Systeme de Controle
Systeme de Controle
SUPPORT DE COURS
SYSTEME DE CONTROLE DE GESTION
1 Introduction
In recent years, the fiel of management accounting and control has experienced a
new dynamic in terms of proposing various new analytical conceptualizations of man-
agement control systems (MCS). A diverse set of recently published frameworks,
such as the performance management and control framework (Ferreira and Otley
2005, 2009) or the MCS package (Malmi and Brown 2008), exemplifie this devel-
opment. Two issues that seem symptomatic for MCS research have motivated each
framework. First, contemporary management control frameworks are requested peri-
odically because “[. . .] the control needs of the current environment are significantl
different from those developed in an earlier period [. . .]” (Nixon and Burns 2005,
p. 260). In particular, recent research suggests that none of the extant conceptualiza-
tions fulfill the current needs to accommodate the perspectives of a wide range of
actors (Malmi and Brown 2008). Second, the lack of a consistent conceptualization
of MCS has led to an impediment of a precise academic debate in the fiel (Eilon
1962; Fisher 1998; F l e m i n g 1972; Machin 1983; Merchant and Otley 2007;
Merchant and Van der Stede 2003; Otley et al. 1995). Consequently, “building a
cumulative body of knowledge about the design and use of MCS becomes difficul
without well-articulated definition and purposes of MCS” (Malmi and Brown 2008,
p. 289). How-ever, different attempts to improve conceptualizations of MCS and to
overcome exist-ing inconsistencies have not (yet) been successful. Rather, the fiel
of MCS research is still characterized by its fragmented status, manifested in
divergent, but coexisting definitions conceptualizations, and theoretical
underpinnings of MCS (Berry et al. 2009). In addition, the fact that the literature has
not yet provided a review of past research on conceptualizations of MCS contributes
to the fragmented view of the field
In this section we show how the term “management control” and “management con-
trol systems” emerged in order to give insights into its origins because this supports
the understanding of past, current, and future developments in the fiel of MCS.
Therefore, we dedicate the following paragraphs to a “short history of management
control”.
Reviewing the broad literature stream, it is surprising that the emergence of man-
agement control systems as academic term can be traced back to few people and few
universities. Specificall , the Harvard Business School (HBS) has an outstanding po-
sition with regards to its influenc on the field of management control because two
main protagonists of the management control stream were located at this school, i.e.
Ross Walker and Robert Anthony (Zeff 2008).Walker and Anthony were the two
most influential leaders concerning the transformation from accounting to
manage-ment control. They picked up the emerging trend initiated by Thomas
Sanders, who was the firs who named control in an accounting course in 1921/22,
and they con-tinued the ideas by Earle Burchell, who made the firs reference to
budgetary control in an accounting course 1922/23. Specificall , Ross Walker took
the firs steps to-wards a transformation from classical accounting to control. He
shifted the focus of the HBS accounting education form satisfying the needs of the
accounting profes-sion to satisfying the information demands of managers in
order to foster rational behavior (Zaleznik 2005). Walker interpreted the term
control in a way that control would not only mean limitation to human behavior
but also “ensuring an adequate supply of successful operation” (Walker, 1938 cited
in Zeff 2008, p. 181). This shift was fostered by courses for the US National
Defense that were ran by the HBS from 1941–1945. The business school trained
military officer and civilian executives to “enhance their analytical skills, helping
them to optimize the management of scarce resources available for the war effort.
[. . . ] Adopting, the faculty poured old wine into new bottles and called it
‘Management Control’ ” (Vancil 1989, pp. ix–x). This was the firs time that the
modern term management control was used. After the military initiation, the HBS
also integrated this new course into its “Industrial Administrator” degree program in
1941 and, in 1942, in its elective MBA program as well.
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In addition to Walker, the other dominant actor behind the shift from account-
ing to management control was Robert Anthony. Walker and Anthony supported the
curriculum’s change with the creation of accompanying textbooks. Developing his
prior “Management Accounting” course, Anthony offered in 1963/64 for the firs
time a course with the same title as his seminal book in 1965, i.e. “Planning and
Control Systems”. A firs step towards a systems approach for management control
was taken. In the consequent year, he continued this course but changed its title to
“Management Control Systems”, which brought the term for the firs time in the aca-
demic world (Otley 1994). The accompanying textbook to this course was the starting
point of modern MCS discussion (Machin 1983; Otley et al. 1995; Herath 2007) as
it provided not only for students and practitioners a comprehensive overview about
management control but also it provided researchers with a structure that allowed a
clear research design.
Anthony define management control as “the process by which managers assure that
resources are obtained and used effectively and efficientl in the accomplish-ment of the
organization’s objectives” (1965, p. 17). Regarding the conceptualization of MCS,
Anthony (1965) distinguished planning and control systems into three discrete
processes of strategic planning, management control, and operational control. These
processes relate to the organizational hierarchy in such a manner that they in-dicate the
respective managerial levels. Strategic planning is define as “the process
of deciding on objectives of the organization, on changes in these objectives, and
on the policies that are to govern the acquisition, use, and disposition of these re-
sources” (Anthony 1965, p. 16). Strategic planning activities encompass the setting
of long-term goals and objectives as well as the formulation of long-range plans and
policies for the whole organization. In contrast, operational control “is the process
of assuring that specifi tasks are carried out effectively and efficiently (Anthony
1965, p. 18). Activities related to operational control involve particular tasks and
transactions whose accomplishment can be objectively evaluated.
Although Anthony’s work was a milestone in the development of management
control and MCS research, many management control researchers expressed their
discontent with this framework over time. As employees in lower hierarchical levels
become more and more involved in activi-ties of strategic planning or at least of
strategic importance, this distinction seem no longer appropriate. Moreover,
Anthony’s (1965) avoidance of strategic issues as well as the disregard of
different types of operational controls in different technological environments was
deemed problem-atic (Otley et al. 1995; Merchant and Otley 2007). Also, the
possibility that strate-gies can emerge (Mintzberg 1979) and evolve over time as
well as the dynamic role of MCS in formulating strategies is not considered by
Anthony (Otley 1994; Speklé 2001).
A comparison of the three top-ranked textbooks requires firs the understanding and
definitio of MCS according to the respective authors. Subsequently, different types
of controls and of MCS are described and analyzed
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The first ranked book by Merchant and Van der Stede (2003) builds on an object-of-
control framework (p. X). Within that framework, MCS are based on the objects of
control which encompass results, actions, and personnel/culture (Merchant and Van
der Stede 2003, p. X). These objects have to be controlled because of personnel
limitations, motivational problems, and lack of direction as the three main manage-
ment problems. Lack of direction means that some employees just perform poorly
because they do not know what they are expected to do. Although it is assumed that
most employees know what to do, they sometimes—if not always—behave in a self-
interested manner which means that the personal goals of employees are not congru-
ent with the organizational ones. Personnel limitations mean that people know what to
do and are motivated to act in that way but they are not able to reach the required per-
formance because of certain limitations. Accordingly, the reason for and therefore the
overall objective of control in the framework of Merchant and Van der Stede (2003)
is human behavior, which has to be controlled in order to avoid divergence from set
objectives—which means that they follow the classical command and control under-
standing of MCS (cf. Simons 1995). Their MCS understanding also determines the
positioning of MCS within the management process. The firs step in the general
management process is objective setting. Objectives are a necessary requirement for
the design of MCS because employees need an understanding of what the organiza-
tion is trying to reach. Therefore, objectives need to be elaborated before any MCS
can be designed. Strategies were seen by Merchant and Van der Stede (2003) as ways
resources should be used to meet the firm s objectives, which classes them as sec-
ond step in the general management process. The third and last general management
process step is management control. MCS address the behavior of the employees,
because “[. . . ] it is people in the organization who make things happen” (Merchant
and Van der Stede 2003, p. 7). Management control—and so MCS—would be
redun-dant if employees were always able and willing to act in the organization’s
interest. Therefore, management control “[. . . ] includes all the devices or systems
managers use to ensure that behaviors and decisions of their employees are
consistent with the organization’s objectives and strategies” (p. 4). Consequently,
systems that ensure congruence between the organization and its employees in
objectives and strategies are called MCS. It is important to note that this
understanding and definition of MCS explicitly encompass informal controls.
Anthony and Govindarajan’s (2007) second-ranked textbook is based on the sem-
inal work of Anthony (1965) and uses his trichotomy of strategic formulation, man-
agement control, and task control. This hierarchical differentiation reflect Anthony
and Govindarajan’s (2007) understanding of management control, which is define
as “[. . . ] the process by which managers influenc other members of the organiza-
tion to implement the organization’s strategies” (p. 17). Management control’s task
is the implementation of the set organizational strategies, which means that diver-
gences have to be controlled. Thus, MCS are define as “[. . .] system[s] used by
management to control the activities of an organization is called management control
system” (p. 17). This command and control understanding is quite similar to Mer-
chant and Van der Stede (2003), and is well reflecte in Anthony and Govindarajan’s
(2007) formal control process (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 The formal control process (Anthony and Govindarajan 2007, p. 105)
11 Simons’ (2000) textbook is essentially based on his monograph (Simons 1995) that, in turn, elaborates
on his conceptual ‘levers of control’ model based upon several empirical studies (Simons 1987, 1990,
1991, 1994). In order to give a comprehensive review of Simons’ model, references are sometimes made
to his earlier publications.
12 This bottom-up perspective has been inspired by Simons’ Ph.D. supervisor Henry Mintzberg, who dif-
ferentiated between emergent and planned strategies (see Mintzberg and Waters 1985).
strategies to emerge out of patterns of action (Simons 2000, p. 34), and, accordingly,
allows MCS to re-influenc strategy. Therefore, his understanding can be described
as innovation and control (cf. Simons 1995, p. 4). However, Simons’ (1995, 2000)
positioning of MCS in the general management is affected by a strong hierarchical
understanding as he develops a hierarchically structured process of formulating and
implementing business strategy. Thereby, the business strategy reflect competitive
market dynamics, firm-specif resources, and capabilities as well as the firm s mis-
sion. From the business strategy, performance goals and measures are derived, which,
in turn, determine the firm s actions (Simons 2000, p. 18). Thus, MCS do not form an
explicit part of this process, but serve as ‘levers’ for implementing business strategy
and achieving profi goals. Accordingly, strategy formulation is beyond the scope of
MCS, and takes place before MCS can be designed.
However, Simons’ (1995, 2000) focus is on informational issues, i.e. how infor-
mation is generated, communicated, and used by the organization’s top managers.
This becomes clear when MCS are define as “[. . . ] the formal, information-based
routines and procedures managers use to maintain or alter patterns in organizational
activities” (Simons 1995, p. 5). According to Simons (1995), four attributes of his
definitio have to be highlighted and explained in greater detail. First, Simons’ focus
is on formal routines and procedures, such as planning and monitoring systems. This
element is in line with the approach by Anthony and Govindarajan (2007). Next, as
outlined above, an emphasis is based on informational aspects, i.e. the purposes for
which and the ways how managers use MCS. Then, the maintaining or altering of
patterns does not only refer to goal-oriented activities but also to the search for new
opportunities and innovations that can stimulate emergent strategies. Finally, Simons
concentrates on top managers’ use of MCS and is not concerned with managers and
control systems at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy, which was criticized
by several authors (e.g. Ferreira and Otley 2005, 2009; Langfield-Smith 1997).
Another distinctive feature of Simons’ (1995, 2000) approach is the omission of
informal controls, as he described in his early work on the interplay of strategy and
MCS: “Within the domain of interest implied by this definition are planning systems,
reporting systems, and monitoring procedures which are based on information use;
excluded (somewhat arbitrarily) from this analysis are informal control mechanisms
[. . .]” (Simons 1987, p. 358). At first this statement seems contradictory since Si-
mons (1995, 2000) explicitly incorporates values and beliefs as informal aspects in
his framework. However, values and beliefs only become a part of Simons’ (1995,
2000) model if they are formalized. That means they have to be written down, for in-
stance, in an organization’s mission statement. In this regard, Simons’ (1995, 2000)
framework differs from Anthony and Govindarajan’s (2007) approach as they do not
consider social and cultural controls at all.
Overall, it can be summarized that Anthony and Govindarajan (2007) have a nar-
rower understanding of MCS than Merchant and Van der Stede (2003) but both follow
the “command and control” MCS perspective. Simons (1995, 2000), however, has a
narrower MCS understanding than Merchant and Van der Stede (2003) but a wider
than Anthony and Govindarajan (2007) because of the integration of cultural con-
trols. Additionally, Simons (1995, 2000) endeavors to leave the path chosen by the
other authors and follows an “innovation and control” understanding of MCS, which
results in the ability of MCS to influenc strategy.
Merchant and Van der Stede (2003, pp. 11–23) distinguish (within their object-of-
control framework) between results controls, action controls, personnel controls, and
cultural controls as four types of MCS. The first type of MCS, i.e. results controls,
influence “actions because they cause employees to be concerned about the con-
sequences of their actions they take” (p. 23). That means that the outcome of em-
ployee’s behavior is the objective of MCS. Typically, results controls create meri-
tocracies in which the highest reward is given to the person (or business unit) with
the highest results. However, results controls like every other type of MCS cannot be
used in every situation. A necessary requirement is that the results can be controlled
by those whose actions influenc the results, i.e. the controllability principle, and
where the results can be measured effectively.
Concerning the three identifie control problems of Merchant and Van der Stede
(2003), results controls
addressing motivational problems because they “induce employees to behave so as
to maximize their chances of producing the results the organizations desires” (p. 26)
—without upper-level manager supervision. The second MCS type is devoted to
action controls. These controls “are the most direct form of management control
because they involve taking steps to ensure that employees act in the organi-zation’s
best interest by making their actions themselves the focus of control” (p. 67). Action
controls can have different forms, such as behavioral constraints, pre-action reviews,
action accountability, or redundancy. All of these different alternatives ad-dress
different control problems to a certain degree. Behavioral constraints address solely
motivational problems, whereas pre-action reviews and action accountability address
all three control problems—apart from motivational problems, lack of di-rection and
personnel limitations. At least, redundancy can solve motivational and
personnel problems. The third and fourth types of control are personnel and cultural
controls. These two types are strongly related because cultural controls are an accu-
mulated form of personnel controls. Personnel controls are based on the
“employees’ natural tendencies to control and/or motivate themselves” (p. 74).
They can solve each of the control problems by introducing a self-monitoring
mentality within each employee. For a successful implementation of personnel
controls, the main challenge is to fin the right people who are self-motivated by their
own goals that are congruent with firm s overall objectives. Cultural controls allow
a certain (minimal) deviation from the abovementioned internal goal-congruence of
the employees. Cultural con-trols “are designed to encourage mutual monitoring, a
powerful form of group pres-sure on individuals who deviate from the group norms
and values” (p. 77). Therefore, cultural controls effectively work in groups with high
emotional ties and/or a high de-gree of reciprocal dependency.
After the introduction of the different types of MCS, Merchant and Van der Stede
(2003) explicate that each type can be used more tightly or loosely, i.e. can vary in
its level of control tightness (or looseness). The main task of MCS is that they will or
should lead to a higher probability that the organizational objectives will be achieved.
This benefi can defin the control tightness of an MCS, since “a tighter MCS should
provide a high(er) degree of certainty that employees will act as the organization
wishes” (2003, p. 124). That means that the degrees of freedom or the fault tolerance
will be minimized if the MCS is tight.
In comparison to Merchant and Van der Stede (2003), Anthony and Govindarajan
(2007) do not classify different types of MCS. They further base their differentia-
tion of MCS on their general management process (see Fig. 2). The different MCS
in the management process show the strict formal understanding of Anthony and
Govindarajan (2007). Merchant and Van der Stede (2003) would classify the major-
ity of the listed MCS as results controls. However, the classificatio by Merchant and
Van der Stede (2003) cannot disjunctly be applied to Anthony and Govindarajan’s
(2007) types of MCS. The main reason for this incomparability is the narrower focus
on MCS by Anthony and Govindarajan (2007), i.e. the exclusion of informal controls
from MCS.
3- Simons’ (1995, 2000) classification of MCS types is again different. Business
strategy represents the core of the analysis. Four key constructs form the next level
of analysis as critical indicators for a successful implementation of business strategy:
Core values, risks to be avoided, critical performance variables, and strategic uncer-
tainties. Consequently, beliefs, boundary, interactive, and diagnostic control systems
as the four levers of control each address one of these key constructs (Fig. 3).
Before each lever of control is explained in detail, Simons (1995, 2000) makes a
distinction between positive and negative forces which signifie his thinking of MCS:
“These four levers create the opposing forces—the yin and yang—of effective
strategy implementation. In Chinese philosophy, positive and negative forces
are opposing principles into which creative energy divides and whose fusion
creates the world as we know it. Two of these control levers—beliefs systems
and interactive control systems—create positive and inspirational forces. These
are the yang: forces representing sun, warmth, and light. The other two levers—
boundary systems and diagnostic control systems—create constraints and en-
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sure compliance with orders. These are the yin: forces representing darkness
and cold.” (Simons 1995, pp. 7–8)
Thus, the need to balance opposing forces and to integrate different kinds of controls
is an essential element of Simons’ (1995, 2000) philosophy.
The firs types of MCS that Simons (1995, 2000) present are so-called beliefs sys-
tems which “are the explicit set of organizational definition that senior managers
communicate formally and reinforce systematically to provide basic values, purpose,
and direction for the organization” (Simons 2000, p. 276). Accordingly, belief sys-
tems encompass mission and vision statements, credos, and statements of purpose.
Management creates and communicates the organization’s values through these sys-
tems to provide momentum and direct individual opportunity-seeking (Simons 1995).
“Beliefs systems appeal to the innate desires of organizational participants to belong
and contribute to purposive organizations” (Simons 2000, p. 303). Although Simons
(1995, 2000) focuses this belief system on formal procedures, he also recognizes the
importance of (informal) believes and values for MCS. The second category encom-
passes boundary systems as “explicit statements embedded in formal information
systems that defin and communicate specifi risks to be avoided” (Simons 2000,
p. 764). Though these systems represent negative forces and set limits on the search
for (strategic) opportunities, the purpose of those systems is to stimulate the creativity
of individual organizational participants within predefine boundaries. Boundary sys-
tems include codes of business conduct, strategic planning systems, asset acquisition
systems, and operational guidelines. When the organization’s reputation is crucial or
when excessive opportunity-seeking behavior endangers an organization’s resources,
the use of boundary systems is recommended by Simons (1995).
Diagnostic control systems, the next category, play a critical role in the process
of transforming intended into realized strategies since, for instance, they are used
for definin goals and monitoring initiated actions. Diagnostic control systems are
define as “the formal information systems that managers use to monitor organiza-
tional outcomes and correct deviations from preset standards of performance” (Si-
mons 2000, p. 209). Examples of diagnostic control systems include budgets and
project monitoring systems. In general, diagnostic control systems allow an effec-
tive resource allocation by directing management attention to critical performance
variables and imply the activities of standard setting, performance measurement and
the design of goal-congruent incentive systems. Preconditions for the use of diag-
nostic control systems are, therefore, the possibility to set standards and measure
performance variables as well as the possibility to use feedback information to take
corrective actions (Simons 1995).
In contrast to diagnostic control systems, interactive control systems are essential
for the realization of emergent strategies: “Interactive control systems are the for-
mal information systems that managers use to personally involve themselves in the
decision activities of subordinates” (Simons 2000, p. 216). Since interactive control
systems focus organizational attention on strategic uncertainties and stimulate the
emergence of new strategic initiatives, they can be used at each point in time and are
not restricted to particular situations. Precondition for an interactive use is the regular
discussion of the data generated by the systems to ensure attention is paid constantly
to strategic uncertainties. Examples for systems that can be used interactively are
project and profi planning systems (Simons 2000). It is important to note that man-
agement decides which systems should be used interactively and which should be
used diagnostically. However, recently, the possibility of using certain systems both
diagnostically and interactively is discussed (Besson et al. 2008). A distinctive char-
acteristic of Simon’s (1995, 2000) types of MCS is that he assumed and highlighted
the interconnectedness of these four types of MCS. A fir has to establish and bal-
ance all four types of MCS to successfully control the organization:
“The power of these levers in implementing strategy does not lie in how each is
used alone, but rather in how they complement each other when used together.
The interplay of positive and negative forces creates a dynamic tension between
opportunistic innovation and predictable goal achievement that is necessary to
stimulate and control profitable growth.” (Simons 2000, p. 301)
satisfaction du client ou les défauts du produit ; (2) mesurer les performances sur ces
dimensions ; (3) établir des objectifs de performance pour les employés à atteindre ; et (4)
fournir des récompenses pour encourager les comportements qui mèneront aux résultats désirés.
Bien qu’elles constituent une forme importante de contrôle dans de nombreuses organisations,
les contrôles des résultats ne peuvent pas toujours être utilisés efficacement. Ils fonctionnent
mieux seulement lorsque toutes les conditions suivantes sont présentes : les organisations
peuvent déterminer quels résultats sont souhaités dans les zones contrôlées ; les employés dont
les comportements sont contrôlés ont une influence importante sur les résultats dont ils sont
tenus responsables ; et les organisations peuvent mesurer les résultats de manière efficace.
LES CONTROLES D’ACTION sont la forme la plus directe de contrôle de gestion, car ils impliquent
de prendre des mesures pour s’assurer que les employés agissent dans le meilleur intérêt de
l’organisation en faisant de leurs actions elles-mêmes le centre de contrôle. Les contrôles
d’action prennent l’une des quatre formes de base suivantes : LES CONTRAINTES DE
COMPORTEMENT, LES REVISIONS DE PRE-ACTION, LA RESPONSABILITE DE L’ACTION ET LA
REDONDANCE. LES CONTRAINTES COMPORTEMENTALES sont une forme négative de contrôle
d’action. Ils rendent impossible, ou du moins plus difficile, pour les employés de faire des
choses qui ne devraient pas être faites. Les contraintes peuvent être appliquées physiquement
ou administrativement. La plupart des entreprises utilisent plusieurs formes de contraintes
physiques, y compris les verrous sur les bureaux, les mots de passe des ordinateurs et les limites
d’accès aux zones où des inventaires de valeur et des informations sensibles sont conservés.
Les contraintes administratives peuvent également être utilisées pour limiter l’aptitude d’un
employé à effectuer tout ou partie d’actes spécifiques. Une forme commune de contrôle
administratif implique la restriction du pouvoir de décision. Une autre forme courante de
contrôle administratif est généralement appelée séparation des tâches. Cela implique de diviser
les tâches nécessaires à l’accomplissement de certaines tâches sensibles, rendant ainsi
impossible, ou du moins difficile, accomplir certaines tâches seul.
LES REVUES DE PRE-ACTION impliquent l’examen des plans d’action des employés contrôlé. Les
évaluateurs peuvent approuver ou désapprouver les actions proposées, demander modifications,
ou demander un plan plus soigneusement examiné avant d’accorder l’approbation finale. Une
forme commune d’examen de la réaction a lieu au cours des processus de planification et de
budgétisation caractérisés par plusieurs niveaux d’examen des actions planifiées et des budgets
à des niveaux organisationnels consécutivement plus élevés. La responsabilité de l’action
implique que les employés soient tenus responsables des actions qu’ils entreprennent. LES
CONTROLES DE RESPONSABILITE d’action peuvent également résoudre les problèmes de
contrôle. Surtout, parce qu’ils impliquent souvent des communications aux employés sur ce qui
est désiré, ils peuvent aider à atténuer un manque de direction. Les prescriptions des actions
désirées peuvent aider à fournir une direction et à alléger les types de limitations personnelles
dues à des compétences ou à une expérience inadéquate. Et les récompenses ou les punitions
aident à fournir la motivation. Ils peuvent également fournir une motivation, comme la menace
d’une proposition de dépenses, un budget ou un plan d’action. LA REDONDANCE est relativement
limitée dans son application. Il est principalement efficace pour aider à accomplir une tâche
particulière s’il existe un doute quant à savoir si l’employé affecté à la tâche est, soit motivé
pour effectuer la tâche de façon satisfaisante ou capable de le faire.
Les contrôles d’action ne sont efficaces que lorsque les deux conditions suivantes
existent, au moins dans une certaine mesure : les organisations peuvent déterminer quelles
actions sont (in) souhaitables ; et les organisations sont en mesure de s’assurer que les actions
(non) souhaitables (ne se produisent pas). La mise en œuvre des contrôles d’action nécessite :
(1) de définir quelles actions sont acceptables ou inacceptables, (2) de communiquer ces
définitions aux employés, (3) d’observer ou de suivre ce qui se passe et (4) de récompenser les
bonnes actions ou les actions punitives de l’acceptable.
LES CONTROLES DU PERSONNEL s’appuient sur les tendances naturelles des employés
pour contrôler et / ou se motiver. Les contrôles du personnel répondent à l’un des trois objectifs
fondamentaux. Premièrement, certains d’entre eux clarifient les attentes. Ils aident à s’assurer
que chaque employé comprend ce que l’organisation veut. Deuxièmement, certains d’entre eux
aident à s’assurer que chaque employé est capable de faire un bon travail ; qu’ils ont toutes les
capacités (par exemple, l’expérience, l’intelligence) et les ressources (par exemple,
l’information et le temps) nécessaires pour faire un bon travail. Et troisièmement, certains
contrôles du personnel augmentent la probabilité que chaque employé s’engage dans une auto-
surveillance.
L’auto surveillance est la force naturellement présente qui pousse la plupart des employés à
vouloir faire du bon travail, à être naturellement engagés envers les objectifs de l’organisation.
L’auto surveillance est efficace à la fois parce que la plupart des gens ont une conscience qui
les amène à faire ce qui est juste et qui leur permet de développer un sentiment positif d’estime
de soi et d’autosatisfaction lorsqu’ils font du bon travail et voient leur organisation réussir. Les
phénomènes qui sous-tendent l’auto surveillance ont été discutés dans la littérature de gestion
sous une variété de labels, y compris la maîtrise de soi, la motivation intrinsèque, l’éthique et
la moralité, la confiance et la loyauté. Certaines organisations comptent beaucoup sur le
contrôle du personnel. La confiance est un substitut à d’autres formes de contrôle plus
formelles. Les trois principales méthodes de mise en œuvre des contrôles du personnel sont les
suivantes : 1) sélection et placement des employés ; 2) formation ; 3) conception des tâches et
fourniture des ressources nécessaires.
En première position, trouver les bonnes personnes pour faire un travail particulier et
leur donner à la fois un bon environnement de travail et les ressources nécessaires peut
évidemment augmenter la probabilité qu’un travail soit fait correctement. Les organisations
consacrent beaucoup de temps et d’efforts à la sélection et au placement des employés, et une
vaste documentation décrit comment ces tâches devraient être accomplies au mieux. Une
grande partie de cette littérature décrit les prédicteurs possibles du succès, tels que l’éducation,
l’expérience, les réussites passées, et les compétences personnelles et sociales. La sélection des
employés implique souvent des vérifications des références sur les nouveaux employés, que de
nombreuses organisations ont intensifiées en réponse aux inquiétudes accrues sur la sécurité au
travail. Mais au-delà du dépistage des nouveaux employés pour atténuer les problèmes de
sécurité, les organisations se concentrent principalement sur l’adéquation entre les exigences
professionnelles et les compétences des demandeurs d’emploi. Des techniques de sélection des
employés plus exotiques ont également été développées et utilisées. En seconde position, la
formation est un autre moyen courant de s’assurer que les employés font du bon travail. La
formation peut fournir des informations utiles sur les actions ou les résultats attendus et sur la
meilleure façon d’exécuter les tâches assignées. Cela peut aussi avoir des effets motivationnels
positifs, car les employés peuvent acquérir un plus grand sens du professionnalisme et ils sont
souvent plus intéressés à bien performer dans des emplois qu’ils comprennent mieux. Une
dernière façon d’aider les employés à agir de façon appropriée est simplement de s’assurer que
le travail est conçu pour permettre aux employés motivés et qualifiés une forte probabilité de
succès. Certaines organisations ne donnent pas à tous leurs employés une chance de réussir.
Certains emplois sont trop complexes. Les vendeurs peuvent se voir attribuer trop de comptes
pour gérer efficacement. Les employés ont également besoin d’un ensemble particulier de
ressources à leur disposition pour faire un bon travail. Les besoins en ressources sont très
spécifiques à l’emploi, mais ils peuvent inclure des éléments tels que l’information,
l’équipement, les fournitures, le soutien du personnel, les aides à la décision ou l’absence
d’interruption.
LES CONTROLES CULTURELS sont conçus pour encourager le contrôle mutuel ; une forme
puissante de pression de groupe sur les individus qui s’écartent des normes et des valeurs du
groupe. Les contrôles culturels sont plus efficaces lorsque les membres d’un groupe ont des
liens affectifs les uns avec les autres. Dans certaines cultures collectivistes, comme au Japon,
les incitations à éviter tout ce qui pourrait déshonorer soi-même et sa famille sont primordiales.
De même, dans de nombreuses communautés, de nombreuses transactions commerciales sont
scellées par un accord verbal seulement. Les pressions sociales et morales des communautés
sont plus fortes que les contrats légaux. Mais des contrôles culturels forts produits par des
processus de surveillance mutuelle existent également au sein d’organisations uniques. Les
cultures sont construites sur des traditions, des normes, des croyances, des valeurs, des
idéologies, des attitudes et des manières de se comporter communes. Les cultures
organisationnelles restent relativement figées dans le temps, même si les objectifs et les
stratégies s’adaptent nécessairement aux conditions changeantes des entreprises. Les normes
culturelles sont incarnées par des règles écrites et non écrites qui régissent les comportements
des employés.
Les codes de conduite et les récompenses de groupe sont parmi les méthodes les plus
importantes pour façonner la culture et ainsi effectuer des contrôles culturels. La plupart des
organisations qui dépassent la taille minimale essaient de façonner leur culture
organisationnelle par le biais de codes de conduite, de codes d’éthique, de credos
organisationnels ou de déclarations de mission, de vision ou de philosophie de gestion. Ces
documents formels et écrits fournissent des énoncés généraux sur les valeurs organisationnelles,
les engagements envers les intervenants et les façons dont la direction aimerait que
l’organisation fonctionne. Chacun de ces codes ou énoncés est conçu pour aider les employés
à comprendre quels comportements sont attendus même en l’absence d’une règle ou d’un
principe précis. Ces déclarations peuvent inclure des messages importants sur le dévouement à
la qualité ou la satisfaction du client, le traitement équitable du personnel et des fournisseurs,
la sécurité des employés, l’innovation, la prise de risques, le respect des principes éthiques, la
communication ouverte et la volonté de changement. Pour un effet maximum, les messages
inclus dans ces déclarations devraient être renforcés par des sessions de formation formelles,
ou au moins par des discussions entre les employés et leurs supérieurs.
La plupart des organisations estiment que l’adoption de codes stimule la discussion sur
constitue un comportement souhaitable et force le développement d’un consensus. L’adoption
de codes écrits améliore également la communication des attentes et les raisons des attentes.
Une étude a révélé que la pression pour atteindre les objectifs de performance était plus forte
dans les entreprises ayant des codes de conduite formels. Les plans de récompense basés sur
l’accomplissement collectif prennent de nombreuses formes. Des exemples courants sont les
primes, le partage des bénéfices ou les plans de partage des avantages qui fournissent une
rémunération basée sur la performance de l’entreprise ou de l’entité en termes de résultats
comptables, de bénéfices ou de réductions de coûts. Encourager une large participation des
employés au stock de l’entreprise, avec des communications d’entreprise efficaces pour garder
les employés informés et enthousiastes, encourage tous les employés à penser comme des
propriétaires.
contrôle important sur la manière dont les activités économiques doivent être menées (Ouma et
Dagou 2019).
4.4. LE SYSTEME DE PILOTAGE DE LA PERFORMANCE DE FERREIRA ET OTLEY
Le cadre des systèmes de gestion de la performance (PMS) a été proposé par Ferreira et Otley
(2009) est conçu comme une approche holistique de la recherche MCS, car il intègre le cadre
de Simons (1995) et Otley (1999). Si le cadre d’Otley (1999) se révèle utile pour structurer et
présenter les données collectées, les leviers de contrôle de Simons (1995) mettent l’accent sur
la conception et, surtout, sur l’utilisation MCS. En outre, Otley se concentre sur la transmission
du contrôle à travers la hiérarchie organisationnelle, tandis que Simons (1995) se concentre
explicitement sur la direction (Dagou 2019). La stratégie en tant qu’élément crucial est
commune aux deux conceptualisations. Avec Otley (1999) comme point de départ, les quatre
concepts clés de Simons (1995) sont intégrés à un mode question. Au total, douze questions
forment le cadre PMS. Ces questions portent sur (1) la vision et la mission (1. What is the vision
and mission of the organization and how is this brought to the attention of managers, and
employees? What mechanisms, processes, and networks are used to convey the organization’s
overarching purposes and objectives to its members?), (2) les facteurs clés de succès (What are
the key factors that are believed to be central to the organization’s overall future success and
how are they brought to the attention of managers and employees?), (3) les stratégies et les
plans (What strategies and plans has the organization adopted and what are the processes and
activities that it has decided will be required for it to ensure its success? How are strategies and
plans adapted, generated and communicated to managers and employees?), (4) la structure
organisationnelle (What is the organization structure and what impact does it have on the design
and use of performance management systems (PMSs)? How does it influence and how is it
influenced by the strategic management process?),
(5) les mesures clés du rendement (What are the organization’s key performance measures
deriving from its objectives, key success factors, and strategies and plans? Howare these
specified and communicated and what role do they play in performance evaluation? Are there
significant omissions? ), (6) l’établissement des objectifs), (7) l’évaluation du rendement (What
processes, if any, does the organization follow for evaluating individual, group, and
organizational performance? Are performance evaluations primarily objective, subjective or
mixed and how important are formal and informal information and controls in these
processes?), (8) système de récompenses (What rewards — financial and/or non-financial —
will managers and other employees gain by achieving performance targets or other assessed
aspects of performance (or, conversely, what penalties will they suffer by failing to achieve
them)?), (9) flux d’informations de retour et de feed-forward (What specific information flows
— feedback and feedforward —, systems and networks has the organization in place to support
the operation of its PMSs?), (10) type d’utilisation du PMS (What type of use is made of
information and of the various control mechanisms in place? Can these uses be characterized
in terms of various typologies in the literature? How do controls and their uses differ at different
hierarchical levels?), (11) changement dans le PMS, et (12) force et cohérence des liens.
La figure présente un aperçu schématique des douze questions. Comme indiqué, les facteurs
culturels et autres facteurs contextuels dépassent le cadre du PMS. Ferreira et Otley (2009)
soutiennent que ces aspects n’appartiennent pas aux caractéristiques d’un MCS et, par
conséquent, ne doivent pas être inclus dans leur description. Au contraire, les variables
contextuelles offrent une explication de l’efficacité du système de contrôle de gestion dans
certains contextes.
RÉFÉRENCES
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pilotage de la performance de Ferreira et Otley (2009) dans une organisation publique.
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