)

Lab/Experiment Apparatus Video QR Code

• Flakiness Index Gauge

1) Gradation, Flakiness Index & Elongation Index of
• Elongation Index Gauge
Aggregate • Aggregate Sample

• Metallic Cylinder
• Temping Rod
2) Angularity Number Test of Aggregate • Metallic Scoop
• Weighing Balance

• Wire Basket
• Oven
3) Specific Gravity & Water absorption test on Coarse
• Water Tank
Aggregate • Weighing Balance
• Tray
 • Weighing Balance
• Set of Sieves
4) Los Angelos Abrasion Test on Coarse Aggregate • Los Angelos Testing
Machine
• Abrasive Charges

• Skid Resistance Tester

5) Measuring Surface Fractional properties by using Skid
• Measuring Scale
Resistance Test • Surface Thermometer

• Penetrometer Machine
6) Penetration Test on Bituminous Material • Bitumen Sample

• Bariquet Mold
• Ductility Machine
7) Ductility & Viscosity on Bitumen Sample • Thermometer
• Stop Watch

8) Flash Point of Bitumen sample. • Test Cup

• Heating Plate
• Test Flame Applicator
• Heater
• Thermometer Support
• Heating Plate Support
• Shield
• Thermometer

6
 • Ring Ball
• Ball centering guide
9) Specific Gravity and Softening Point of a Bitumen • Ring Holder
Sample. • Brass Pouring plate
• Water Bath
• Thermometers

• Specimen Mould
Assembly
• Specimen Extractor
Compaction Hammer
• Compaction Pedestal
• Specimen Mould Holders
• Breaking Head
10) Marshall Stability Test for Mix Design. • Loading Machine
• Ring Dynamometer
Assembly
• Flow Meter
• Oven or Hot Plates
• Mixing Apparatus
• Water Bath

Lab Engineer: ------------------------ Lab Coordinator: -----------------------------

--

7
 Swedish College of Engineering & Technology
Rahim Yar Khan

Civil Engineering Department

4. Lab Rubrics
Subject: Transportation Engineering Subject Code: CE-421

Semester: 7th Session:

LAB EXPERIMENT #

Name: ______________ Roll No: _____________

Lab Instructor’s Signature: ______________ Date: ______________

Domain CLOs PLOs Criteria Excellent Good Satisfactory Score

(4.0) (3.0) (2.0)
Demonstrates an Demonstrates Demonstrates
ability to some ability to minimal or no
interpret most interpret ability to
1 1 P1 mathematical and mathematical and interpret
(Imitation) scientific terms scientific terms mathematical and
correctly. correctly. scientific terms
correctly.
Selects/develops Selects/develops Minimal or no
Psychomotor

an appropriate a methodology or ability to

methodology or theoretical select/develop a
2 4 P3
theoretical framework that is methodology or
(Precision)
framework. somewhat theoretical
appropriate. framework.
Selects/develops Selects/develops Minimal or no
an appropriate a methodology or ability to
methodology or theoretical select/develop a
3 4 P4 theoretical framework that is methodology or
(Articulation) framework. somewhat theoretical
appropriate. framework.
Obtained marks out of 09

8
Experiment No:1
Determination of the Flakiness Index for Aggregate Sample
1.1 Objectives
This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each particle shape being
preferred under specific conditions.

1.2 Apparatus:
➢ Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge
➢ Aggregate sample to be tested

Flakiness Index Gauge

9
1.3 Related Theory:
1.3.1 Types of Particles
The usual shapes of the particles are;

➢ Rounded (river gravel)

➢ Flaky (laminated rock)
➢ Elongated
➢ Angular ( crushed rock)

1.3.2 Flaky
➢ A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6 times the
meansize.
➢ These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the
other twodimensions.
➢ Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than
30%then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.

Flaky Particles

1.3.3 Flakiness Index

It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample

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1.3.4 Significance of Flakiness Index
The significance of flakiness index is as follows;
➢ The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.
➢ Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the flaky particles lower the
workability ofconcrete mixes.
➢ Flaky particles are considered undesirable for base coarse construction as they may
causeweakness with possibilities of braking down under heavy loads.
➢ BS-1241 specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of the
aggregatesize.

1.4 Applicability
Flakiness tests are not applicable to sizes smaller then 6.3mm i.e. ¼’’ sieve.

1.5 Procedure
➢ Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample
➢ The aggregates are then arranged in the into a number of closely limited particle size
groups stored on the test sieves into a number of closely limited particle size groups
–2
½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’

➢ Each group (fraction) is weighed and tested for thickness on appropriate opening
of thethickness gauge by passing each particle through slot of specified thickness
along leastdimension.
➢ The weight of particles passing the thickness gauge is recorded for each fraction.
This isthe weight of flaky particles.
➢ The flakiness index is calculated by expressing the weight of flaky particles
as apercentage of total weight of the sample.

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1.6 Observation and Calculation

Weight of Individual Weighted

Flaky Flakiness Flakiness
Weight Percentage Particles Index Index
Retained Retained
Sieve Size

Passing Retained (gm) (%) (gm) (%) (%)

(in.) (in.)

2 1½ 2007.8 22.52 80.5 4.01 0.9

1½ 1 2926.4 32.83 853.1 29.15 9.6

1 ¾ 2177.7 24.43 585.6 26.89 6.57

¾ ½ 1076.2 12.07 291.7 27.1 3.27

½ 8-Mar 460.2 5.16 155.5 33.79 1.74

8-Mar ¼ 211.8 2.38 88.3 41.69 0.99

¼ Pan 53.4 0.6

Σ= 8913.5 Σ= 23.07

1.7 Precautions:
➢ While sieving, care must be taken that the particles that are chocked in the sieve
must notbe forced down into the next sieve. Such particles should be pushed back
into the same sieve.
➢ While placing different fractions on the table, place them some distance apart so
that notwo fractions may get mixed.
➢ Be careful while selecting the opening of the flakiness and elongation gauges for
anyparticular fraction

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1.8 Comments:
➢ The flakiness index of the sample is 23.07% .The value of flakiness index is within
theallowable limit of 30%.
➢ In actual practice a number of tests are performed and a variety of properties are
determined before accepting or neglecting any sample. Particularly, the selection
of anyaggregate is quite heavily dependent on the strength tests results. And if the
strength testresults are satisfactory, then a sample showing small discrepancy
from the allowable value in the elongation index (as in our case) may be selected.

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Experiment No: 2
Determination of the Elongation Index for Aggregate Sample
2.1 Objectives
This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each particle shape being
preferred under specific conditions.

2.2 Apparatus:
➢ Length/Elongation Index Gauge
➢ Aggregate sample to be tested

Length/Elongation Index Gauge

2.3 Related Theory:

2.3.1 Types of Particles
The usual shapes of the particles are;

➢ Rounded (river gravel)

➢ Flaky (laminated rock)
➢ Elongated
➢ Angular ( crushed rock)

2.3.2 Elongated Particles

➢ These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two
dimensionsand it is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean
size.

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 ➢ Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated particles
are greater than 45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the
intended use.
Elongated Particles

2.3.3 Elongation Index

It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The Elongated index is
calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage of total weight of the
sample.

2.3.4 Significance of Elongation Index

The significance of elongation index is as follows;

➢ The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.
➢ Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the elongated particles lower the
workability ofconcrete mixes.
➢ Elongated particles are considered undesirable for base coarse construction as
they maycause weakness with possibilities of braking down under heavy loads.
➢ Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate sizes 2 ½’’
– 2’’,1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’.
2.4 Applicability
Flakiness tests are not applicable to sizes smaller then 6.3mm i.e. ¼’’ sieve.

2.5 Procedure
➢ The given sample is divided into different fractions by sieve analysis as
before andweight of each fraction is recorded.
➢ In order to separate Elongated particles, each fraction is gauged individually for
length ina length gauge.
➢ The pieces of aggregate from each fraction which do not pass through the specified
gaugeare separated and weighted. These are termed as Elongated particles.
➢ The process is separated for all other fractions.
➢ The Elongated index is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated
particles aspercentage of total weight of the sample.

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2.6 Observation and Calculation

Weight Weight of Individual Weighted

Retained Elongated Elongation Elongation
(gm) Percentage Particles Index Index
Retained
Sieve Size

Passing Retained (%) (gm) (%) (%)

(in.) (in.)

2 1½ 2007.8 22.52 1561.5 77.77 17.52

1½ 1 2926.4 32.83 950 32.46 10.66

1 ¾ 2177.7 24.43 1113.8 51.15 12.5

¾ ½ 1076.2 12.07 467.5 43.44 5.24

½ 41341 460.2 5.16 185.5 40.31 2.08

41341 ¼ 211.8 2.38 80.9 38.2 0.91

¼ Pan 53.4 0.6

Σ=8913.5 Σ= 48.91

2.7 Precautions:
➢ While sieving, care must be taken that the particles that are chocked in the sieve
must notbe forced down into the next sieve. Such particles should be pushed back
into the same sieve.
➢ While placing different fractions on the table, place them some distance apart so
that notwo fractions may get mixed.
➢ Be careful while selecting the opening of the elongation gauges for any
particularfraction

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2.8 Comments:
➢ The elongation index is greater than the maximum permissible value of 45%.
➢ If the sample is to be selected solely on the bases of elongation test results then the
use of such aggregate must be avoided as the elongation index value lies outside the
permissiblerange and the use of such aggregate will serve as a source of weakness.
➢ However, in actual practice a number of tests are performed and a variety of
properties are determined before accepting or neglecting any sample. Particularly,
the selection of anyaggregate is quite heavily dependent on the strength tests
results. And if the strength testresults are satisfactory, then a sample showing small
discrepancy from the allowable valuein the elongation index (as in our case) may be
selected

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Experiment No: 3
Determination of the Angularity Number for Aggregate Sample
3.1 Objectives
This test is performed to determine the angularity number i.e. the absence of roundedness or the
degree of angularity of the aggregate specimen.

3.2 Apparatus
➢ A metal cylinder of about 3-liter capacity.
➢ Temping rod of circular cross-section, 16mmΦ, 60cm in length. Rounded at one end.
➢ A metal scoop.
➢ A weighing balance

3.3 Related Theory

3.3.1 Types of Particles

The usual shapes of the particles are;

➢ Rounded (river gravel)

➢ Flaky (laminated rock)
➢ Elongated
➢ Angular ( crushed rock)
3.3.2 Angularity
It is the absence of roundness. An aggregate particle, which is more rounded, is less angular and
vice versa.

3.3.3 Angularity Number

Angularity number of an aggregate is the amount (to the higher whole number) by which the
percentage of voids in it after compacting in a prescribed manner exceeds 33.

Where, “33” is the percentage of volume of voids, in a perfectly rounded aggregate. “67” is the

percentage of volume of solids in a perfectly rounded aggregate.

The value of angularity number generally lies between 0 & 11. In road construction angularity
number of 7 – 10 is generally preferred.

3.3.4Significance
➢ The degree of packing of particles of single sized aggregate depends upon the
angularityof aggregate.
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 ➢ The angularity of the aggregate can be estimated from the properties of voids in a
sampleof aggregate compacted in a specified manner.
➢ The angularity number ranges from 0 for a highly rounded grave to about 11 for
freshlycrushed angular aggregates.
➢ Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
➢ In cement concrete roads (rigid pavements) rounded aggregates are preferred
because ofbetter workability and higher strength.
➢ In bituminous or water bound macadam construction (like flexible pavements),
angular aggregates with high angularity number are preferred because of high
stability due tobetter interlocking and friction.
➢ Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
➢ In road construction, angularity number of 7 -10 is generally preferred

3.4 Procedure
➢ This procedure is for aggregate size ¾to No.4. If aggregate is coarser than ¾, a
cylinder oflarge capacity shall be required but amount of compactive effort or
energy should beproportional to the volume of the cylinder.
➢ 10 Kg of the sample is taken for the test. The material should be oven dried.
➢ The aggregate is compacted in three layers, each layer being given 100 blows using
the standard tamping rod at a rate of 2 blows/second by lifting the rod 5 cm above
the surfaceof the aggregate and then allowing it to fall freely.
➢ The blows are uniformly distributed over the surface of the aggregate.
➢ After compacting the third layer, the cylinder is filled to overflowing and excess
materialis removed off with temping rod as a straight edge.
➢ The aggregate with cylinder is then weighed. Three separate determinations are
made andmean weight of the aggregate in the cylinder is calculated.

3.5 Methods of Calculations

3.5.1 Method – 1
Add measured quantity of water in the compacted aggregate till all the voids are filled and water
appears to the surface. Volume of water added is approximately equal to the volume of voids in
the compacted aggregate.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 (𝑉𝑤) × (𝑔 − ℎ)

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝜌) =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

3.5.2 Method – 2
1
𝑦 ⋅ 𝑁𝑏 = 7 −
𝐶𝐺𝑆
Where,

W = mean weight of the aggregate filling cylinder.

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C = Weight/Volume of water that can completely fill the cylinder
Gs = Specific Gravity of the aggregate.

Notes:
1- Method – 1 determines the angularity number from the solids point of view.
2- Method – 2 determines the angularity number from the voids point of view

3.6 Observations & Calculations

Specific gravity of the aggregate = 2.67
Total volume of the cylinder = 3042.18 cm3

3.7 Comments
There is a slight variation in the results obtained by method#1 & method#2. This may be
because; our assumed value of the specific gravity (i.e. 2.67) is incorrect. The correct value of
the specific gravity can thus be computed by comparing the equations of method –1 & method –
2 as done below;

Experiment No: 4

Specific Gravity and Water Absorption Test for Aggregates

4.1 Objectives
In this test method we determine the relative density (i.e. specific gravity) and the water absorption
of the coarse aggregates.

4.2 Apparatus
➢ Balance 5Kg capacity readable to 0.5g.
➢ Sample container in the form of a wire mesh bucket of capacity 4000 – 7000
cm3 andnot more than 6.3mm mesh.
➢ Suitable arrangement for suspending the container in water from center of the balance.
➢ A container for filling water and suspending the wire mesh bucket.
➢ Shallow tray and absorbent cloth.
➢ Thermostatically controlled oven.

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4.3 Related Theory:

4.3.1 Aggregates
Aggregates may be classified as;

➢ Coarse Aggregates
➢ Fine Aggregates
Coarse Aggregates
Any material which is retained on BS sieve #4 (ASTM sieve 4.75mm) is known as coarse
aggregate.

Fine Aggregates
Any material which is passing BS sieve #4 (ASTM sieve 4.75mm) is known as fine aggregate.

4.3.2Types of Crush Available In Pakistan

Sargodha Crush
Sargodha crush possess the following properties

➢ Greenish/Dark Gray in color

➢ High strength
➢ Usually elongated particles

Marghalla Crush
Marghalla crush possess the following properties;

➢ Light Gray in color

➢ Low in strength

Sakhi Sarwar Crush

Sakhi Sarwar crush possess the following properties;

➢ Whitish in color

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4.3.3 Absorption
It is the increase in the mass of the aggregate due to the penetration of water into the pores of the
particles during a prescribed period of time.

The term absorption does not include the amount of water adhering to the surface of the particles.
Water absorption is expressed as percentage of the dry mass.

4.3.4 Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D.) Condition

It is the condition related with the aggregate particles in which the permeable pores of the aggregate
particles are filled with water but without free water on the surface of the particles.

4.3.5 Oven Dry Density

It is the mass of the oven dried aggregate per unit volume of the aggregate particles. The term
volume includes the volume of the permeable and the impermeable pores and does not include the
volume of the voids between the particles.

4.3.6 Saturated Surface Dry (S.S.D) Density

It is the mass of the saturated surface dry aggregate per unit volume of the aggregate particles.

The term volume includes the volume of the permeable and the impermeable pores which are filled
with water and does not include the volume of the voids between the particles.

4.3.7 Apparent Density

It is the mass per unit volume of the impermeable portion of the aggregate particles.
Or

It is the mass per unit volume of the solid portion of the particles excluding the voids.
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4.3.8 Specific Gravity
It is the ratio of the density of the aggregate material to the density of the gas free distilled water
at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

Or

It is the ratio between the ‘weights of the aggregate in air’ to the ‘loss of aggregate weight in
water’.

4.3.9 Types of Specific Gravity

The relative density is a dimensionless quantity and is expressed as oven dried, saturated surface
dry and apparent

4.3.9.1 Oven Dried Specific Gravity

It is the ratio of the oven dried density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled
water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

4.3.9.2 Saturated Surface Dry Specific Gravity

It is the ratio of the saturated surface dry density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free
distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

4.3.9.3 Apparent Specific Gravity

It is the ratio of the apparent density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled water
at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

4.3.10 Scope & Significance:

In this test method we determine the relative density (i.e. specific gravity) and the water absorption
of the coarse aggregates.

The information obtained from specific gravity is helpful in the following ways;

➢ The knowledge of the specific gravity is important for the concrete technologist to
determine the properties of concrete made from such aggregates.
➢ It is used for the calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregates in various mixtures.
➢ The pores at the surface of the particles affect the bond between the aggregate
and thecement paste and thus influence the concrete strength.
➢ Though higher specific gravity of aggregate is considered as an indication of its
high strength; it is not possible to judge the suitability on this basis alone without
finding themechanical properties like aggregate abrasion value, e.t.c.
➢ Water absorption is a measure of porosity of aggregates and its resistance to frost action.
➢ The higher the water absorption, the weaker generally is the aggregate.

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 ➢ Water absorption value ranges from 0.1 – 2.0% for aggregate normally used in
roadssurfaces.
➢ Aggregates with water absorption up to 4.0% are recommended in base coarse
4.4 Sample:
Take representative sample. Reject all material passing #4, weight of sample to be used for the
test would depend upon the nominal maximum size as given in table below

(mm) 13 19 25 38 50 63 75 90
Nominal
Maximum Size (in.) ½ ¾ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½

Maximum Sample Wt.

(Kg) 2 3 4 5 8 12 18 25

4.5 Procedure:
➢ The sample of the aggregate is immersed in water for 24hrs to essentially fill
all thepores.
➢ Remove the test sample from the water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth
until allvisible films of water are removed.
➢ Wipe the larger particles individually. A moving stream of air is permitted to assist
in thedrying operation.
➢ Take care to avoid evaporation of water from aggregate pores during the surface-
dryingoperation.
➢ Determine the mass of the test sample in the saturated surface-dry condition. Record
this and all subsequent masses to the nearest 0.5 g or 0.05 % of the sample mass,
whichever isgreater.
➢ In order to calculate the volume of the aggregate, immediately place the saturated
surface- dry test sample in the sample container and determine its apparent mass in water
at 23±2.0 °C.

➢ Take care to remove all entrapped air before determining its mass by shaking the
container while immersed. The difference between the mass in air and the mass
when thesample is immersed in water equals the mass of water displaced by the
sample. This massof water equals the volume of water displaced becauseρ water =
mwater x Vwater
mwater = Vwater (ρwater=1 gm/cm3)
Vwater = Vaggregate

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 ➢ Dry the test sample in the oven to constant mass at a temperature of 110±5 °C, cool
in airat room temperature 1 to 3 h, or until the aggregate has cooled to a
temperature that is comfortable to handle (approximately 50 °C),
➢ Determine the mass in order to calculate the oven specific gravity of the specimen.

4.6 Observations
Weight of oven dried aggregate in air (gm) = A = 2493

Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air (gm) = B = 2502

Weight of saturated aggregate and bucket in water (gm) = W1 = 3197
Weight of bucket in water (gm) = W2 = 1572

Weight of saturated aggregate in water = C (gm) = (W1 – W2) = 1625

4.7 Calculations
I. Oven Dried Bulk Specific Gravity (G_od): G_od = (B - C) / A Substituting the given values:
G_od = (2502 - 1625) / 2493 = 1.81

II. Saturated Surface Dry Bulk Specific Gravity (G_ssd): G_ssd = (B - C) / B Substituting the given
values: G_ssd = (2502 - 1625) / 2502 = 1.82

III. Apparent Specific Gravity (G_a): G_a = (A - C) / A Substituting the given values: G_a = (2493 -
1625) / 2493 = 1.87

IV. Water Absorption (W): W = (B - A) / A * 100 Substituting the given values: W = (2502 - 2493)
/ 2493 * 100

Please note that in these formulas:

A is the oven-dry weight of the sample

B is the saturated surface-dry weight of the sample

C is the weight of the sample when submerged in water

4.8 Precaution
➢ If the aggregate is not oven-dried before soaking, specific gravity values may be
significantly higher. This is because in the normal procedure the water may not be
able topenetrate the pores to the center of the aggregate particle during the soaking
time. If the aggregate is not oven-dry to start, the existing water in the aggregate
pore structrure may be able to penetrate further into the pores (AASHTO, 2000c).
➢ Make sure to use cloth and not paper towels. Paper towels may absorb water
in theaggregate pores
25 | P a g e
4.9 Comments
➢ Specific gravities of our samples came out to be 2.8 which lies in the general range
of specific gravity values. The results confirm the fact that the Dry Bulk Specific
Gravityhas the least,
➢ Saturated Surface Dry Bulk Specific Gravity has the intermediate and the
ApparentSpecific Gravity has the maximum value out of the three
➢ Water absorption value of our sample comes out to be 0.361, Value ranges from 0.1 –
2.0% for aggregate normally used in roads surfaces. So our sample cannot be used
in road surfaces whereas aggregates with water absorption up to 4.0% are
acceptable in basecoarse. So our sample can be used as base coarse.

26 | P a g e
Experiment No: 5
To perform the Los Angeles Abrasion test on aggregates
5.1 Objectives
This test is used to assess the hardness of the aggregate used in road construction

5.2 Apparatus
➢ Los Angeles Abrasion machine – consists of a hollow steel cylinder closed at both
ends, having inside diameter of 28’’ and inside length of 20’’. The cylinder is
mounted on stubshafts in such a way that it rotates about horizontal axis at 30-33
rpm.
➢ An opening in the cylinder with a dust tight cover is provided for the introduction
of testsample. A steel shelf extending full length of the cylinder and projecting full
length of the cylinder and projecting 3.5’’ inward is mounted on interior surface of
the cylinder.
➢ Sieves confirming to ASTM Standards.
➢ Balance
➢ Abrasive charges (consisting of steel spheres 1 27/32’’ in diameter and each weighing
between (390 – 445 gms.)).

5.3 Related Theory:

5.3.1 Abrasion
It is defined as the, “resistance of a material against wear, scratching or degradation.”

5.3.2 Pounding Action

Striking action of an object on a surface for a short instant of time is called the pounding effect.

5.3.3 Los Angeles Abrasion Value

It is an indicative of the abrasion strength of the aggregates. It can be computed by using the
relationship;
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠𝐴𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = × 100
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Where,

Final weight = Weight retained on sieve #12

27 | P a g e
5.3.4 Significance of Abrasion
The road aggregate is subjected to wearing action by the moving traffic and therefore resistance to
wear or hardness is an essential property of the aggregate. The aggregate should be hard enough
to resist abrasion due to traffic.

Los Angeles Abrasion test is used to find out the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action
between aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charges. Pounding action of these balls also
exists while conducting the test. The test is considered more dependable as rubbing and pounding
action simulate field conditions.

The test has been standardized by ASTM and AASHTO.

FHWA recommendations are that coarse aggregate for dense graded mixes have a percent wear of
50% or less. For open graded mixes or where requirements are more exacting, the requirement is
40% or less.

Notes:
➢ Larger the LAA value, softer will be the aggregate and vice versa
➢ If we have two samples to be used in the wearing surface having LAA value of 0%
& 10%, then we should use the one having LAA value of 10% (note this is true only for
wearing surface and the opposite is true for sub-grade, sub-base and base coarse). This is
because, even though 0% will provide a good hard surface but its coefficient of friction
will be too high and it will severely damage the tyres.

➢ If two different samples are obtained from the same source, then the results of the
LAA value will be same for both of the samples because LAA value is a material
property

5.4 Procedure:
➢ The sample taken should be representative and confirming to any of the grading
given inthe table.
➢ The sample is placed in the cylinder along with the abrasive charges and the
machine isrotated for the required number of revolutions (500 – 1000).
➢ After the required number of revolutions, material is discharged from the
machine andsieved through #12 US sieve.
➢ Wash the material coarser than #12 sieve, oven dry and weigh.
➢ Then compute the LAA value by using the relationship;

𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠𝐴𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = × 100
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Where,

Final weight = Weight retained on sieve #12

28 | P a g e
5.5 Grading Of Test Sample (Los Angeles Abrasion Test)

5.6 Observations & Calculations:

5.7 Precautions

5.8 Comments

29 | P a g e
Experiment No: 6
Measuring Surface Frictional Properties Using British Pendulum Skid
Resistance Tester.
6.1 Objectives
This test is used to determine the braking distance of the road surface

6.2 Apparatus

(a) Parts
➢ Slider – Slider assembly consists of an aluminum backing plate to which a rubber strip
3’’ x 1’’ x ¼’’ is bonded.

➢ Leveling screws
➢ Scale
➢ Drag pointer
➢ Locking and control knobs
➢ Frictional rings

(b) Accessories
➢ Contact path gauge – shall consist of a thin ruler suitably marked for measuring contact
path length between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’).

➢ Water container
➢ Surface thermometer and
➢ Brush

30 | P a g e
6.3 Related Theory

6.3.1 Skid Resistance

The British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester is an impact type pendulum used to measure the
energy loss when a rubber slider edge is propelled over a test surface. The values measured
represent the frictional properties and are expressed as BPN (British Pendulum Number).

6.3.2 Skidding
In skidding phenomenon, the distance travelled by wheel on the road is more than the
circumferential movement. When brakes are applied, wheels get locked and still if the vehicle
moves ahead, longitudinal skidding is said to occur. Skid Resistance

6.3.3 Slipping
In slipping, the distance traveled by wheel on the road is less than the circumferential movement.
If the wheels of the vehicle are rotating but the vehicle is not moving forward, then slipping is
said to occur. Skid

6.3.4 Measurement of Texture Depth

It is also necessary to record the surface texture of the road surface tested. This is measured by
Sand Patch Method. A known volume of fine sand of uniform particle size is poured on the road

31 | P a g e
and spread to form a patch of a regular shape so that its area couldn’t be measured. Sand should
be spread in such a manner that all “valleys” are filled to level of “peaks”. Then the texture depth
can be computed by using the formula

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ

ROAD SURFACE TEXTURE TEXTURE DEPTH

Coarse/Open Texture ≥0.02”

Medium Texture 0.02” – 0.01”

Fine Texture ≤0.01”

More the texture depth, better is the road surface but a high value of texture depth also increases
the chances of severe injuries

6.3.5 Scope & Significance:

➢ This test is used to determine the braking distance of the road surface.

➢ Braking distance is particularly important at crossings, road signals, school

intersectionsand turns, etc.

32 | P a g e
 ➢ Road pavements are designed to provide reasonably high coefficient of friction but
with the movement of traffic, the aggregates in the wearing coarse of the road
get polishedresulting in reduction of the frictional or skid resistance of the road.
British PendulumTester is used to measure the frictional resistance of road at
sections which appear to bepotentially slippery and unsafe against skidding.
➢ The tester is dynamic Pendulum Impact type used to measure the energy loss
when arubber slider edge is propelled over a test surface.
➢ Used for field and laboratory tests.
➢ The values measured represent the frictional properties and are expressed as BPN
(BritishPendulum Number).
➢ Friction between vehicle and road surface plays a vital role in determining the
maximumoperating speed and the distance required in safely stopping the vehicles.
➢ Higher the skid-resistance results, better is the road surface but a high value of
skidresistance also increases the chances of severe injuries.
➢ More the texture depth, better is the road surface but a high value of texture
depth alsoincreases the chances of severe injuries.

6.3.6 Factors Affecting Skidding Resistance

6.3.6.1 Condition of Tires
Vehicles having smooth tires would have slightly lower skidding resistance.

6.3.6.2 Effect of Road Temperature

Skidding resistance of wet roads is higher in winter than in summer. Skidding resistance of roads
is at its lowest between April and September. So roads with satisfactory values in winter may prove
slippery during summer. Skid Resistance

6.3.6.3 Effect of Water

Skidding resistance is lower on wet than on dry pavements. Skid Resistance

6.3.6.4 Type of aggregate

Sand stones and granites are more resistant to polishing action than limestone.

Higher the skid-resistance results, better is the road surface but a high value of skid-resistance
also increases the chances of severe injuries

6.3.7 Improving the Skid-Resistance Value:

If the results of skid-resistance test are not satisfactory, then one of the following steps should be
performed to improve the skid-resistance.

➢ Install cat-eyes
➢ Build speed-barkers
➢ Add an extra coarser layer of the wearing surface near the braking zones (e.g. signals).

33 | P a g e
6.4 Reparation of Apparatus

6.4.1 Leveling
Apparatus is levelled using 3 levelling screws until the bubble is centered in the spirit level.

6.4.2 Zero adjustment

Raise the pendulum mechanism by loosening locking knob, till it swings free of test surface.
Tighten the knob. Place pendulum in release position and drag pointer in horizontal position and
drag pointer in horizontal position. Execute a free swing and note the pointer reading. If reading
is not zero; make adjustment by friction ring until pendulum swing carries the pointer to zero.

Skid Resistance

6.4.3 Slide length adjustment

With pendulum hanging free, place spacer under adjusting screw of lifting handle and allow
pendulum to move slowly to the left until the edge of the slider touches the surface. Place gauge
beside slider and parallel to the direction of swing to verify the length of contact path which
should be between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’) on flat surfaces as measured from trailing edge to trailing
edge of the rubber slider. Skid Resistance

Place pendulum in release position and rotate drag pointer counter clockwise until it comes to
original position.

Inspect the road and choose the section to be tested. Set the apparatus so that the slider swings in
the direction of traffic.

6.5 Test Procedure

➢ Apply sufficient water to cover the test area thoroughly. Execute one swing but don’t
record reading.

➢ Make four more swings, rewetting the test area each time and record the
results. Thereadings should not differ by more than 3 units. Skid Resistance
➢ Report the individual values as B.P.N. also note down the age, condition, texture
andlocation of test area
➢ It is also necessary to record the surface texture of the road surface tested.
This ismeasured by Sand Patch Method.
➢ A known volume of fine sand of uniform particle size is poured on the road and
spread toform a patch of a regular shape so that its area couldn’t be measured.
Sand should be spread in such a manner that all “valleys” are filled to level of
“peaks”. Then the texturedepth can be computed by using the formula;

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑆𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ

34 | P a g e
6.6 Suggested Values Of Skid-Resistance:

‘SKID STANDARD OF
RESISTANCE’ SKIDDING
CATEGORY TYPE OF SITE ON WET RESISTANCE
SURFACE REPRESENTED

Most difficult sites

such as;

i)- Roundabouts

ii)- Bends with

radius less than 500 ft
on derestricted roads.

iii)- Gradients, 1 in
20 or steeper, of
length greater than
100 yd.

iv)- Approach to
traffic lights on ‘Good’: fulfilling
derestricted roads. the requirements
even of fast traffic,
and making it most
unlikely that the

road will be the

scene of repeated
accidents.
Above 65

35 | P a g e
 ‘Generally
Satisfactory’:
meeting all but the
most difficult
General requirements, conditions
encountered on the
i.e. roads and
roads.
conditions not
covered by categories
A & C.

B* Above 55

Easy sites, e.g.

straight roads, with
easy gradients and
curves, without
junctions, and free
from any features,
such as mixed traffic,
especially liable to
create conditions of
emergency.

‘Satisfactory only
in favorable
circumstances.’

C* Above 45

‘Potentially
Slippery’
D All sites Below 45

* On smooth-looking or fine-textured roads in these categories, vehicles having

smooth tyres may not find skid-resistance adequate. For such road accident
studies should also be made to ensure that there are no indications of difficulties
due to skidding under wet conditions.

36 | P a g e
6.7 Observations & Calculations

Texture Depth

Dimensions of Volume of Texture Depth

Patch (cm x AREA Sand (ml

Group cm) (cm2) = cm3) (cm) (inches)

1 33.44 x 17.52 586.1 50 0.0853 0.033

2 34 x 21.5 731 50 0.0684 0.0269

British Pendulum Number

Surface Skid-
Texture Resistance
Distance Distance (in) (BPN) Mean
from (m) (BPN)
Group Date

1 10/6/2010 Triangle 0.856 0.033 70,64,64,66 64.67

2 10/6/2010 Footpath 1.33 0.0269 63,60,62,60 60.667

6.8 Comments
After performing the experiment and calculating the surface texture it is concluded that the road
surface texture on which we performed the experiment was Coarse/Open Textured surface for both
the groups & the standard of skid resistance for 1st group came out to be good but for second group
it came out to be Generally Satisfactory.

37 | P a g e
Experiment No: 7
Flash & Fire Point Test for Asphalt by Cleveland Open Cup
7.1 Objectives
To determine the flash and fire point of asphalt by using Cleveland open cup apparatus

7.2 References
➢ ASTM: D 92-85
➢ AASHTO: T 48-89
7.3 Apparatus

7.3.1 Cleveland Cup Apparatus:

It consists of test cup, heating plate, test flame applicator, heater, thermometer support and heating
plate support, all conforming to the following requirements.

➢ Test Cu
It is made of brass. The cup may be equipped with a handle.

➢ Heating Plate
A brass, cast iron, wrought iron, or steel plate with a center hole surrounded by an area of plane
depression, and a sheet of hard asbestos board which covers the metal plate except over the area
of plane depression in which the test cup is supported. The metal plate may be square instead of
round and have suitable extension for mounting the test flame applicator device and the

thermometer support. The metal bead is mounted on the plate so that it extends through and slightly

above a small hole in the asbestos board

38 | P a g e
 ➢ Test Flame Applicator

The device for applying the test flame may be of any suitable design, but the tip shall be 1.6 to 5.0
mm in diameter at the end and the orifice shall have an approximate diameter of 0.8 mm. The
device for applying the test flame shall be so mounted to permit automatic duplication of the sweep
of the test flame, the radius of swing being not less than 150 mm and the center of the orifice
moving’ in a plane not more than 2.5 mm above the cup. A bead having a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4
mm may be mounted in a convenient position on the apparatus so the size of the test flame can be
compared to it.

➢ Heater
Heat may be supplied from any convenient source. The use of a gas burner or alcohol lamp is
permitted, but under no circumstances are products of combustion or free flame to be allowed to
come up around the cup. An electric heater controlled by a variable voltage transformer is
preferred. The source of heat shall be centered under the opening of the heating plate with no local
superheating.

➢ Thermometer Support
A device which will hold the thermometer in the specified position during a test and permits easy
removal of the thermometer from the test cup upon completion of a test.

➢ Heating Plate Support

Any convenient support which will hold the heating plate level and steady may be employed.

7.3.2 Shield
A shield having an area of 460mm2 and 610mm high and having an open front is used.

7.3.3 Thermometer:
A thermometer having the required range.

7.4 Related Theory

Flash Point:
Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm
Hg), at which application of a test flame causes the vapor of a specimen to ignite under specified
conditions of test. The material is deemed to have flashed when a large flame appears and
instantaneously propagates itself over the surface of the specimen.

Note: Occasionally, particularly near the actual flash point, the application of test flame will
cause the blue halo or an enlarged flame; this is not a flash and should be ignored.

Fire Point:
It is the lowest temperature at which a specimen will sustain burning for 5 seconds

39 | P a g e
 Flammable material
A flammable material is the one, which form flames, but does not sustain fire.

Combustible material
Combustible material is the one, which sustains fire/burning.

Sources of Bitumen
Bitumen is generally obtained from the following three sources;

➢ Naturally occurring (in West Indies).

➢ Extracted from Limestone and Sandstone (procedure adopted in USA).
➢ From Oil Refineries (this is the major source of bitumen in Pakistan).

Temperature Condition * Asphalt Grade

AC-10

AR-4000

80 / 100 pen
Cold, mean annual air temperature < 7 °C (45 °F)

AC-20

AR-8000

40 | P a g e
 Warm, mean annual air temperature between 7 °C 60 / 70 pen
(45 °F) and 24 °C (75 °F)

AC-40

AR-8000

40 / 50 pen
Hot, mean annual air temperature > 24 °C (75 °F)

Scope & Significance of Fire Point

➢ Flash point measures the tendency of the sample to form a flammable mixture with
air under controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of properties
that mustbe considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a material.
➢ Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to differentiate between
‘‘flammable’’ and ‘‘combustible’’ materials.

➢ Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable
materialsin a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material.
➢ Fire point measures the characteristics of the sample to support combustion.
➢ Bituminous materials give rise to volatiles at high temperature, as they are
basically thehydrocarbons. These volatiles catch fire causing a flash, which is
very hazardous.
➢ During construction of bituminous pavements, the engineer may restrict the mixing
or application temperatures well within the limits. The test therefore gives
indication of critical temperature at and above which suitable precautions should
be taken to eliminatefire hazards during use of asphalts. In other words heating
should be limited to a temperature well below the flash point.

7.5 Preparation of Apparatus

Support the apparatus on a level table. Shield the top of the apparatus from strong intensity of
light by any suitable means to permit ready detection of the flash point. Fire Point

Wash the test cup with an appropriate solvent to remove any oil or traces of gum or residue
remaining from a previous test. If any deposits of carbon are present, they should be removed
with steel wool. Flush the cup with cold water and dry for a few minutes over an open flame, on
a hot plate, or in an oven to remove the last traces of solvent and water. Cool the cup to at least
56 °C below the expected flash point before using.

Support the thermometer in a vertical position with the bottom of the bulb 6.4 mm from the
bottom of the cup and located at a point halfway between the center and side of the cup on the

41 | P a g e
diameter perpendicular to the line of the sweep of the test flame and on the side opposite to the
test flame burner arm. Fire

7.6 Procedure
➢ Fill the cup; at any convenient temperature not exceeding 100 °C or above the
softeningpoint; so that the top of the meniscus is at the filling line.
➢ Remove the excess sample using a pipette or other suitable device; however, if there
is sample on the outside of the apparatus, empty, clean, and refill it. Destroy any air
bubbleson the surface of the sample.
➢ Lit the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm.
➢ Apply heat initially so that the rate of temperature rise of the sample is 14 to 17 °C
per minute. When the sample temperature is approximately 56 °C below the
anticipated flashpoint, decrease the heat so that the rate of temperature rise for
28°C before the flash pointis 5 to 6°C per minute.
➢ Starting at least 28 °C below the flash point, apply the test flame when the
temperature read on the thermometer reaches each successive 2 °C mark. Pass the
test flame across the center of the cup, at right angles to the diameter, which passes
through the thermometer. With a smooth, continuous motion apply the flame either
in a straight line or along the circumference of a circle having a radius of at least 150
mm. The center of the test flame must move in a plane not more than 2.5 mm above
the plane of the upper edge of the cup passing in one direction first, then in the
opposite direction the next lime. The time consumed in passing the test flame across
the cup shall be about one second (1 s.). During the last 17 °C rise in temperature
prior to the flash point, care must be taken toavoid disturbing the vapors in the test
cup by careless movements or bathing near the cup.

➢ Record as the observed flash point the temperature read on the thermometer when
a flashappears at any point on the surface of the material, but does not confuse the
true flash with the bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame.
➢ To determine the fire point, continue heating so that the sample temperature
increases at arate of 5 to 6 °C. Continue the application of the test flame at 2°C
intervals until the oil ignites and continues to burn for at least 5 second. Record the
temperature at the point asthe fire point of the oil.

7.7 Precautions
➢ Do not breathe close to the apparatus as the fumes are injurious to health.
➢ Turn the fans off so that the fumes can be accumulated over the cup.
➢ Tip of the thermometer should not touch the bottom or sides of the cup.
➢ The operator must exercise and take appropriate safety precautions during the
initial application of the test flame, since samples containing low flash material
may give anabnormally strong flash when the test flame is first applied.

42 | P a g e
7.8 Calculations and Observations
Observe and record the barometric pressure at the time of the test. When the pressure differs
from 760 mm Hg, correct the flash or fire point, or both, by means of the following equations:

Corrected flash or fire point, or both = C + 0.03 (760 — P)

Where,

C = observed flash or fire point, or both, to the nearest 2 °C, and

P = Barometric pressure, mm Hg.

Record the corrected flash or fire joint value, or both, to the nearest 5 °C or 2°C.

Flash Point of Different Grades Of Asphalt:Viscosity Grades

Property AC – 2.5 AC – 5 AC – 10 AC – 20 AC – 40

Flash Point
COC, °C min.
163 177 219 232 232

Note: AC – 10 is most commonly used in Pakistan

7.9 Observations & Results

Time (minutes) Temperature (°C) Remarks

0 24

1 30

2 36

3 41

4 47

43 | P a g e
 5 53

6 60

7 67

8 73

9 80

10 112

11 156

12 182

13 202

14 222

15 240

16 256

17 271

18 284

19 299

9:12 308 Flash Point

20 310

21 318

22 329

23 340

44 | P a g e
 24 351

24.25 352 Fire Point

7.10 Graphs

7.11 Comments
The Experiment has been performed successfully and the results which we have got are showing
that the flash point of the bitumen sample came out to be at 308◦ and time corresponding to this
temperature was 9.12 minutes. Whereas the fire point was found out to be at temperature of
352◦and the time corresponding to this temperature was 24.25 minutes. The trend line of the graph
is showing the relationship between temperature and time.

45 | P a g e
Experiment NO: 8
Marshall Method of Mix Design
8.1 Objectives:
Marshall Test Procedure is used in designing and evaluating asphalt concrete mixes (Bitumen
Paving mixes). Density-Void analysis and stability-Flow Test are done. Marshall mix design
criteria by Asphalt Institute by U.S.A. is given in the table number five. Optimum percentages of
bitumen are obtained for type of aggregate mix and traffic intensity

8.2 References
➢ ASTM: D 1663-73
➢ ASTM: D 1559-75

8.3 Apparatus:
➢ Specimen Mould Assembly
➢ Specimen Extractor Compaction Hammer
➢ Compaction Pedestal
➢ Specimen Mould Holders
➢ Breaking Head
➢ Loading Machine
➢ Ring Dynamometer Assembly
➢ Flow Meter
➢ Oven or Hot Plates
➢ Mixing Apparatus
➢ Water Bath

46 | P a g e
8.4 Related Theory
Stability:
The stability of the mix is the maximum load carried by a compacted specimen at a standard
temperature of 60'C.

Flow:
The flow is measured as a deformation in unit of 0.01 inch between no load and maximum load
carried by the specimen during stability test

Marshall Method of Mix Design

The Marshall Method of mix design is intended both for laboratory design and field control of
bituminous hot-mix dense graded paving mixtures. Originally developed by Bruce Marshall of
the Mississippi State Highway Department, the US Army Corps of Engineers refined and added
certain features to Marshall’s approach and it was then subsequently formalized as ASTM D
1559 and AASHTO T245.

47 | P a g e
 Outline of Method
It uses standard cylindrical test specimens (64 mm high and 102 mm in diameter). Two principal
features of Marshall Method of mix design are Density Void Analysis and Stability Flow Test of
compacted test specimen.

Stability of test specimens is the maximum load resistance developed by standard test specimen
at 60°C in Newton.

Flow value is the total movement or displacement occurring in the specimen between no load
and the point of maximum load during stability test in units of 0.25mm.

Selection and combination of Aggregates

Selection of the aggregates to be used in a given paving mixture is a very important phase of the
design phase. In normal procedure, both coarse and fine aggregates available in the near vicinity
of the proposed work are sampled and carefully examined for compliance with the individual
specifications for these materials. In case no suitable single aggregate is available then
aggregates from several different sources may have to be blended to get the required specified
specimen. The proportions selected must be within the specification and far enough from its
extremes to provide room for the job mix tolerance so that when it is added or subtracted the
mixture will not be outside the original specification master range. Sieve Analysis of the
aggregates can most economically be used in this case as determined by AASHTO methods of
T27 and T37

Mineral Aggregate and Mix Composition

Retained on Sieve
Designation
Passing Sieve Designation Percent by weight

¾ in. (19.0 mm) ½ in. (12.5 mm) 0-6

½ in. (12.5 mm) 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) 9-40

3/8 in. (9.5 mm) No.4 (4.75 mm) 9-45

No.4 (4.75 mm) No. 10 (2.00 mm) 8-27

Total Coarse Aggregate No. 10 (2.00 mm) 50-65

48 | P a g e
 No. 10 (2.00 mm) No. 40 (0.475 mm) 6-22

No. 40 (0.475 mm) No. 80 (0.177 mm) 8-27

No. 80 (0.177 mm) No. 200 (0.75 mm) 5-17

No. 200 (0.75 mm) —— 5-8

Total fine aggregate & filler Passing No. 10 35-50

Total mineral aggregate —— 100

Total Mix

Total mineral aggregate 92-95

Asphalt cement 5-8

Total mix 100

It is obvious that the fine aggregate and coarse aggregate only, in any combination, cannot meet
the requirements of the pecifications for total mineral aggregate. So, mineral fillers must be used
in the mixture.

Sieve Analysis of Aggregates (Percentage Used For Experiment)

Passing Sieve Retained on Sieve AGGREGATE TYPE

Designation Designation

(Percent by (Percent by COARSE FINE MINERAL

weight) weight) AGGREGATES AGGREGATES FILLER

49 | P a g e
 ¾in.(19.0 mm) ½in.(12.5 mm) 5 —- —-

½in.(12.5 mm) 3/8in.(9.5mm) 32 —- —-

3/8in.(9.5mm) No.4(4.75mm) 37 —- —-

No.4(4.75mm) No.10(2.00mm) 22 7 —-

No.10(2.00mm) No.40(0.475mm) 4 28 —-

No.40(0.475mm) No.80(0.177mm) —- 39 5

No.80(0.177mm) No.200(0.75mm) —- 24 30

No.200(0.75mm) —– —- 2 65

Total 100 100 100

For first trial, the amount of mineral filler is arbitrarily set at 8 percent. The total coarse aggregate
in the mix must be from 50 to 65 percent, and this figure is set as 52 percent. The remaining 40
percent must be fine aggregate.

Calculations made using the indicated proportions in determining the sieve analysis of the
combined aggregates are as follows. A comparison of the figures in the last column of the table
with the requirements of the specification will show that this combination of aggregates meets the
stipulated requirements. This combination will therefore be judged satisfactory and no additional
trials are made here.

50 | P a g e
8.5 Calculations for Sieve Analysis

Percent by weight
Agg.
COARSE FINE MINERAL TOTAL Wt.
Passing Retained AGGREGATE AGGREGATE FILLER AGG. (gm)
onSieve Size Sieve Size
¾in. ½in. 0.52 x 5 =

(19.0 mm) (12.5 mm) 2.6 —- —- 2.6 31.2

½in. 3/8in. 0.52 x 32 =

12.5mm) (9.5mm) 16.6 —- —- 16.6 199.2

3/8in. No.4 0.52 x 37 =

(9.5mm) (4.75mm) 19.2 —- —- 19.2 230.4

No.4 0.52 x 22 = 0.40 x 7 =

No.10
(4.75mm (2.00mm) 11.4 2.8 —- 14.2 170.4

0.52 x 4 = 0.40 x 28 =
No.10 No.40

(2.00mm (0.475m 2.2 11.2 —- 13.4 160.8

No.40 No.80 0.40 x 39 = 0.08 x 5

(0.475mm) (0.177mm) 15.6 0.4 16 192

—-

0.40 x 24 = 0.08 x 30
No.80 No.200

(0.177mm (0.75mm) —- 9.6 2.4 12 144

51 | P a g e
 0.40 x 2 = 0.08 x 65
No.200

(0.75mm —– —- 0.8 5.2 6 72

Total 52 40 8 100 1200

8.5.1 Design Bitumen Content

When determining the design bitumen content for a particular blend or gradation of aggregates by
Marshall Method, a series of test specimens is prepared for a range of different bitumen contents
so that the test data curves show well-defined relationships.

Bitumen content can be estimated from following sources

➢ Experience
➢ Using filler-to-bitumen ratio guideline ( ranges 06 to 1.2 )
➢ Computational Formula
P = 0.035a + 0.045b + K c + F
Where

P = Approximate mix bitumen content, percentage by weight of total mix

a = Percentage of mineral aggregate retained on sieve No.10 in whole no.

b = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.10 and retained on sieve No.200
c = Percentage of mineral aggregate passing sieve No.200
K = 0.15, 11-15% passing sieve No.200.
= 0.18, 6-10% passing sieve No.200
=0.20, 5% passing sieve No.200
F = 0 to 2%, based on the absorption of light and heavy aggregates. F = 0.7 incase no data is
available.

52 | P a g e
8.6 Test Procedure
In Marshall Method, each compacted test specimen is subjected to following tests and analysis in
the order listed.

➢ Bulk Specific Gravity Test

➢ Stability and Flow Test
➢ Density and Void Analysis
Bulk Specific Gravity Test is performed on freshly compacted specimens after they have
cooled to room temperature.

Then immerse the specimen in a water bath at 60°C for 30 to 40 minutes and perform Stability
and FlowTests.
The Testing Machine will apply loads to test specimens through cylindrical segment testing
heads at a constant rate of vertical strain of 51mm per minute. Loading is applied until the
specimen failure occurs

8.7 Computations
Percentage Air Voids,
𝐺𝑚𝑏
𝑉𝑎 = (1 − ) × 100
𝐺𝑚𝑚

Where,

𝑉𝑎 = air voids in compacted mixture as a percentage of total volume.

𝐺𝑚𝑚 = maximum specific gravity of a paving mixture,

𝐺𝑚𝑏= Bulk specific gravity of a compacted mixture.

=
𝐺𝑚𝑚

𝐺
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺

Where,

53 | P a g e
W 1 = %age weight of coarse aggregates
W 2 =%age weight of fine aggregates
W 3 = %age weight of mineral aggregates
W 4 = %age weight of bitumen

G 1 = Specific Gravity of coarse aggregates

G 2 = Specific Gravity of fine aggregates
G 3 = Specific Gravity of mineral aggregates
G 4 = Density of bitumen (g/cm3

Percentage of Voids in mineral Aggregates, VMA

𝑉𝑀𝐴=𝑉 𝑏 +𝑉 𝑎

Where, Va = %age of voids in aggregates, Vb = %age of voids in bitumen

54 | P a g e
 𝑊1
𝐺𝑚𝑚 =
𝑊1/𝐺1 + 𝑊2/𝐺2 + 𝑊3/𝐺3 + 𝑊4/𝐺4

Percentage of voids filled with bitumen, VFB

VFB=(Vb/ VMA)×100

Where:

• Vb is the volume of the bulk material

• VMA is the volume of the mold apparatus

W1 = 52

W2 = 40

W3 = 8

W4 = 5

G1 = 2.85

G2 = 2.65

G3 = 2.7

G4 = 1

Mean
Mean Mean Mean
Bulk Voids
% of Height Weigh Weigh Bulk Specifi % of % of % of Voids Voids
specifi % of in
Bitu. of t of t of specifi c air voids voids in filled
c air minera
Sampl Cont sample agg. in agg. in c Gravit voids in bit. in minera with
gravity voids l agg
e# air water gravity y in agg. bitume l agg bit.
in agg.
Group n

% mm gm gm % % % %

1 64 1239 708 1.75 2.75 36.47 5.25 41.72

A1 2 3 64 1223 750 1.63 1.71 2.75 40.80 36.34 0.00 5.25 - 38.97 12.58 31.4

3 64 1230 700 1.76 2.75 36.21 0.00 36.21

1 64 1238.4 717 1.73 2.75 37.30 6.05 43.34

55 | P a g e
 2 64 1259.2 725 1.74 2.75 36.95 0.00 36.95

A2 3 3.5 64 1251.9 718 1.74 1.74 2.75 36.70 36.98 0.00 6.05 36.70 39.00 13.95 37

1 64 1245 710 1.75 2.75 36.34 7.01 43.36

B1 2 4 64 1250 720 1.74 1.77 2.75 36.97 35.64 0.00 7.01 36.97 37.97 16.18

3 64 1211 662 1.83 2.75 33.59 0.00 33.59

1 64 1244.4 717 1.74 2.75 36.99 7.81 44.80

B2 2 4.5 64 1244.6 720 1.73 1.73 2.75 37.25 37.11 0.00 7.81 37.25 39.71 17.43

3 64 1251.2 722 1.73 2.75 37.09 0.00 37.09

1 64 1252 710 1.76 2.75 35.98 8.82 44.80

C1 2 5 64 1264 728 1.74 1.80 2.75 36.97 34.78 0.00 8.82 36.97 37.72 19.68

3 64 1032 546 1.89 2.75 31.38 0.00 31.38

1 64 1296.6 731 1.77 2.75 35.61 9.76 45.36

C2 2 5.5 64 1298.7 716 1.81 1.79 2.75 34.15 34.86 0.00 9.76 34.15 38.11 21.51

3 64 1292.8 720 1.80 2.75 34.82 0.00 34.82

1 64 1272 730 1.74 2.75 36.74 10.45 47.20

D1 2 6 64 1282 740 1.73 1.73 2.75 37.11 37.05 0.00 10.45 37.11 40.54 22.15

3 64 1278 740 1.73 2.75 37.30 0.00 37.30

1 64 1280 753 1.70 2.75 38.29 11.05 49.34

D2 2 6.5 64 1285 758 1.70 1.70 2.75 38.46 38.30 0.00 11.05 38.46 41.99 22.39

3 64 1240 728 1.70 2.75 38.17 0.00 38.17

56 | P a g e
Experiment NO: 9
Specific Gravity Test on Bituminous Materials.
9.1 Objectives
This test is to determine the specific gravity of bituminous materials

9.2 Reference
➢ ASTM DESIGNATION: D 70-76.
➢ AASHTO DESIGNATION: T 228-9O

9.3 Apparatus

➢ Pycnometer

Glass, consisting of a cylindrical or conical vessel carefully ground to receive an accurately

fitting glass stopper 22 to 26mm in diameter. The stopper shall be provided with a hole 1.0 to
2.0mm in diameter, centrally located in reference to the vertical axis. The top surface of the
stopper shall be smooth and substantially plane and the lower surface shall be concave in order
to allow all air to escape through the bore. The height of the concave section shall be 4.0 to

18.0 mm at the center. The stopper Pycnometer shall have a capacity of 24 to 30 ml, and shall
weigh not more than 40 gram.

➢ Water Bath

Constant-temperature, capable of maintaining the temperature within 0.1 °C of the test

temperature.

➢ Thermometers

Calibrated liquid-in-glass, total immersion type, of suitable range.

➢ Balance
A balance conforming to the requirements of AASHTO

➢ Distilled water
Freshly boiled and cooled distilled water shall he used to fill the Pycnometer and the beaker

57 | P a g e
9.4 Related Theory

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of semi-solid bituminous material, asphalt cements, and soft tar pitches shall
be expressed as the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the material at 25 °C to that of an
equal volume of water at the same temperature.

Scope & Significance

➢ Specific gravity of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently required
as anaid in classing binders for use in paving jobs.

➢ Bitumen weights sometimes have to be converted into volumes for asphalt

concrete mixdesign calculations for which a knowledge of specific gravity is
essential.
➢ Specific gravity is also used in identifying the source of bitumen binder.
➢ Bitumen binder has specific gravity in the range of 0.97 to 1.02
➢ In case bitumen contains mineral impurities the specific gravity will be higher.
Thus it ispossible for a quantitative extraction of mineral impurity in bitumen.
Sources of Bitumen:
Bitumen is generally obtained from the following three sources;

➢ Naturally occurring (in West Indies).

➢ Extracted from Limestone and Sandstone (procedure adopted in USA).
➢ From Oil Refineries (this is the major source of bitumen in Pakistan).

Grades of Bitumen:
Bitumen is usually characterized in the following three types of grades;

➢ Viscosity grades
➢ Penetration grades
➢ Density grades
80/100 grade means that 1cm2 of bitumen of this grade can be stretched to a length of 80-100cm.
Same is the case for other grades like 60/70, etc.

Facts about Bitumen:

➢ Bitumen is both flammable and combustible.
➢ Bitumen becomes volatile at high temperatures
➢ The working temperature of the bitumen must be at least 100°C less than the flash point

58 | P a g e
 ➢ By repeated heating and cooling of bitumen, more and more volatiles will be
ejected andthe properties of bitumen will be altered

9.5 Procedure
➢ Heat the sample with care, stirring to prevent local overheating until the sample has
becomesufficiently fluid to pour. While heating, keep in mind the following
considerations;
1. In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 56 °C above the
expected softening point for tar, or to more than 111°Cabove the expected
softening point forasphalt.
2. Do not heat for more than 30 minutes over a flame or hot plate or for more than
2hoursin an oven, and avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.
➢ Thoroughly clean, dry, and weigh the Pycnometer to the nearest 1 mg. Designate
this
mass as ‘A’.
➢ Then fill the beaker with freshly boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in
the Pycnometer. Place the Pycnometer in the beaker and press the stopper firmly
in place.
Return the beaker to the water bath, and allow the Pycnometer to remaining the water bath
for a period of not less than 30 minutes. Remove the Pycnometer, immediately dry the top
of the stopper with one stroke of a dry towel, then quickly dry the remaining outside area
of the Pycnometer and weigh to the nearest 1 mg. Designate the mass of the Pycnometer
plus water as ‘B’.

➢ Pour enough sample into the clean, dry, warmed Pycnometer to fill it about three-
fourths of its capacity. Take precautions to keep the material from touching the
sides of thePycnometer above the final level, and to prevent the inclusion of air
bubbles. Allow thePycnometer and its contents to cool to ambient temperature for a

59 | P a g e
 period of not less than 40minutes, and weigh with, the stopper to the nearest 1
mg. designate the mass of thePycnometer plus sample as ‘C’.
➢ Remove the beaker from the water bath. Fill the Pycnometer containing the asphalt
with freshly boiled distilled water, placing the stopper loosely in the Pycnometer. Do
not allowany air bubbles to remain in the Pycnometer. Place the Pycnometer in the
beaker and pressthe stopper firmly in place. Return the beaker to the water bath.
Allow the Pycnometer toremain in the water bath for a period of not less than 30
minutes. Remove the Pycnometerfrom the bath. Dry and weigh using the same
technique and timing as that employed in #
2. Designate this mass of Pycnometer plus sample plus water as ‘D’.

9.6 Calculations

Calculate the specific gravity to the nearest third decimal as follows:

Where,
A = mass of Pycnometer (+ stopper) = 22.277 g
B = mass of Pycnometer filled with water = 74.151 g
C = mass of Pycnometer partially filled with asphalt = 55.445 g
D = mass of Pycnometer + asphalt + water = 74.628 g

60 | P a g e
9.7 Observations & Results

9.8 Comments
The experiment has been performed successfully and the specific gravity determined is 1.015
which is in the range of 0.97 to 1.02. So it is acceptable. There were no bubbles in the Pycnometer
so chance of error was eliminated and thus the value is correct.

61 | P a g e
Experiment No: 10
Penetration Test on Bituminous Materials.
10.1 Objectives
This test is used to find the penetration in bituminous materials sample

10.2 Reference
➢ ASTM DESIGNATION: D 5-97

10.3 Apparatus

➢ Penetration Apparatus

Any apparatus that permits the needle holder (spindle) to move vertically without
measurable friction and is capable of indicating the depth of penetration to the nearest 0.1 mm,
will be acceptable. The weight of the spindle shall be 47.5 ± 0.05gram. The total weight of the
needle and spindle assembly shall be 50.0 ±0.05 grams. Weights of 50 ± 0.05 grams and 100 ±

0.05 grams shall also be provided for total loads of 100 gram and 200 gram, as required for
someconditions of the test. The surface on which the sample container rests shall be flat
and the axis of the plunger shall be at approximately 90° to this surface. The spindle shall
be easily detached for checking its weight.

➢ Penetration Needle

The needle shall be made from fully hardened and tapered stainless steel. The standard needle shall
be approximately 50 mm in length. The diameter of needle shall be 1.00 to 1.02 mm. It shall be
symmetrically tapered at one end by grinding to a cone having an angle between 8.7° and 9.7° over
the entire cone length. The cone should be coaxial with the straight body of the needle. The
truncated tip of the cone shall be within the diameter limits of 0.14 and 0.16 mm and square to the
needle axis within 2°. The needle shall he mounted in a non-corroding metal ferrule. The exposed
length of the standard needle shall be within the limits of 40 and 45 mm and the exposed length
of the long needle shall be 50 to 55 mm. The needle shall be rigidly mounted in the ferrule. The
weight of the ferrule needle assembly should be 2.50 ± 0.05 grams.

➢ Sample Container
A metal or glass cylindrical, flat-bottom container of the following dimensions shall be used.

62 | P a g e
 ➢ Water Bath
A bath having a capacity of at least 10 Liter and capable of maintaining a temperature of 25 ±
0.1 °C or other temperature of test within 0.1 °C.

➢ Timing Device

For hand operated Penetrometers any convenient timing device such as an electric timer, a
stop watch, or other spring activated device may be used provided it is graduated in 0.1 second
or less and is accurate to within ± 0.1 second for a 60 second interval.

➢ Thermometers

Calibrated liquid-in-glass thermometers of suitable range with subdivisions and maximum

scale error of 0.1 °C or any other thermometric device of equal accuracy, precision and
sensitivity shall be used.

10.4 Related Theory

Penetration
Consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the distance in tenths of a millimeter that a
standard needle vertically penetrates a sample of the material under known conditions of loading,
time, and temperature

63 | P a g e
 Sources of Bitumen:
Bitumen is generally obtained from the following three sources;

➢ Naturally occurring (in West Indies).

➢ Extracted from Limestone and Sandstone (procedure adopted in USA).
➢ From Oil Refineries (this is the major source of bitumen in Pakistan).

Grades of Bitumen:
Bitumen is usually characterized in the following three types of grades;

➢ Viscosity grades
➢ Penetration grades
➢ Density grades
80/100 grade means that 1cm2 of bitumen of this grade can be stretched to a length of 80-100cm.
Same is the case for other grades like 60/70, etc.

Facts about Bitumen:

➢ Bitumen is both flammable and combustible.
➢ Bitumen becomes volatile at high temperatures
➢ The working temperature of the bitumen must be at least 100°C less than the flash point
➢ By repeated heating and cooling of bitumen, more and more volatiles will be
ejected andthe properties of bitumen will be altered
Scope & Significance
➢ The penetration test is used as a measure of consistency. Higher values of
penetrationindicate softer consistency.
➢ The test is widely used all over the world for classifying bituminous materials
intodifferent grades.
➢ Depending upon the climatic conditions and type of construction, bitumen of
differentpenetration grade are used. Commonly used grades are 30/40, 60/70
and 80/100.
➢ In warmer regions, lower penetration grades are preferred and in colder regions
bitumenwith higher penetration values are used.
The test is not intended to estimate consistency of softer materials like cut back which are
usually graded by viscosity test

10.5 Preparation of Test Specimen

Heat the sample with care, stirring when possible to prevent local overheating, until it has
become sufficiently fluid to pour. In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 90 °C
above expected softening point for petroleum asphalt (bitumen). Do not heat samples for more
than 30 minutes. Avoid incorporating bubbles into the sample.

64 | P a g e
Pour the sample into the sample container to a depth such that, when cooled to the temperature of
test, the depth of the sample is at least 10 mm greater than the depth to which the needle is
expected to penetrate. Pour two separate portions for each variation in test conditions.

Loosely cover each container as a protection against dust (covering with a lipped beaker) and
allow cooling in air at a temperature between 15° and 30 °C for 1 to 1.5 hours for the small
container and 1.5 to 2 hours for the taller.

10.6 Test Conditions

Where the conditions of test are not specifically mentioned, the temperature, load, and time are
understood to be 25 °C, 100 gram, and 5 seconds, respectively. Other conditions may be used for
special testing, such as the following:

In such cases the specific conditions of test shall be reported. Report to nearest whole unit the
average of three penetrations whose values do not differ by more than the following:

10.7 Procedure
Examine the needle holder and guide to establish the absence of water and other extraneous
materials. Clean a penetration needle with toluene or other suitable solvent, dry with a clean
cloth, and insert the needle into the penetrometer. Unless otherwise specified place the 50 gram
weight above the needle, making the total weight 100 ± 0.1gram. Place the sample container in
the transfer dish, cover the container completely with water with the constant temperature bath
and place the transfer dish on the stand of the penetrometer.
Position the needle by slowly lowering it until its tip just makes contact with the surface of the
sample. This is accomplished by bringing the actual needle tip into contact with its image reflected
on the surface of the sample from a properly placed source of light. Either note the reading of the
penetrometer dial or bring the pointer to zero. Quickly release the needle holder for the specified
period of time and adjust the instrument to measure the distance penetrated in tenths of a
millimeter. If the container moves, ignore the result.

Make at least three determinations at points on the surface of the sample not less than 10 mm from
the side of the container and not less than 10 mm apart. If the transfer dish is used, return the
sample and transfer dish to the constant temperature bath between determinations. Use a clean
65 | P a g e
needle for each determination. If the penetration is greater than 200, use at least three needles
leaving them in the sample until the three determinations have been completed.

10.8 Observations and Calculation

10.9 Comments
The experiment has been performed successfully and the mean penetration value came out to be
79.33. According to the tables the values ranging from 50 to 149 should have difference of
maximum 4. In our case the difference is = 80-79 = 1 which is lesser then 4 so our performed
experiment and the penetration value is correct. We performed the experiment at room
temperature.

66 | P a g e
Experiment No: 11

Determination of Specific Viscosity of Liquid Asphalt UsingEngler

Viscometer.
11.1 Objectives
To determine the specific viscosity of liquid asphalt using Engler viscometer

11.2 Reference
➢ ASTM DESIGNATION: D 1665-98

11.3 Apparatus
➢ Engler Viscometer

Cup — this is a gold-plated cylindrical brass vessel having an inner diameter of 106.0 ±

1.0 mm, closed at the top by a double walled lid. To the rounded bottom is attached a metal—
encase tapered platinum efflux tube 20.0 ± 0.1 mm long with an inside diameter of 2.90 ±
0.1 mm at the top and 2.80 ± 0.02 mm at the bottom. Three metal measuring points spaced
equidistantly around the circumference of the cup. They serve both for indicating when the
instrument is level and for measuring the discharge of material, which is approximately 250
ml.

➢ Jacket

The cup is surrounded by a jacket which holds water or other suitable liquid serving as a constant
temperature bath. It is provided with a thermometer clamp and stirring device.
➢ A tripod supports the apparatus and also carries a ring burner by means of which
the bathis heated. Adjustable legs on the tripod serve to level the instrument.
➢ Stopper

The efflux tube in the cup is closed or opened by the insertion or withdrawal of a tapered hardwood
stopper .The stopper shall be a smooth, round wooden rod 180 mm long 8 mm in diameter.

➢ Receivers

Two types are required as follows:

Testing Flask — 50 ml graduate calibrated at 20 °C

Calibration Flask — for standardization purpose there shall be available a Kohlrausch flask,
with top enlarged above the graduation mark and calibrated to contain 200±0.1 ml at 20°C.

67 | P a g e
 ➢ Thermometers

ASTM Engler Thermometers 23 °C, 24 °C and 25 °C are required, and conforming to the
requirements for these thermometers.

➢ Timer

Stop watch or other timing device graduated in divisions of 0.1 seconds or less and accurate to
within 0.1 % when tested over a 60 minute period.

➢ Strainer

300 mm ASTM sieves conforming to specification.

11.4 Related Theory

11.4.1 Engler Specific Viscosity:

Engler specific viscosity is the ratio of time of flow for 50 ml of material in seconds using an
Engler viscometer at a selected temperature to the time of flow, in second, for an equal volume of
water at 20°C.
The usual temperatures for determination of specific viscosity for tar materials are 25°C, 40°C,
50°C, and 100°C, and generally the temperature is so selected that the specific viscosity is not
more than 45.

Engler’s viscometer which is efflux tube was developed in Germany. The method is basically
empirical but it is possible to relate efflux time to absolute viscosity using charts/tables developed
by Asphalt institute for this purpose.
Note: At a temperature more than 100°C, the water will boil. So we cannot perform this test at a
temperature more than 100°C.

68 | P a g e
11.4.2 Properties of Bitumen:
➢ Bitumen is both flammable and combustible.
➢ Bitumen becomes volatile at higher temperatures.
➢ The working temperature of the bitumen must be at least 100°C below the flash point.
➢ By repeated heating and cooling of bitumen, more and more volatiles will be
ejected andthe properties of bitumen will be altered.
11.4.3 Liquid Asphalt:
It is asphalt present in the liquid or molten state and having a flash point of about 60–70 °C. Liquid
asphalt is in the liquid form due to the presence of mineral impurities.

11.4.4 Types of Liquid Asphalt:

Liquid asphalt is generally found in the following two forms;

➢ Cut back
➢ Emulsion

11.4.5 Scope & Significance

➢ This test method is useful in characterizing the consistency of tar and tar
distillates by measuring, their flow properties. It is applicable to materials that are
readily liquid attemperature up to 100°C.
➢ Viscosity in Engler’s degrees≈1/4 th of say bolt furol viscosity (seconds).
➢ The degree of fluidity at application temperature greatly influences the strength
characteristics of resulting paving mixes. High or low fluidity at mixing and
compactionhas been observed to result in lower stability values.
➢ There is an optimum value of fluidity or viscosity for mixing and compaction for
each aggregate grading of the mix and bitumen grade. At low Viscosity, the
binder simply
lubricates the aggregate particles instead of providing a uniform film thickness for binding
action. Similarly high viscosity also resists the comp active effort and the resulting mix
will be heterogeneous in character exhibiting low stability values.

➢ Liquid asphalt is used to save large amount of energy required to melt or make the
asphaltworkable.
11.5 Preparation of Sample
Stir the sample until it is homogeneous, using heat if necessary. Avoid inclusion of air bubbles,
loss of volatile or other effects, which may influence the viscosity. Strain a representative portion
of the sample through the strainer to eliminate particles. Strain the material directly into the
viscometer if preferred

11.6 Procedure
➢ Thoroughly clean and dry the cup and outlet tube of the viscometer and insert the stopper.
➢ Fill the outer bath and bring it to the required temperature of test.
➢ Maintain the temperature not more than 1 oC high for tests at 25 °C, 40 °C, or 50 °C,
andnot more than 2 or 3 oC for tests at 100 °C,
69 | P a g e
 ➢ Pour the material into the cup until it exactly reaches the top of the three measuring
pointswhen the instrument is level.
➢ Place the lid and inner thermometer into position and maintain the bath, with
frequent agitation, at such a temperature that the material in the viscometer cup
remains at the testtemperature.
➢ Maintain these conditions for 3 minutes.
➢ Check the accuracy of the temperature reading by holding the stopper firmly in
position and rotating the cover at short intervals during the first 2 minutes, but do
not disturb thematerial during the last minute.
➢ When these conditions have been met, withdraw the stopper from the efflux tube,
simultaneously start the timer.
➢ Determine the time in seconds for 50 ml of material to flow from the viscometer.
➢ Find time of flow for the same quantity of distilled water at the same temperature.

11.7 Calculations
Calculate the Engler specific viscosity by time of flow for 50 ml. of material at the selected
temperature by the lime of flow for the same quantity of distilled Water, according to the
following formula:

11.8 Comments
The Experiment has been performed successfully and the Engler specific viscosity determined has
been shown in the above table, the mean value of Engler specific viscosity came out to be 4.589◦E

.The temperature was not kept constant as the apparatus was slightly damaged so we measured the
specific viscosity at the room temperature

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Experiment No. 12
To Perform Ductility Test on Asphalt.
12.1 Objectives
To determine the ductility of asphalt

12.2 Reference
➢ ASTM DESIGNATION: D 113-86

12.3 Apparatus
➢ Mold

The mold is made of brass, the ends being known as clips, and the middle parts asides of the
mold.

➢ Water Bath

The water bath shall be maintained at the specified test temperature, varying not more than 0.1

°C from this temperature. The volume of water shall be not less than 10 liters, and the specimen
shall be immersed to a depth of not less than 10 cm and shall be supported on a perforated shelf

not less than 5 cm from the bottom of the bath.

➢ Testing Machine

For pulling the briquet of bituminous material apart, any apparatus may be used which is so
constructed that the specimen will continuously immersed in water, while the two clips are
pulled apart at a uniform speed, as specified, without undue vibration.

➢ Thermometer

A thermometer having a range -8 to 32 °C (18 – 89 °F)

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12.4 Related Theory

12.4.1 Ductility

The ductility of a bituminous material is defined as the distance in centimeters, to which it will
elongate before breaking when two ends of a briquet specimen of the material, are pulled apart at
a specified speed and a specified temperature. Unless otherwise specified, the test shall be made
at a temperature of 25 ± 0.5 °C and with a speed of 5 cm/min ± 5.0 %. At other temperatures the
speed should be specified. Ductility of asphalt depends upon the grade of asphalt, pouring
temperature, dimensions of briquet, test temperature, rate of pull and levelling of mold.

12.4.2 Importance of Ductility:

The ductility of a bitumen specimen tells us about

➢ Tensile strength of bitumen

➢ Grade of sample (ductility grade)
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12.4.3 Scope & Significance
This test method provides measure of tensile properties of bituminous materials and may be used
to measure ductility for specification requirements.

Bituminous materials used in pavement construction should possess sufficient ductility otherwise
the pavement would crack due to temperature or traffic stresses and may render the pavement
pervious and damage the pavement structure.

The ductility value varies from 5 to over 100 cm’s.

Several agencies have specified minimum ductility values for various types of bitumen

pavements. However a ductility of 100 cm’s is specified generally for bituminous construction.

Roads expand at daytime while they contract at night. So, if the bitumen is not adequately ductile
cracking will occur.

More than one grade may be used in the same project. For example; we may use grade 80/100 on
the main traffic lane and lower grades on the arteries.

12.5 Procedure

➢ Assemble the mold on a brass plate. Thoroughly coat the surface of the plate and
interior surfaces of the sides of the mold with a thin layer of a mixture of glycerin
and china clayto prevent the material under test from sticking.
➢ The plate upon which the mold is placed shall be perfectly flat and level so
that thebottom surface of the mold will be in contact throughout.
➢ Carefully heat the sample to prevent local overheating until it has become
sufficientlyfluid to pour.
➢ Strain the molten sample through a # 50 sieve. After a thorough stirring, pour it into
the mold. In filling the mold, take care not to disarrange the parts and thus distort
the briquet.
➢ Infilling, pour the material in a thin stream hack and forth from end to end of the
molduntil the mold is more than level full.
➢ Let the mold containing the material cool to room temperature for a period of from
30 to 40 minutes and then place it in the water bath maintained at the specified
temperature oftest for 30 minutes; then cut off the excess bitumen with a hot
straight edged knife or spatula to make the mold just level full.
➢ Place the brass plate and mold, with briquet specimen, in water bath and keep
at the specified temperature for a period of from 85 to 95 minutes. Then
remove the briquetfrom the plate, detach the sidepieces, and immediately test
the briquet.

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12.6 Testing:

➢ Attach the rings at each end of the clips to the pin or hooks in the testing
machine andpull the two clips apart at a uniform speed specified until the
briquet ruptures.
➢ Measure the distance in centimeters through which the clips have been pulled to
producerupture. While the test is being made, the water in the tank of the testing
machine shall cover the specimen both above and below it by at least 2.5 cm and
shall be kept continuously at the temperature specified.
➢ If the bituminous material comes in contact with the surface of the water or the
bottom of the bath, the test shall not be considered normal. Adjust the specific
gravity of the bath bythe addition of either methyl alcohol or sodium chloride so
that the bituminous material neither comes to the surface of the water, nor touches
the bottom of the bath at any time during the test.

12.7 Observations & Results

Grade of Bitumen = 60/70
Test Temperature = 18o C
Ductility Value = 116cm

12.8 Comments
The Ductility test has been performed and the ductility value has been calculated as 116 cm. The
ASTM D-113 for 60/70 grade the value of Ductility = 100 min. Temperature was not
maintained in the lab so the value may differ at 25o C as we performed at the Lab temperature.

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Experiment No: 13
Softening Point Of Bitumen (Ring-And-Ball Apparatus).
13.1 Objectives
To find the softening point of bitumen

13.2 Reference
➢ ASTM Designation: D 36-76
➢ AASHTO Designation: T 53-89

13.3 Apparatus
➢ Ring

A brass shouldered ring.

➢ Ball

A steel ball, 9.53 mm (3/8”) in diameter, weighing between 3.45 and 3.55 grams.

➢ Ball Centering Guide

A guide for centering the ball and made of brass.

➢ Ring Holder

The rings shall be supported on a brass ring holder. Rings shall be supported in a horizontal
position with the bottoms of the rings 25 mm above the upper surface of the bottom plate and
a distance of at least 13 mm and not more than 19 mm between the bottom plate and the
bottom ofthe bath. The thermometer shall be suspended so that the bottom of the bulb is level
with the bottom of the rings and within 13 mm of the rings but not touching them.

➢ Brass Pouring Plate

A flat, smooth brass plate approximately 75 by 50 mm that has been treated to prevent the
bituminous material from adhering to it. A suitable treatment is to coat the plate just before
usewith a thin layer of a mixture of glycerin and dextrin, talc, or china clay.

➢ Bath

A glass vessel, capable of being heated, not less than 85 mm in diameter and not less than
120mm in depth from the bottom of the flare.

➢ Thermometers

Thermometers having a range from -2 to +80°C.

13.4 Related Theory

13.4.1 Softening Point:

The softening point is defined as the mean of the temperatures at which the bitumen disks
softenand sag downwards a distance of 25 mm under the weight of a steel ball.

Scope & Significance:

➢ This method is useful in determining the consistency of bitumenas one
element inestablishing the uniformity of shipments or sources of supply.
➢ Softening point is the temperature at which the bituminous binders have an
equal viscosity (i.e. the consistency of all the grades will be same at the
softening point e.g. iftwo samples have softening points of 40 °C and 80 °C
respectively, both will have the same consistency at their softening point.).
➢ The test gives an idea of the temperature at which the bituminous
materials attain acertain viscosity.
➢ Bitumen with higher softening point may be preferred in warmer places.
➢ Softening point should be higher than the hottest day temperature, which is
anticipatedin that area otherwise bitumen may sufficiently soften and result in
bleeding and development of ruts.

13.5 Test Specimens

Heat the sample with care to prevent local overheating, with constant stirring until it has
becomesufficiently fluid to pour. In no case, however, shall the temperature be raised to more
than 55°Cabove the expected softening point for tar pitch, or to more than 110 °C above the
expected softening point for asphalt. Avoid incorporating air bubbles in the sample.

Bring an asphalt sample to the pouring temperature in not more than 2 hrs. Bring coal tar
pitch tothe desired pouring conditions in minimum time, not exceeding 30 min.

Pour a slight excess of the heated sample into two rings, preheated to approximately the
pouring temperature. While being filled the rings shall rest on the brass pouring plate,
previously treatedto prevent bituminous materials from adhering to it.

Cool the specimen disks for a minimum of 30 min. In no case shall more than 240 min
elapsebefore completion of the test. Cool specimens that are soft at room temperature for
at least 30min at a minimum of 8 °C below the expected softening point.

After cooling, cut the excess material off cleanly with a slightly heated knife or spatula. In
casethe test is repeated, use a clean container and fresh sample to prepare the test specimen.

13.6 Procedure

13.6.1 For Materials Having Softening Points 80°C Or Below

➢ Assemble the apparatus with the rings, ASTM Thermometer 15 °C or I5 °F, and
ball centering guides in position and fill the bath with freshly boiled water to a
depth of notless than 102mm and not more than 108mm. 9|Page
 ➢ Maintain the bath temperature at 5 ± 1°C for 15 min, placing the test
container in icewater if necessary.
➢ Using forceps, place a ball, previously adjusted to the bath temperature, in
each ball-centering guide.
➢ Apply heat in such a manner that the temperature of the liquid is raised 5°C/min.
➢ Avoid the effect of drafts, using shields if necessary. (Rigid adherence to the
prescribedrate of heating is absolutely essential for reproducibility of results.
➢ Either a gas burner or electric heater may be used; however, the latter must be of
the low-lag, variable output type to maintain the necessary rate of heating.)
➢ The rate of rise of temperature shall be uniform and shall not be averaged over the
period of the test. The maximum permissible variation of any 1-mm period after
the first 3 mm shall be ± 0.5°C. Reject all tests in which the rate of rise does not
fall within these limits.
➢ Record for each ring and ball the temperature shown by the thermometer at the
instant thespecimen surrounding the ball touches the bottom plate.
➢ Make no correction for the emergent stem of the thermometer. If the difference
betweenthe values obtained in the duplicate determinations exceeds 1°C repeat
the test.
13.7 For Materials Having Softening Points above 80°C
Follow the same procedure as described above, except use USP glycerin instead of water and
useASTM Thermometer l6°C or 16°F. The starting temperature of the glycerin bath shall be
32°C.

13.8 Observations & Results

13.9 Comments
The experiment has been performed successfully and the softening point came out to be
46.4oC. Bitumen having this softening point should not be used in Lahore as the city’s
highest maximumtemperature was 48.3 °C recorded on May 30, 1944 And 48 °C was
recorded on June 10, 2007. At the time the meteorological office recorded this official
temperature in the shade, it reported aheat index in direct sunlight of 55 °C. So to avoid the
problems of Rutting and bleeding this bitumen should not be used in Lahore.

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