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FBA 120 LECTURE NOTES SERIES

BY DR. AJIJOLA, L.A.
TOPIC: FUNCTIONS, MAPPING AND LIMITS
Introduction to Function
The concept of function is very fundamental in mathematics just like that of set theory. In real
life situation, most of us use this concept unconsciously. For instance, we all go to the market to
buy thing or the other. The quantity to purchase depends on the price. If the cost of the
commodities is “cheap” from the prospective of the person concerned, there is every likelihood
that the person will buy more quantity.
Relations
Any link between two sets is called a relation. For example, let us generate a Cartesian product
of 𝐴 and 𝐵 i.e., 𝐴𝑋𝐵 if 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3}
𝐴𝑋𝐵 = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑏, 3), (𝑐, 1), (𝑐, 2), (𝑐, 3)}
Note that 𝐴𝑋𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝑋𝐴
We can also represent this relation with pappy diagram
𝑎 1
(𝑏 ) (2 )
𝑐 3
Definition of Function
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be two non-empty sets. Then the correspondence that assigns to each element of the
set 𝐴, a unique element in 𝐵 is called a function. If 𝑓 denotes this “assignment” then we write
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 which read "𝑓" is a function of A into B. The set A is called the “Domain” of the
function while set B is the “Codomain” of the function.
It is essential to note the difference between the “Range” of a function and “Codomain” of the
function. The range of a function is the element of B which appears as the image of at least one
element of A.
Example: Let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be defined by the following pappy diagram

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𝐵
1
𝐴 2
𝑎 𝟏𝟎
𝑏 𝟑
𝑐 𝟗
𝑑 𝟒
𝑒 5
(𝑖) 6
7
(8)
The domain are all the elements in set A. While all the elements in set B are codomain, only
assigned elements (in bold) are range of the function.
Function could be constant, single value or multi-value function
1. Constant Function: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐. Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 7, then function of any value
will remain 7 since 𝑓(𝑥) = 7 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
2. Single/Multi-value Function: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Examples
𝑥 3 +5𝑥+2
(a) If 𝑓(𝑥) = , evaluate 𝑓(0), 𝑓(1), 𝑓(2), 𝑓(−2),
(𝑥−2)(2𝑥+3)
Solution
03 + 5(0) + 2 2 𝟏
𝑓(0) = = =−
(0 − 2)(2(0) + 3) (−2)(3) 𝟑
3
1 + 5(1) + 2 8 𝟖
𝑓(1) = = =−
(1 − 2)(2(1) + 3) (−1)(5) 𝟓
3
2 + 5(2) + 2 20
𝑓(2) = = = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
(2 − 2)(2(2) + 3) 0
−23 + 5(−2) + 2 16
𝑓(−2) = =− = −𝟒
(−2 − 2)(2(2) + 3) 4

(b) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5, compute (i) 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) (ii) 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) (iii)

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ
Solution
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2 − 2(𝑥 + 1) + 5
= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑥 − 2 + 5 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 2(𝑥 + ℎ) + 5 − [𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 5]

= 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 − 2𝑥 − 2ℎ + 5 − 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 = 𝟐𝒙𝒉 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝟐𝒉 𝑨𝒏𝒔.

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𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 − 2ℎ

= = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒉 − 𝟐 𝑨𝒏𝒔.
ℎ ℎ
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
The expression is called the difference of the function 𝑓.
ℎ

(c) Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥 + 5) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7, obtain 𝑓(𝑥) and hence evaluate
𝑓(0). 𝑓(2). 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(5).
Solution
Method 1: If 𝑓(𝑥 + 5) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7. Then, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓([𝑥 − 5] + 5)
= (𝑥 − 5)2 − 5(𝑥 − 5) + 7
= 𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25 − 5𝑥 + 25 + 7
= 𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 57

Method 2: In the function 𝑓(𝑥 + 5) = 𝑓(𝑥), equate 𝑥 + 5 = 𝑥 and make 𝑥 on the

LHS subject of the formula. That is:
𝑥′ + 5 = 𝑥
(We only use 𝑥 ′ just to differentiate 𝑥 on the LHS to the one on the RHS)
𝑥′ = 𝑥 − 5
⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 − 5) = (𝑥 − 5)2 − 5(𝑥 − 5) + 7
= 𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 + 57
Therefore
𝑓(0) = 02 − 15(0) + 57 = 57
𝑓(2) = 22 − 15(2) + 57 = 31
𝑓(5) = 52 − 15(5) + 57 = 7

Types of Function
1. Explicit and Implicit Function: A function is said to be explicit when it is expressed
directly in terms of the independent variable(s); otherwise, it is implicit.
Example: 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 is an Explicit function
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 0 is an Implicit function.

2. Odd and Even Function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
and it is an even function of 𝑥 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).
Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 then 𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 = −8 and −𝑓(2) = −(2)3 = −8.
Also, If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 then 𝑓(−3) = (−3)4 = 81 and 𝑓(3) = (3)4 = 81.

3. Power Function: Power function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 . Example

1
7
includes: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 = 7𝑥 3 ; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 ; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 .

4. Polynomial Functions: The polynomial functions have the general form of

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛

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Where 𝑎 and 𝑛 are real numbers.

Examples:
(i) Linear Functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑥 + 𝑎1 ; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥; 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 1.
(ii) Quadratic Functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1.
(iii) Cubic Functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 6.

5. Algebraic Functions: Algebraic functions are functions that satisfied the conditions of
polynomial functions that satisfy the condition of polynomial function under several
variables. An example is Rational function of the form:
2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 5
𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
3𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5
6. Transcendental Functions: Transcendental functions are functions which are not
algebraic. Example include:
(i) Exponential Functions:
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑟 1; 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ; 𝑓(𝑥) = 10𝑥 ; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
(ii) Logarithmic Functions: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (2𝑥 2 + 5 + 6); 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑛𝑥
(iii) Trigonometric Functions: These include 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥; 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥; 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥.
(iv) Inverse Trigonometric Functions: 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥; 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥

Domain and Range of a Function

The set of values of independent variable 𝑥 is called the “Domain” of the function and the set of
corresponding dependent variable 𝑦 is called the “Range” of the function.
Examples
Find the Domain ant the Range of the following functions
(i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5.
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 6.
𝑥 2 −4
(iii) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−2
, 𝑥 ≠ 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ +𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠

Solutions
(i) Given the interval 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5, then the Domain of this function is {0,1,2,3,4,5}. The
Range of the function are the set of corresponding values of 𝑓(𝑥) i.e.
At 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 0; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(0) = 2(02 ) − 1 = −1
At 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 1; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(1) = 2(12 ) − 1 = 1
At 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 2; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(2) = 2(22 ) − 1 = 7
At 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 3; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(3) = 2(32 ) − 1 = 17
At 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 4; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(4) = 2(42 ) − 1 = 31
At 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 5; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(5) = 2(52 ) − 1 = 49
Therefore, the Range of the function is {−1,1,7,17,31,49}

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(ii) The Domain of this function are all values that will not make the function to be undefined
or complex number. They are {6,7,8,9,10 … ∞}. The corresponding values of Range are
{0,1, √2, √3, 2, … }.

(iii) The Domain of this function are all positive integers of 𝑥 except 2 (i.e., ∈ +𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 −
{2}. This is because at 𝑥 = 2, the function will undefined. The corresponding values of
Range are {2, −3,5,6,7 … ∞}

Composition of Functions
Let A and B be non-empty sets; 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 are functions, then the composition of
the two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 denoted by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is defined by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)).

Example:
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 6. Evaluate (i) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) and hence obtain 𝑔 ∘
𝑓(1) (ii) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) and hence obtain 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(2).
1
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥+7. Derive expression for (i) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥); (ii) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) and
hence obtain 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(2); 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(3)
Solution
1.
(i) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑔(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 ) = 2(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 ) + 6
= 2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 12 + 6 = 2𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 6
∴ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(1) = 𝑔[𝑓(1)] = 2(12 ) + 10(1) − 6 = 𝟔𝑨𝑵𝑺

(ii) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(2𝑥 + 6) = (2𝑥 + 6)2 + 5(2𝑥 + 6) − 6

= 4𝑥 2 + 24𝑥 + 36 + 10𝑥 + 30 − 6 = 4𝑥 2 + 34𝑥 + 60
∴ 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(2) = 𝑓[𝑔(2)] = 4(22 ) + 34(2) + 60 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝑨𝑵𝑺

2.
(i) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑔(8𝑥 + 6 )
1 1 1
= = =
3(8𝑥 + 6 ) + 7 24𝑥 + 18 + 7 24𝑥 + 25
1 𝟏
∴ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(2) = 𝑔[𝑓(2)] = = 𝑨𝑵𝑺
24(2) + 25 𝟕𝟑

1 1
(ii) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 (3𝑥+7) = 8 (3𝑥+7) + 6
8 + 18𝑥 + 42 18𝑥 + 50
= =
3𝑥 + 7 3𝑥 + 7
18(3) + 50 𝟏𝟎𝟒
∴ 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(3) = 𝑓[𝑔(3)] = = = 𝟔. 𝟓𝑨𝑵𝑺
3(3) + 7 𝟏𝟔

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Inverse of a Function
If a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we can obtain another function 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦), then each function is known
as the inverse of the other. The inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
Examples
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 3, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
3𝑥−4
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥−6, find 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
1
3. Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 6 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥+7. Derive expression for (i) 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥); (ii)
𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 (𝑥) and hence evaluate 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (2); 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (1) and 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 (2).

Solutions
1. We obtain 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) by making 𝑥 subject of the formula in the equation

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 3
1
⟹ 𝑥 = (𝑦 + 3)
4
1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = (𝑥 + 3)𝐴𝑁𝑆
4
3𝑥−4
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥−6, then make 𝑥 subject of the formula in the equation below in order to find
the 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).
3𝑥 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 =
5𝑥 − 6
5𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 4
5𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 6𝑦 − 4
𝑥(5𝑦 − 3) = 6𝑦 − 4
6𝑦 − 4
𝑥=
5𝑦 − 3
6𝑥 − 4
⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝐴𝑁𝑆
5𝑥 − 3

3. In 𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 6, let 𝑦 = 8𝑥 + 6 and make 𝑥 subject of the formula in the equation.

𝑦 = 8𝑥 + 6
𝑦−6
⟹𝑥=
8
𝑥−6
⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
8
1 1
Also, in 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥+7, let 𝑦 = 3𝑥+7 and make 𝑥 subject of the formula in the equation.

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1
𝑦=
3𝑥 + 7
⟹ 3𝑥𝑦 + 7𝑦 = 1
⟹ 3𝑥𝑦 = 1 − 7𝑦
1 − 7𝑦
⟹𝑥=
3𝑦
1 − 7𝑥
⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3𝑥
Therefore,
𝑥−6
(i) 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑔−1 [𝑓 −1 (𝑥)] = 𝑔−1 [ 8 ]
𝑥−6 7𝑥 − 42 8 − 7𝑥 + 42
1 − 7( 8 ) 1 − 50 − 7𝑥
= = 8 = 8 = 𝐴𝑁𝑆
𝑥−6 3𝑥 − 18 3𝑥 − 18 3𝑥 − 18
3( 8 ) 8 8

1−7𝑥
(ii) 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 [𝑔−1 (𝑥)] = 𝑓 −1 [ 3𝑥 ]
1 − 7𝑥
3𝑥 − 6 = 1 − 7𝑥 − 18𝑥 = 1 − 25𝑥 𝐴𝑁𝑆
8 24𝑥 24𝑥
Then

50 − 7(2) 36
𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (2) = = = −3 𝐴𝑁𝑆
3(2) − 18 −12

50 − 7(1) 43 43
𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 (1) = = − 𝐴𝑁𝑆
3(1) − 18 −15 15

1 − 25(2) 1 − 50 −49
𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 (2) = = = 𝐴𝑁𝑆
24(2) 48 48

Limits
There are times when a function is not defined for a particular value of 𝑥, say 𝑥 = 𝑥0 , but it is
defined for values of 𝑥 that are arbitrarily close to 𝑥0 . For example, the expression
𝑥2 − 1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1
is not defined when 𝑥 = 1 because, at that point, the denominator is zero and division by zero is
not defined. However, we note that:

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𝑥 2 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑓(𝑥) = = =𝑥+1
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
Provided that 𝑥 ≠ 1.
We still cannot permit the value 𝑥 = 1 because, to do so would mean that the cancellation of 𝑥 −
1 would be divided by zero. But we can say that as the value of 𝑥 approaches 1, the value of
𝑓(𝑥) approaches 2. Clearly the value of 𝑓(𝑥) never actually attains the value of 2 but it does as
get close to it as you wish it by selecting a value of 𝑥 sufficiently close to 1.
𝑥 2 −1
We say that the limit of as 𝑥 approaches to 1 is 2 and we write
𝑥−1

𝑥2 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
Lim ( ) = Lim = Lim(𝑥 + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1

The concept of limits of a function plays a significant role in a better understanding of the basic
concepts of mathematics, physics, engineering, economics etc. Such basic concepts include
derivatives, velocity, integral and so on.

Some Basic Theorems on Limits

If Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 and Lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐵, then:
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐶 if 𝐶 is constant for all values of 𝑥.

𝑥→𝑎
2. Lim (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) = Lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± Lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐴 ± 𝐵
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
3. Lim (𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)) = Lim 𝑓(𝑥)Lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐴𝐵
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) Lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐴
𝑥→𝑎
4. Lim (𝑔(𝑥)) = Lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐵 provided Lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Examples
Find the limits of the following functions:
𝑥 2 −9
(i) Lim ( 𝑥+3 )
𝑥→−3
(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +1)
(ii) Lim
𝑥→1 √𝑥+1
(iii) Lim (2𝑥 2 − 1)
𝑥→1
2𝑥 2 −3𝑥+1
(iv) Lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
(v) Lim √16 − 𝑥 2
𝑥→2

Solutions

Prepared by Dr. Ajijola, L.A.

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(i) Since substituting −3 directly will give us

𝑥2 − 9 −32 − 9 0
Lim ( ) = Lim ( ) = = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3 −3 + 3 0

We can then factorise the numerator and determined the limit as follow:
𝑥2 − 9 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)
Lim ( ) = Lim ( ) = Lim (𝑥 − 3) = −3 − 3 = −6
𝑥→−3 𝑥 + 3 𝑥→−3 𝑥+3 𝑥→−3

(ii) Substituting directly into the function will give us

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) (1 − 1)(12 + 1) (0)(2)
Lim = = =0
𝑥→1 √𝑥 + 1 √1 + 1 √2

(iii) Lim (2𝑥 2 − 1) = 2(1)2 − 1 = 1

𝑥→1
(iv) Substituting 1 directly will give us indefinite answers
2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
Lim = Lim = Lim (2𝑥 − 1) = 2(1) − 1 = 1
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1
(v) 2 2
Lim √16 − 𝑥 = √16 − 2 = √16 − 4 = √12 = √4 × 3 = √4 × √3 = 2√3
𝑥→2

Arithmetic of Infinity
1. ∞+∞=∞
2. ∞ ∗ ∞ = ∞2 = ∞
3. 𝑎∞ = ∞ provided that 𝑎 > 1
4. ∞ − ∞ ≠ 0; It is indeterminate.
∞
5. ≠ 1; It is indeterminate.
∞

Infinite Limits
If the range of function 𝑓(𝑥) external without bounds, it may so happen that for some point “𝑎”.
Lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞
𝑥→𝑎
1
Such limits are termed infinite. For example Lim and Lim 𝑥 2 = ∞
𝑥→1 1−𝑥 𝑥→∞

Examples
Find the limits of the following:
4𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +1
1. Lim
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 −5
3𝑥 4 −2𝑥 2
2. Lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥+3𝑥 2 −5𝑥 4

Prepared by Dr. Ajijola, L.A.

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Solutions
1. Divide the numerator and denominator by 𝑥 3
𝑥3 𝑥2 1 2 1 2 1
4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 1 4 3−2 3+ 3 4−𝑥+ 3 4− + 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ∞ ∞
Lim = Lim = Lim =
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 3 − 5 𝑥→∞ 𝑥3 5 𝑥→∞ 5 5
3 3− 3 3− 3 3− 3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ∞
4−0+0 4
= =
3−0 3

2. Divide the numerator and denominator by 𝑥 4

𝑥4 𝑥2 2 2
4
3𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 3 4 − 2 4 3− 2 3− 2
Lim = Lim 𝑥 𝑥 = Lim 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 4 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥 4 𝑥→∞ 1 3 1 3
4 +3 4−5 4 𝑥 3 + 𝑥2 − 5 ∞3 + ∞2 − 5
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3−0 3
= =−
0+0−5 5

Definition of Number 𝒆 (Exponential)

1 𝑛
The number 𝑒 is defined as the limit of the variable (1 + 𝑛) as 𝑛 approaches infinity i.e.

1 𝑛
𝑒 = Lim (1 + ) .
𝑥→∞ 𝑛
It can also be defined as
1
𝑒 = Lim (1 + 𝑥)𝑥
𝑥→0

Example. Find the limit of

1
Lim (1 + 2𝑥)2𝑥
𝑥→0

Solution
1
Lim (1 + 2𝑥)2𝑥 = 𝑒 2
𝑥→0

Exercises
4
1. Given that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , compute 𝑓(5).
1−
1−𝑥
2. Evaluate each of the following limits

Prepared by Dr. Ajijola, L.A.

 Page 11 of 11

𝑥 3 −8
(i) Lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −4
4𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +𝑋
(ii) Lim
𝑥→0 3𝑥 2 +2𝑥
𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6
(iii) Lim
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 −12𝑥+20
√1+𝑥−1
(iv) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
√𝑥 2 +1
(v) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑥+1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
(vi) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑥3
𝑥
−2
𝑥+2
(vii) Lim
𝑥→−4 𝑥+4
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
(viii) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥−1
(ix) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
(x) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
2𝑥
(xi) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛4𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥 −1
(xii) Lim
𝑥→0 2𝑥
1−𝑒 4𝑥
(xiii) Lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑙𝑛(2𝑥−3)
(xiv) Lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2 )
(xv) Lim
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

3. Let 𝑓, 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ be function respectively defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 5 and

1
ℎ(𝑥) = 1 + 𝑥. Obtain the following:
(i) 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
(ii) 𝑔−1 (𝑥)
(iii) ℎ−1 (𝑥)
(iv) 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔(𝑥)
(v) 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓(𝑥)
(vi) 𝑓 ∘ ℎ(𝑥)
(vii) ℎ ∘ 𝑓(𝑥)
(viii) 𝑔 ∘ ℎ(𝑥)
(ix) ℎ ∘ 𝑔(𝑥)
(x) 𝑓 −1 ∘ 𝑔−1 (3)
(xi) 𝑔−1 ∘ ℎ−1 (5)

Prepared by Dr. Ajijola, L.A.