GEOLOGICAL CRITERIA (ORE GUIDES) FOR MINERAL PROSPECTING→

Geological prospecting criteria mean such geological settings, which point to the possibility of discovering
various mineral deposits.
1. Structural-tectonic Criteria -
Endogenous deposits are associated chiefly with folded regions. These often contain so-called ore belts
(metallogenic provinces). Folded structures in the shape of domes, anticlines and flexures favour the
formation of oil, gases, rock salt, sulphur and also of some deposits of non-ferrous metals and fluorite.
Zones of complex fracturing and dislocations are very important for the formation of many endogenous
deposits. Minor faults can serve as passage for hydrothermal solutions.
2. Stratigraphic Criteria -
A number of sedimentary deposits is associated with specific paleogeographic conditions that had existed
only during certain stages of the geologic history of a particular segment of the earth’s crust. Ninety-five
percent of all deposits of the sedimentary sulphur occur in the Permian, late Jurassic and Neogenic rocks.
3. Lithological Criteria -
Lithological composition of rocks quite often features with a fair degree of accuracy the facies conditions
attending their formation and consequently, possible generation of certain types of deposits. Oil deposits
accumulate in porous sands, sandstones and cavernous limestones. Coals are associated with sandy-clay
sequences, often irregularly banded (alluvial sandy sediments), sometimes with the presence of abundant
vegetable remains.
4. Magmatogenic Criteria –
Study of the chemical composition of the magma, its differentiation and crystallinity, alterations in the
country rocks, grain size of the igneous rock, the size and fabric of the intrusion and the depth of magma
congealing is important in prospecting for mineral resources.
It is based on the paragenetic association of economic minerals with definite rocks. Investigation of it is of
paramount significance in the search for igneous deposits. For instance, chromite, platinum, diamond, and
corundum deposits are confined to the solid masses of ultrabasic rocks; deposits of titano-magnetite,
copper-nickel, cobalt, silver and apatites are associated with intrusions of basic composition; miocaceous
pegmatites are related to large-sized granite intrusions, while pyrite deposits are localized amidst
metamorphosed effusive rocks. Deposits of talc, asbestos and magnesite are associated with ultrabasic
rocks metamorphosed by the action of hydrothermal solutions (serpentinites).

5. Geomorphological Criteria -
Surface relief forms are primarily controlled by the geological factors – the composition and mechanical
properties of the rocks that compose the given area of the earth’s crust, dislocations, etc. Placer deposits
are frequently associated with river valleys and terraces. Outcrops of hard rocks occurring on large
peneplained areas, as elevations and hills, often contain deposits of valuable minerals. Small depressions
and sink holes bear evidence to the presence of gypsum or limestone series. With glacial landscape
features are associated deposits of sand, gravel, brick-clays and other building materials.
6. Paleoclimatic criteria -
Palaeoclimatic criteria are particularly important in prospecting for deposits related to weathering crusts.
The residues of some rocks are enriched through weathering with poorly migrating elements to form
 economically valuable accumulations, such as Ni-hydrosilicates on serpentinites, Al-rich latentes on rocks
poor in Fe, kaolins on feldspathic rocks, Mn-oxides on Mn-rich rocks (e.g. gondites).
7. Historical criteria -
Historical criteria include written reports on ancient mining, old mine maps, archaeological finds
(hammers, chisels, lamps, remnants of timbering), traces of old mine workings, relics of old dressing and
smelting plants, slag heaps and local names.

8. Paleogeographical criteria -

The paleogeographical factors that are significant in prospecting for mineral resources can be placed in
several categories, each of which demands special attention. These are:

a). the relief of the source and accumulation areas,

b) the climate,
c) the ancient drainage pattern,
d) the form of the shoreline,
e) the direction of currents in the accumulation area (in the river, sea or lake), and

f) the presence of volcanic centres.

All these factors are affected by tectonism.

GEOLOGICAL CRITERIA (ORE GUIDES) FOR MINERAL PROSPECTING→

Geological criteria, often referred to as "ore guides" or "ore indicators," are essential factors that geologists
and prospectors use to identify areas with the potential for valuable mineral deposits. These criteria help
guide mineral exploration efforts and increase the chances of discovering economically viable ore bodies.
Here are some common geological criteria used for mineral prospecting:

1. Rock Types and Mineral Assemblages:

 Certain rock types are associated with specific mineral deposits. For example, porphyry copper
deposits are often found in granitic intrusions, while gold deposits can be associated with quartz
veins in various rock types.
 The presence of specific minerals or mineral assemblages, such as sulfides, oxides, or indicator
minerals, can indicate the proximity of valuable mineralization.
2. Structures and Faults:
 Fault zones, fractures, and shear zones can serve as pathways for mineral-rich fluids to migrate and
deposit minerals.
 Cross-cutting relationships between different rock units and structures can provide clues about the
timing and sequence of mineralizing events.
3. Alteration Zones:
 Hydrothermal alteration of rocks often occurs in the presence of mineralizing fluids. Different
alteration minerals, such as sericite, chlorite, and epidote, can signal the presence of nearby mineral
deposits.
4. Geochemical Anomalies:
 Elevated concentrations of specific elements or compounds in soil, rock, or water samples can
indicate the presence of mineralization beneath the surface.
 Geochemical surveys, including soil and stream sediment sampling, can help identify anomalous
areas.
5. Geophysical Signatures:
 Geophysical methods, such as magnetic, gravity, and electromagnetic surveys, can detect subsurface
anomalies caused by variations in rock properties and mineralization.
 Certain mineral deposits exhibit distinctive geophysical responses that can aid in targeting
exploration efforts.
6. Mineralization Styles:
 Different types of mineral deposits have characteristic mineralization styles. For instance,
disseminated sulfides might indicate a porphyry copper deposit, while vein quartz with visible gold
can point to a potential gold vein deposit.
7. Proximity to Known Deposits:
 Often, new mineral deposits are discovered in proximity to existing mines or known mineral
occurrences, as they may share similar geological settings.
8. Regional Geological Context:
 Understanding the larger geological context of an area, including the tectonic history and regional
geological features, can provide insights into potential mineralization.
9. Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery:
 Advanced satellite imagery and remote sensing techniques can help identify geological features,
alteration patterns, and anomalies that might not be easily visible on the ground.
10. Historical Mining and Exploration Data:
 Reviewing historical mining and exploration records can reveal areas where mineralization was previously
discovered or investigated, providing a starting point for further exploration.

It's important to note that geological criteria are often used in combination with one another to build a
comprehensive understanding of an area's mineral potential. Successful mineral prospecting requires
expertise, careful fieldwork, and the integration of various geological, geochemical, and geophysical data.
Additionally, geologists often rely on ongoing research and advancements in exploration technologies to
refine their targeting strategies.

GEOLOGICAL CRITERIA (ORE GUIDES) FOR MINERAL PROSPECTING→

Geological criteria, often referred to as "ore-guides," are specific geological features or indicators that can
help prospectors and geologists identify areas with a higher potential for mineral deposits. These criteria
are based on the understanding of how certain minerals form and are associated with particular geological
processes. While the specific ore-guides can vary depending on the type of mineral being sought and the
geological context, here are some common geological criteria used in mineral prospecting:

1. Rock Types and Host Rocks: Certain types of rocks are more likely to host specific mineral deposits. For
example, copper deposits are often associated with igneous rocks like porphyries, while gold deposits can
be found in quartz veins.
2. Mineral Associations: The presence of certain minerals in association with others can indicate the potential
for a specific mineral deposit. For instance, lead and zinc ores often occur together in hydrothermal
deposits.
3. Alteration Zones: Hydrothermal fluids can alter the composition of rocks around mineral deposits.
Recognizing alteration zones, such as clay alteration or silicification, can be a key indicator of nearby
mineralization.
4. Structural Features: Faults, fractures, and folds can create pathways for mineral-rich fluids to migrate and
accumulate. Understanding the structural geology of an area can help identify potential deposit sites.
5. Geochemical Anomalies: Elevated concentrations of certain elements in soil, rock, or water samples can
indicate the presence of underlying mineral deposits. Geochemical surveys can help identify anomalies that
warrant further investigation.
6. Gossans and Oxidation Zones: Gossans, weathered and oxidized zones at the surface, can indicate the
presence of sulfide minerals below. These zones are often associated with deposits of copper, iron, and
other metals.
7. Vein Patterns: The presence of vein systems, fractures filled with mineral material, can indicate the
potential for mineralization. Different vein patterns can be associated with different types of deposits.
8. Topographic and Geophysical Signatures: Certain geophysical methods, such as magnetic and gravity
surveys, can reveal subsurface structures and anomalies that suggest the presence of mineral deposits.
9. Stratigraphy and Depositional Environments: Understanding the geological history of an area and the
processes that led to sedimentary or volcanic deposits can provide clues about potential mineralization.
10. Historical Mining and Prospecting Data: Examining historical records of mining activities and past
discoveries can provide insights into areas that have yielded mineral deposits in the past.
11. Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery: Modern technology allows for the analysis of satellite imagery
and remote sensing data to identify surface features and alterations that may indicate mineralization.

It's important to note that mineral prospecting involves a combination of geological knowledge, fieldwork,
and data analysis. Geologists and prospectors often use a multidisciplinary approach, integrating various
geological criteria and exploration methods to increase the likelihood of discovering valuable mineral
deposits. Additionally, local geological context and regional geological history play a significant role in
determining the most relevant ore-guides for a specific area.

INTRODUCTION –

Under the Mines & Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act, 1957 and the Mineral Concession Rules, 1960, the
State Governments accord grant/renewal of reconnaissance permits, prospecting licences and mining leases.

PROSPECTING LICENCE –

Under the Mines & Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act, 1957, "Prospecting Licence" (PL) means a licence
granted for the purpose of undertaking “prospecting operations” with a view to exploring, locating or proving
mineral deposits. The State Governments and Union Territories are empowered to grant/renew/revoke Prospecting
Licences (PL) under provisions of Mineral Concession Rules, 1960.

MINING LEASES –

Section 3 (c) of the Mines & Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act 1957 defines “Mining Lease” (ML) as a lease
granted for the purpose of undertaking mining operations and includes a sub-lease granted for such purpose. The
Act defines “mining operations” as any operation undertaken for the purpose of winning any mineral.

METHODS OF GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION →

 EXPLORATORY GRIDS –

Exploratory grids in geological exploration refer to a systematic approach of dividing a study area into a
grid pattern to aid in the collection of geological data and the subsequent analysis of that data. This
technique is commonly used in various fields of geology, such as mineral exploration, environmental
assessment, and geological mapping. Here's how it works:

1. Grid Creation: The study area is divided into a grid of regularly spaced points or cells. The spacing between
the points can vary depending on the scale of the study and the specific objectives of the exploration. The
grid can be established using GPS coordinates or by other spatial referencing methods.
2. Data Collection: At each grid point, geological data is collected through various methods, such as field
observations, rock and soil sampling, geophysical surveys, and remote sensing techniques. The collected
data can include information about rock types, mineralogy, structural features, topography, and other
relevant geological attributes.
3. Data Analysis: Once the data is collected, it can be analyzed individually at each grid point and also in a
broader context to identify patterns, trends, and anomalies. Statistical techniques and spatial analysis tools
are often used to process and interpret the data.
4. Mapping and Interpretation: The collected data is used to create geological maps that show the
distribution of different geological features and characteristics across the study area. These maps can reveal
valuable information about the geological history, mineral potential, and environmental considerations of
the area.
5. Decision Making: Based on the analysis of the data, decisions can be made regarding the next steps of
exploration or development. For example, promising areas with high mineral potential might be prioritized
for further investigation, while areas with potential environmental concerns might be subject to mitigation
measures.
6. Modeling and Prediction: The data collected from the exploratory grids can be used to build geological
models that provide insights into the subsurface geology of the area. These models can help predict the
distribution of geological features beyond the sampled grid points.
7. Data Validation: Exploratory grids provide a systematic way to ensure that data is collected across the
entire study area, reducing the risk of missing important geological information.

It's important to note that the spacing of the grid and the methods used for data collection can significantly
impact the accuracy and reliability of the geological interpretations. Additionally, advances in technology,
such as remote sensing tools and geospatial software, have further enhanced the effectiveness of
exploratory grids in geological exploration.

EXPLORATORY GRIDS –

Exploratory grids in geological exploration refer to a systematic method of sampling and data collection
used by geologists to assess the distribution and characteristics of geological features within a given area.
This approach is particularly useful in remote or challenging terrains where obtaining detailed information
about the geological formations may be difficult.

Here's how exploratory grids are typically used in geological exploration:

1. Grid Design: Geologists establish a grid pattern over the target area, which involves placing a network of
evenly spaced points or lines. The spacing between these points or lines depends on the scale of the
exploration and the geological characteristics being studied.
2. Sampling: At each point or along each line of the grid, geologists collect samples of rocks, minerals, soil,
sediment, or other geological materials. These samples provide valuable information about the
composition, structure, and potential resources within the area.
3. Data Collection: Various types of data are collected at each sampling point, including geological
descriptions, mineralogical analyses, geochemical analyses, and sometimes geophysical measurements.
These data help geologists understand the geological history, processes, and potential economic
significance of the area.
4. Mapping: As data is collected from each point or line, geologists create maps that depict the distribution
of geological features, mineral deposits, rock types, and other relevant information. These maps aid in
visualizing the spatial relationships and patterns within the studied area.
5. Analysis: Geologists analyze the collected data to identify trends, anomalies, and correlations. This analysis
helps in deciphering the geological history, identifying potential mineral deposits or resources, and making
informed decisions about further exploration or development activities.
6. Interpolation: In cases where the grid points are not sampled directly, interpolation techniques can be
used to estimate values between the sampled points. This allows geologists to create continuous models of
geological features, such as subsurface structures or mineralization zones.
7. Modeling and Interpretation: The data collected from the exploratory grid can be used to construct 3D
geological models, which provide a more comprehensive understanding of the subsurface geology. These
models are crucial for resource estimation and mine planning in the case of mineral exploration.

Exploratory grids are a fundamental tool in geological exploration, helping geologists make informed
decisions about the potential for mineral deposits, hydrocarbon reservoirs, groundwater resources, and
other geological features. The systematic and spatially distributed nature of exploratory grids allows for a
comprehensive assessment of a given area, even in remote or challenging environments.

PITTING –
The process of digging rectangular openings to penetrate soil cover to reach ore bodies concealed
underneath is called " pitting " . The common dimension of pits is 1.2m x 1.2m x 6m . However pits may be
sunk to a depth of about 10 meters beyond which they become very expensive . Pitting is a very useful
method of prospecting those ore bodies which are flat or gently dipping and lying near the ground surface .
For steeply dipping ore bodies and those having linear and narrow outcrops , pitting would not be
favourable . The pattern of the layout of the pits may be regular or irregular . In a regular system pits are
sunk in rows in grid or triangular pattern . Pitting is an important method of prospecting in many bauxite
and iron ore deposits .

Pitting is usually employed to test shallow, extensive, flat-lying bodies of mineralization. An

ideal example of this would be a buried heavy mineral placer. The main advantage of pitting over
a pattern-drill programme on the same deposit is that pits are capable of providing a very large
volume sample. Large sample sizes are necessary to overcome problems of variable grade
distribution, which are a characteristic feature of such deposits. In areas where the ground is wet,
or labour is expensive, pits are best dug with a mechanical excavator. Pits dug to depths of 3–4
m are common and with large equipment excavation to 6 m can be achieved. In wet, soft ground
any pit deeper than 1 m is dangerous and boarding must be used. Diggers excavate rapidly and
pits 3–4 m deep can be dug, logged, sampled, and re-filled within an hour. In tropical regions,
thick lateritic soil forms ideal conditions for pitting and, provided the soil is dry, vertical pits to
30 m depth can be safely excavated.
TRENCHING –
A " trench " is a narrow linear excavation which is made to expose ore bodies concealed under soil cover .
The trenches may be 6 to 9 meter long , 1 to 1.5 meter wide , and 2 to 2.5 meter deep . They are
commonly dug across the strike of the ore body at intervals 15 to 150 meters . The spacing of trenches
depends upon the consistency of data . Prospecting by trenching is generally done when the ore outcrops
are narrow and the soil cover is thin ( about one meter ) . The trenching gives reliable information about
the geology , structure , extension and grade variation of the ore body . This method has been adopted as a
major prospecting method in may iron ore and bauxite deposits .

-Trenches are usually employed to expose steep dipping bedrock buried below shallow
overburden, and are normally dug across the strike of the rocks or mineral zone being tested.

-Excavation can be either by hand, mechanical digger, or by bulldozer on sloping ground.

Excavated depths of up to 4 m are common.

-Trenching provides accurate near-surface data and the possibility of collecting samples of large
volume for testing.

-Trenching is the most definitive of all subsurface exploratory methods; It permits inspection of a
continuous geologic section by both geologists and regulatory authorities and makes possible the
preparation of a graphic log that delineates both obvious and subtle geologic features.

SAFETY AND LOGISTICS IN TRENCHING

When digging a trench, attention to the following points will make subsequent mapping and
sampling much safer and more convenient.

 Cut back both sides of the top of the trench for one bucket width and to a depth of
50–100 cm as shown in Fig.1. This prevents loose unconsolidated surface material
from falling into the trench (and on to the head of any geologist below!).
 Stack all topsoil and any loose surface material from the trench on one side of the
opening; stack all bedrock material to the other side. This facilitates making a quick
assessment of the trench material from the bedrock spoil heaps and will permit a bulk
sample to be taken if required. When re-filling the trench (a normal environmental
requirement) the spoil should be replaced in reverse order so that the topsoil is
preserved on top.
 If the trench is deep (i.e. cannot be easily climbed into or out of) and more than 50 m
long, provide an access ramp at its midpoint.
 Most trench wall collapses take place in the first few hours after digging or else after
heavy rain. With deep trenches, it is therefore advisable to leave them for at least 24 h
before entering and not to enter them immediately after rain.
  In any case, never enter a deep trench unless accompanied by another person who
should remain outside the trench and be ready to provide assistance if necessary.

BOREHOLE LOGGING –
Logging also known as well logging/ borehole logging is a technique for systematic recording of rock
properties including its fluid contents down the drill hole. Some of the rock properties which can be logged
are electrical resistivity, self-potential, gamma ray emission, density, magnetic susceptibility, and acoustic
velocity.

(Well logging is an evaluation method in which a logging crew lowers a special tool, a
sonde, into the well and then pulls it back up. As the sonde passes the formations on its
way up the wellbore, it senses and measures electrical, radioactive, and acoustic
(sound) properties of the rocks. Measuring and recording these properties provides a
good deal of information about the rocks. The sonde transmits its measurements via
conducting cable to the surface, where computers record them. Experts analyze the
resulting recording, the log . Analysis involves careful study of the curves on the log.
The curves indicate whether hydrocarbons exist in the formations investigated and to
what extent.)

Principles of Well Logging –

Boreholes are drilled to study subsurface geology along the path of a hole. The information helps to
interpret a 3D picture of the area. Shallow noncore holes are excavated by reverse-circulation drills in
which rock fragments are blown out of the hole by air pressure. Deeper holes are sunk by rotary drills with
cutting units and tungsten-carbide or diamond bits. The drill-hole provides non-coring cutting fragments
flushed by drilling fluids (mud), and solid core using a core barrel and water circulation. In the case of core
drilling the recovered cores are logged for lithology, mineralization, and structure.
Well logging collects information by measuring certain rock properties. The inside of boreholes is protected
from wall collapse by casing and high-density fluids/cement-mixed mud to lower geophysical probes.
Geophysical tools include gravity, electrical resistivity, self-potential, magnetic, electromagnetic, sonic
velocity, and temperature. The instrument is housed in a cylindrical metal tube (sonde) connected to a
multicore cable fixed in a rotating drum fitted with winches and a recorder. The probe is lowered to the
bottom of the hole and logging continues while hoisting the instrument up though the drilled section. The
logging data are automatically recorded on a paper strip and simultaneously on magnetic tape in analog or
digital form for subsequent processing. The geological properties obtained from well logging are formation
thickness, lithology, porosity and permeability, proportion of water and hydrocarbon saturation, and
temperature.
Applications –
Well logging is used for electrical imaging, mine mapping, and hydrocarbon and hydrological exploration
to obtain in situ properties of possible reservoir rocks. Electric logs are considered useful for evaluating
formation fluid properties. Modern well-logging techniques are used to locate deep-seated metallic ore
deposits, extension of orebodies in all directions, freshwater resources, and as part of engineering test
drilling. The cross-hole and up-hole tomography involves sending seismic, electrical, electromagnetic, and
 radar signals between a transmitter in one borehole and a receiver in another borehole. Mise-à-la-masse
surveys have been conducted successfully for Mataloko geothermal field, Flores, Indonesia, lead-zinc-
copper at Sawar, Ajmer, and goldpyrite at Bhukia-Jagpura, Rajasthan, India.

TYPES OF WELL LOGS –

different types of well logs used in the evaluation of deposits and how they contribute to the understanding
of subsurface formations:

1. Gamma-Ray Log: This log measures the natural gamma radiation emitted by the rocks. Different rock
types have varying levels of radioactivity. By analyzing gamma-ray logs, geologists can identify different
formations and lithologies. Shale, for example, tends to emit higher gamma radiation than sandstone or
limestone. This helps in characterizing the vertical sequence of rock layers and identifying potential
hydrocarbon-bearing zones.
2. Resistivity Log: The resistivity log measures the electrical resistivity of the rock. Resistivity is a property that
indicates how easily electrical currents can pass through a material. Hydrocarbons are poor conductors of
electricity, so the presence of hydrocarbons in a formation can lead to an increase in resistivity. By analyzing
resistivity logs, geologists can detect potential oil and gas zones and estimate fluid saturation levels.
3. Sonic Log (Acoustic Log): The sonic log measures the travel time of sound waves through the rock
formations. Different rock types have different sonic velocities. This log helps in determining the porosity of
the formation, as well as the mechanical properties of the rocks. High porosity zones often have lower sonic
velocities.
4. Neutron-Density Log: The neutron log measures the amount of hydrogen atoms in the rock formation,
which is indicative of porosity. Neutron logs are often used in conjunction with density logs, which measure
the bulk density of the rocks. By combining these measurements, geologists can estimate porosity and
differentiate between fluid types, helping to identify hydrocarbon-bearing zones.
5. Caliper Log: The caliper log measures the diameter of the wellbore. This information is crucial for assessing
the integrity of the well and identifying any irregularities or collapsed formations. It helps in ensuring safe
drilling operations and preventing accidents.
6. Pressure and Flow Rate Measurements: These measurements are crucial in understanding the reservoir's
pressure regime and fluid dynamics. Pressure measurements can indicate the presence of overpressure
zones, which might impact drilling operations and reservoir performance.
7. Magnetic Susceptibility Log: This log measures the magnetic susceptibility of rocks, which is related to the
concentration of magnetic minerals. It can be used to identify certain rock types and geological features,
such as mineral deposits.
8. Image Logs (Borehole Imaging): Image logs provide visual representations of the borehole walls. They
use various imaging technologies, such as microelectrical imaging or acoustic imaging, to capture detailed
images of the borehole's surface. These logs are particularly useful for identifying fractures, faults, bedding
orientations, and other geological features.