Hydraulic Engineering II

Lecture 3 2018 Intake - Semester IV

Groundwater Hydrology Module: CE 3012 –

3-2 Applications and Pumping Tests Hydraulic Engineering II

Dr. R. L. H. Lalith Rajapakse

Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering Group
Department of Civil Engineering

February 2021
Module Outline

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Module Outline

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Module Outline

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Module Outline

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Module Outline

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 Basic Introduction
The module covers:
❖ Non-uniform flow in open channels (River Hydraulics)
❖ Surface water hydrology
❖ Groundwater hydrology
❖ Coastal hydraulics
What is HYDROLOGY then ?
An engineering science dealing with the space and time
characteristics of the quantity and quality of water including its
occurrence, distribution, circulation, storage, and sustainable
development and management of this invaluable natural resource.

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 Basic Introduction
Hydrologic Cycle
❖ Essential to maintain
❖ Balance between and within each portion of this cycle
❖ Extraction and replenishment characteristics, and water quality in the case of usage

(Source:
Environment
Canada, 2004) 8
 Basic Introduction
Why it is important to learn about HYDROLOGY?

Evapotranspiration
Atmosphere

Interception
Precipitation
Surface store (Ground)
Overland flow
Channel store Evaporation
Infiltration
Evaporation
Soil store Channel flow
Percolation Through Surface store (Lake)
flow
Groundwater store Surface store (Sea)
Return flow
Groundwater flow (Baseflow)

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 Basic Introduction
Basic concepts of HYDROLOGY?
❖ Watershed Water Balance
S
P = P + Gin − ET − Gout − O
ET t
where
P – Precipitation
Gin – Groundwater inflow
Gout – Groundwater outflow
ET – Evapotranspiration
O – Catchment outflow (Runoff)

Gin
O
S
Gout
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 3-2 Applications and Pumping Tests
We have covered/will cover:
❖ Introduction
❖ Groundwater occurrence and movement
❖ Groundwater Flow (Darcy’s Equation, 3-D Flow and 1-D
Simplification)
❖ Groundwater Radial Flow
❖ Pumping Tests
❖ Applications
❖ Sustainable Groundwater Resources Development and Utilization

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B). Equations of Groundwater Flow – Radial Coordinates
1). Steady Flow – Confined Aquifer
P (x,y)
P(r, θ)
r
θ
To define location of p, both r & θ are needed.

However, if we assume radial symmetry, we can use r,

instead of r, θ .

For a pumping well with discharge Q which fully

penetrates a confined aquifer of constant saturated
thickness m and uniform radial hydraulic conductivity K,
consider a cylindrical element, drawn at a radial distance
r with width dr.
Velocity of flow
By Darcy’s Law:

From continuity:

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Equations of Groundwater Flow – Radial Coordinates Contd.
1). Steady Flow – Confined Aquifer

Integrating with limits r1 and r2 with the corresponding piezometric heads h1 and h2;

=>

This is called the Thiem equation; it can be used for preliminary studies of
groundwater flow to wells.

For a pumping well, if the drawdown is s,

These equations can

be used to estimate T
Can be further reduced to (check boundary conditions): and hence K from
pumping tests.

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Equations of Groundwater Flow – Radial Coordinates Contd.
2). Steady Flow – Un-confined Aquifer
For a pumping well with discharge Q which fully
penetrates an unconfined aquifer of constant
saturated thickness H and uniform radial hydraulic
conductivity K, consider a cylindrical element, drawn at
a radial distance r with width dr.
Velocity of radial flow
By Darcy’s Law:

From continuity
& Duipuit’s assumptions:

=>
Integrating with limits r1 and r2 with the corresponding
piezometric heads h1 and h2 and rearranging;

At the edge of radius of influence: r = R => h = H

At the well boundary: r = rw => h = hw This equation can be used to
estimate discharge Q, or when Q is
known, K from pumping tests. 14
Equations of Groundwater Flow – Radial Coordinates Contd.
3). Unsteady State
Using continuity condition:
H
Q − (Q + Q) = S .2r.r.1.
t
dh
− Q = S .2r.r. ------- (1)
dt

dh
Darcy’s Eqn.: Q = − K .2r.b.
dr
dh
Q = −T .2r.
dr Assume T & S do not vary with r.
dQ  d 2 h dh  (-) for recharge; (+) for abstraction
= −T .2  r 2 +  ------- (2)
dr  dr dr 
If T and S are varying with r, it is not
From (1) & (2) possible to obtain an analytical
d 2 h 1 dh S dh solution (by integrating the
+ . = .
dr 2
r dr T dt differential equation), but solutions
can be obtained using numerical
1 d  dh  S dh methods, using finite difference or
. r  = .  q (H)
r dr  dr  T dt finite element methods. 15
4). Steady State – Well in Confined Aquifer
0 => steady state
1 d  dh  S dh
. r  = .  q
r dr  dr  T dt

1 d  dh 
. r  = 0
r dr  dr 
dh
r =A
dr
dh
Darcy’s Eqn.: − Q0 = − K .2r.b.
dr
dh Q0
r. = A =
dr 2T

dr Q0
 dh =  r . 2T
Q0
➔ h = ln( r ). +B
2T
Boundary conditions:
h = h1 => r = r1 (observation on well)
h = H => r = R (radius of zero drawdown)
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h = H => r = r (at the pumping well)
5. Steady State –
A Well in an Unconfined Aquifer

Relationship between (H)

Discharge and Drawdown

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In addition, there is a loss at the aquifer entrance to the well. This is called well loss
(head loss) and occurs only at a pumping well.

This causes the reading of head observed at the well to be less than the actual head
in aquifer just outside the well. Corrections can be applied to account for this loss.

With two boundary conditions, it is possible to estimate a value for T.

However, this equation can be applied only under steady state flow conditions
(time-invariant flow), and this introduces an error as true steady state is difficult to
achieve.

Actual condition Assumption

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C). Pumping Tests/ Pump Tests
The idea of a pump test is to stress the aquifer by pumping or injecting (extraction or
recharge) water and to observe and note the drawdown over space and time (in
order to determine related aquifer parameters).

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In previous section, we discussed the methods of determining groundwater hydrologic
parameters using time-drawdown data under steady-state flow conditions. In reality,
however, many aquifer tests will never reach the steady state (i.e. the cone of
depression will continue to grow over time and space). These conditions are referred
to as non-equilibrium or transient flow conditions. Here we will only discuss the
methods of determining transmissivity and storativity in a confined aquifer under
non-equilibrium radial flow conditions.

(H) – General GW Flow Equation

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 Assumptions:
▪ The well fully penetrates the aquifer
▪ The aquifer is confined and homogeneous
▪ The aquifer is of infinite extent (no boundaries)
▪ The well is of infinitely small radius

Based on the above assumptions, Theis obtained the solution:

∞
𝑄 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑟2𝑆
ℎ 𝑟, 𝑡 = ℎ0 − න . 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑢 =
4𝜋𝑇 𝑥 4𝑡𝑇
𝑢

Q e− x
h0 − h(r , t ) = s = 
4T u x
.dx where s is the drawdown after time t.

∞
𝑄 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑠= . 𝑊 𝑢 where 𝑊(𝑢) = න . 𝑑𝑥 and is called the well function.
4𝜋𝑇 𝑥 23
𝑢
Infinite series expansion of the infinite integral for W(u) is used:

Example: If Q = 1000 m3/day, r0 = 10 cm = 0.1 m, T = 500 m2/day, S = 0.003, then

estimate the drawdown of the well after 1 hr of continuous pumping.
∞
𝑄 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑠= . 𝑊 𝑢 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊(𝑢) = න . 𝑑𝑥
4𝜋𝑇 𝑥
𝑢

=0 =0 =0
2 2
r S 0.1 * 0.003
u= = = 3.6 *10 −7
4tT 4 *1 / 24 * 500
W (u ) = 14 .26
1000
s= *14 .26
4 * 500
= 2.27 m 24
Theis equation can be used to develop techniques for the analysis of pumping tests
which are conducted to estimate the values of T and S for an aquifer.
▪ Keeping Q constant
- Measure s at different values of t at one or more radii
• Consists of taking readings of drawdown vs. time at one or more radii
(observation well and/or pump well)
• Discharge Q is measured and kept constant by suitable adjustment of
pump speed or outlet valve opening.
• Small time intervals between readings at the beginning, gradually
increased when pumping proceeds (1 min, 2 min, 5 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1
hr, 2 hr, …..)
• Duration of total pumping depends on the available time and rate of
drawdown, and therefore can vary from 4 hr to about 2 weeks or even
more.
• The time of stopping the pump must be noted and after that, as the levels
comes up (recovery phase) readings must be taken until the level reaches,
almost, to the initial level.
• Time steps for recovery must be varied from small to larger (from 1 min, 2
min, ….., 4 hr, etc.)
• Use of well gauge for measuring water depths 25
▪ Step Drawdown Tests (Q is varied)
- To determine short-term allowable pumping rate from a well.

Q
Allowable
discharge, QA

x
x
x
x Allowable
x drawdown
x
(s)
Steady state drawdown
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Analysis of Pumping Test Data
r 2S
and u=
4tT

1). Jacob’s Mothod

If u is small (i.e. u < 0.01)

…..
…..
…..
…..
s=
2.30Q
4T

. log 10 2.25T .t r 2 S 

2.30Q  2.25T 
i.e. _ s = log 10 t + log 10 2 
4T  r .S  27
1). Jacob’s Method

If u is small (i.e. u < 0.01)

2.3Q  2.25T 
s= log 10 t + log 10 2 
4t  r .S 

Usually s vs. t (Jacob’s plot) is plotted on a semi-log paper.

x x
2.30Q
x Gradient =
4T
x
x
t = t0 log 10 t
2.3Q 2.25T
Intercept = . log 10 2
4t r S
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Projecting the line to s = 0, when t = t0

2.3Q 2.25t0T
0= log 10
4T r 2S

2.25t0T
S
r 2S
Replacing s by Δs (drawdown per log cycle t) ;

2.30 Q
T
4 ( s )

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Sample plots from a field test

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2). Theis Method

r 2S
and u=
4tT

r 2 .S 1
t = .
4T u

 Q 
log 10 s = log 10 (W (u ) ) + log 10   Both eqns have a log10 term + const.
 4T 
 r .S  So, the plots of log (1/u) vs. log t and
1
2
log 10 t = log 10   + log 10   log W(u) vs. log t are plotted.
u  4T 
Theis equation can also be arranged as follows;

Likewise,

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Worked Examples

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 Example – Horizontal Flow
❖ Consider steady flow from left to right in a confined aquifer
❖ Find: Head in the aquifer, h(x)
¶ æ ¶h ö ¶h
çTx ÷ = S ¢ = 0
¶x è ¶x ø ¶t
Ground surface
2
d h h(x)
T =0 steady flow
¶x 2 Confining Layer

hA Confined aquifer
hB
Qx
hB - h A z y b
h(x) = h A + x x
K
L
Bedrock
Head in the aquifer L

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 Example – Horizontal Flow
❖ L = 1000 m, hA = 100 m, hB = 80 m, K = 20 m/d, f = 0.35

❖ Find: head, specific discharge, and average velocity

Ground surface

Confining Layer

hA=100m Confined aquifer

hB=80m
Qx
b
z y K=2-m/d
x
Bedrock
L=1000m

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 Example – Horizontal Flow
❖ L = 1000 m, hA = 100 m, hB = 80 m, K = 20 m/d, f = 0.35

❖ Find: head, specific discharge, and average velocity

hB - h A hB - h A
h(x) = hA + x = 100 - 0.02x m q = -K
L L
80 -100
= -(20 m /d)
Ground surface
1000
= 0.4 m /day

Confining Layer
q
v=
hA=100m Confined aquifer f
hB=80m
Qx
b = 1.14 m /day
z y K=2-m/d
x
Bedrock
L=1000m

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 Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer

Ground Surface
❖ K= 10-1 cm/sec Water Table

❖ L = 150 m

❖ hA = 6.5 m hA=6.5m Flow

h
❖ hB = 4 m K=0.1cm/s hB=4m

Bedrock L=150m
❖ x = 150 m x

❖ Find Q

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 Steady Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer
❖ K = 10-1 cm/sec Ground Surface
Water Table
❖ L = 150 m

❖ hA = 6.5 m
hA=6.5m Flow
❖ hB = 4 m h
K=0.1cm/s hB=4m
❖ x = 150 m Bedrock L=150m
x
❖ Find Q

æ 2ö æ 6.5 2 - 4 2 ö
K hB - h A
2
86.4 m /d ç ÷ = 7.56 m 3 /d / m
Q=- ç ÷=-
2è L ø 2 ç 150 ÷
è ø

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Example on 1-D Flow Approximation
Cross Section of Flow

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Adding Recharge W - Causes a
Mound to Form

Divide

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 Dupuit Example

Example:
▪ 2 rivers 1000 m apart
▪ K is 0.5 m/day
▪ average rainfall is 15 cm/yr
▪ evaporation is 10 cm/yr
▪ water elevation in river 1 is 20 m
▪ water elevation in river 2 is 18 m
Determine the daily discharge per meter width into each River.

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 Example
Dupuit equation with recharge becomes
h2 = h02 + (hL2 - h02) + W(x - L/2)
If W = 0, this equation will reduce to the parabolic
Equation found in the previous example, and
q = K/2L (h02- hL2) + W(x-L/2)
Given:
L = 1000 m
K = 0.5 m/day
h0 = 20 m
hL= 18 m
W = 5 cm/yr = 1.369 x 10-4 m/day

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 Example

For discharge into River 1, set x = 0 m

q = K/2L (h02- hL2) + W(0-L/2)
= [(0.5 m/day)/(2)(1000 m)] (202 m2 – 18 m2 ) +
(1.369 x 10-4 m/day)(-1000 m / 2)
q = – 0.05 m2 /day
The negative sign indicates that flow is in the opposite direction
From the x direction. Therefore,
q = 0.05 m2 /day into river 1
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 Example

For discharge into River 2, set x = L = 1000 m:

q = K/2L (h02- hL2) + W(L-L/2)
= [(0.5 m/day)/(2)(1000 m)] (202 m2 – 18 m2 ) +
(1.369 x 10-4 m/day)(1000 m –(1000 m / 2))
q = 0.087 m2/day into River 2
By setting q = 0 at the divide and solving for xd, the
water divide is located 361.2 m from the edge of
River 1 and is 20.9 m high
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 Sustainable Groundwater Development & Utilization
- Groundwater Over Extraction / Quality / Pollution

A local supply of groundwater will last indefinitely if it is withdrawn

for use at a rate equal to or less than the rate of recharge to the aquifer.
If ground water is withdrawn faster than it is being recharged, however,
the supply is being reduced and will one day be gone. 49
Effect of Groundwater Over Extraction

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Effect of Pumping on Groundwater Contours and Flow Lines

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Other adverse impacts of groundwater overuse

Land Subsidence Sinkholes

land level in 1925

land level in 1955

land level in 1977

Subsidence of the land surface caused by the

extraction of ground water, near Mendota, San
Joaquin Valley, CA. Signs on the pole indicate
the positions of the land surface in 1925, 1955,
and 1977. The land sank 30 feet in 52 years. 52
 ▪ Chemicals (pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers) that are
- Groundwater Quality / Pollution applied to agricultural crops that can find their way
into groundwater when rain or irrigation water
- Contamination due to Open Dumps leaches the poisons downward into the soil
▪ Rain can also leach pollutants from city dumps into
ground-water supplies
▪ Heavy metals such as mercury, lead, chromium,
copper, and cadmium, together with household
chemicals and poisons, can all be concentrated in
groundwater supplies beneath dumps

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- Groundwater Quality / Pollution
- Contamination due to Sewer Lines/Septic Tanks
Liquid and solid wastes from septic tanks, sewage plants, and animal feedlots and slaughterhouses may
contain bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can contaminate groundwater

- Contamination from Open

fractures

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- Groundwater Quality / Pollution leading to pollution in surface water courses

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Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge and Avoiding GW Pollution
To avoid the problems of falling water tables, subsidence, and compaction, many towns use
artificial recharge to increase recharge.
Natural floodwaters or treated industrial or domestic wastewaters are stored in infiltration
ponds in the surface to increase the rate of water percolation into the ground.
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References/Additional Reading
▪ V. T. Chow, D. R. Maidment and L. W. Mays, (1988). Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill.
▪ K. Subramanya (1996). Engineering Hydrology –Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd Ed.
▪ P. B. Bedient, W. C. Huber (1992), Hydrology and Flood Plain Analysis, Addison –
Wesley Publishing Company

▪ Hydrology (2009) Madan Mohan Das, Mimi Das Saikia, PHI LPI.

▪ David K. Todd & Larry W. Mays (2004). Groundwater Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons
Inc., 3rd Ed.

▪ Herman Bouwer (1978). Groundwater Hydrology, McGraw-Mill Kojakusha Ltd.

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References/Additional Reading

▪ Chow, V. T. (2009). Open-channel Hydraulics. McGraw Hill/ Blackburn Press.

▪ Chadwick, A., Morfett, J. and Borthwick, M. (2004). Hydraulics in Civil and
Environmental Engineering (4th ed.). CRC Press.
▪ Subramanya, K. (1994). Engineering Hydrology (2nd ed.). Tata McGraw Hill.
▪ Sorensen, R. M. (1997). Basic Coastal Engineering (2nd ed.). Springer Publication.

Way forward...
Additional reading....
Additional exercises ....
Self learning/life-long learning ....

Thank you. 60