Crushers Chapter | 6 137

crushing, and some oversize escapes. Rolls should there- The first commercial installation began operation in
fore be used in closed circuit with screens. Choked 1985 to grind cement clinker (McIvor, 1997). Since then,
crushing also causes inter-particle comminution, which HPGR technology has seen wide use in the cement,
leads to the production of material finer than the gap of limestone and diamond industries and has recently been
the crusher. implemented in hard rock metalliferous operations (Morley,
The capacity of the rolls can be calculated in terms of 2010). Researchers have noted that the high pressure
the ribbon of material that will pass the space between the exerted on the particle bed produces a high proportion of
rolls. Thus theoretical capacity (Q, kg h21) is equal to: fines and particles with micro-cracks and improved mineral
liberation, which can be advantageous for subsequent com-
Q 5 188:5NDWsd (6.7)
minution or metallurgical processes (Esna-Ashari and
where N is the speed of rolls (rpm), D the roll diameter Kellerwessel, 1988; Clarke and Wills, 1989; Knecht, 1994;
(m), W the roll width (m), s the density of feed material Watson and Brooks, 1994; Daniel and Morrell, 2004).
(kg m23), and d the distance between the rolls (m). Unlike conventional crushers or tumbling mills, which
In practice, allowing for voids between the particles, employ impact and attrition to break particles, the HPGR
loss of speed in gripping the feed, etc., the capacity is employs inter-particle crushing in the bed, and as such the
usually about 25% of the theoretical. particle packing properties of the feed material play a role
in determining breakage. Feed that is scalped (fines
removed) prior to the HPGR is termed “truncated.” The
6.4 HIGH PRESSURE GRINDING ROLLS removal of fines impacts HPGR operation, as coarse parti-
cles tend to have a greater impact on roll wear, and the
The pressure exerted on the feed particles in conventional
elimination of fines creates a less compact bed, which
roll crushers is in the range 10
30 MPa. During the
reduces the inter-particle breakage action. To ensure
1970
80s, work by Prof. Schönert of the Technical
proper bed, formation the units should be choke fed the
University of Clausthal, Germany led to the development
entire length of the rolls.
of the High-Compression Roller Mill, which utilized
The HPGR product typically comprises fines and por-
forces from 50
150 MPa (Schönert, 1979, 1988; McIvor,
tions of compacted cake referred to as “flakes”
1997). The units are now commonly termed High
(Figure 6.18). Depending on flake competency, the
Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR) and employ a fixed and
product may require subsequent deagglomeration (ranging
movable roll to crush material. A hydraulic pressure sys-
from a mild pre-soaking to modest attritioning) to release
tem acts on pistons that press the movable roll against a
the fines (van der Meer and Grunedken, 2010). It has
material bed (density .70% solids by volume) fed to the
been shown that the specific energy consumption for
rolls (Figure 6.17). The roll gap can be adjusted depending
compression and ball mill-deagglomeration is
on the feed particle size and application.

FIGURE 6.17 High pressure grinding rolls (Adapted from Napier-Munn et al., 1996; Courtesy JKMRC and The University of Queensland).
138 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.18 Example flake product from an HPGR (Used with permission, van der Meer and Gruendken, 2010, Minerals Engineering, copyright
Elsevier).

FIGURE 6.19 HEXADURs (a) standard roll surface, (b) pre-conditioned surface, and (c) surface after use retaining autogenous wear layer
(Courtesy Köppern, Germany).

FIGURE 6.20 Studded roll surface: (a) new surface, and (b) surface with autogenous wear layer between studs ((b) Used with permission, van der
Meer and Maphosa, 2012, J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall, copyright SAIMM).

considerably less than that of ball mill grinding alone. (especially in hard rock applications), because of their
The typical comminution energy in an HPGR unit is improved wear-resistant characteristics. Most surfaces
2.5
3.5 kWh t21, compared to 15
25 kWh t21 in ball employ an autogenous wear layer, that is, crushed feed mate-
mill grinding (Brachthauser and Kellerwessel, 1988; rial is captured and retained on the roll surface in the inter-
Schwechten and Milburn, 1990). stices between the studs (Figure 6.19(c) and Figure 6.20(b)).
HPGRs were originally designed to be operated with HPGRs can be operated in open- or closed-circuit
smooth rolls. The HEXADURs surface is commonly used depending on the application. Closed circuits may employ
in cement applications (Figure 6.19). The pre-conditioned wet or dry screening or air classification, although classi-
surface design incorporates tiles with varying thicknesses, fication equipment is not a necessity in certain applica-
which enhances feed intake. Studded roll surfaces tions. Due to roll geometry, the press force exerted at the
(Figure 6.20) have become standard in the new designs roll edges is less than in the center, resulting in a coarser
 Crushers Chapter | 6 139

rocks where comminution is by impact rather than com-

pression. The moving parts are “beaters,” which transfer
some of their kinetic energy to the ore particles upon con-
tact. Internal stresses created in the particles are often
large enough to cause them to shatter. These forces are
increased by causing the particles to impact upon an anvil
or breaker plate.
There is an important difference between the states of
materials crushed by pressure and by impact. There are
internal stresses in material broken by pressure that can
later cause cracking. Impact causes immediate fracture
with no residual stresses. This stress-free condition is par-
ticularly valuable in stone used for brick-making, build-
ing, and roadmaking, in which binding agents (e.g., tar)
are subsequently added. Impact crushers, therefore, have
a wider use in the quarrying industry than in the metal-
mining industry. They may give trouble-free crushing on
FIGURE 6.21 Diagram of HPGR operation (Adapted from van der
ores that tend to be plastic and pack when the crushing
Meer and Gruendken, 2010).
forces are applied slowly, as is the case in jaw and gyra-
tory crushers. These types of ore tend to be brittle when
the crushing force is applied instantaneously by impact
crushers (Lewis et al., 1976).
Impact crushers are also favored in the quarry industry
because of the improved product shape. Cone crushers
tend to produce more elongated particles because of their
ability to pass through the chamber unbroken. In an
impact crusher, all particles are subjected to impact and
the elongated particles, having a lower strength due to
their thinner cross section, would be broken (Ramos
et al., 1994; Kojovic and Bearman, 1997).

6.5.1 Hammer Mills

Figure 6.23(a) shows the cross section of a typical ham-
mer mill. The hammers (Figure 6.23(b)) are made from
manganese steel or nodular cast iron containing chromium
carbide, which is extremely abrasion resistant. The
breaker plates are made of the same material.
The hammers are pivoted so as to move out of the
path of oversize material (or tramp metal) entering the
crushing chamber. Pivoted (swing) hammers exert less
FIGURE 6.22 Example of an HPGR with “edge” recycle in a crushing force than they would if rigidly attached, so they tend to
circuit (Adapted from van der Meer and Gruendken, 2012). be used on smaller impact crushers or for crushing soft
material. The exit from the mill is perforated, so that
edge product (Figure 6.21). Splitters can be used to material that is not broken to the required size is retained
separate the edge product for recycle (van der Meer and and swept up again by the rotor for further impacting.
Grunedken, 2010). Figure 6.22 shows an example of edge There may also be an exit chute for oversize material
material recycle using a splitter in a crushing application which is swept past the screen bars. Certain design con-
at a copper flotation plant. figurations include a central discharge chute (an opening
in the screen) and others exclude the screen, depending
on the application.
6.5 IMPACT CRUSHERS The hammer mill is designed to give the particles
Impact crushers (e.g., hammer mills and impact mills) velocities of the order of that of the hammers. Fracture is
employ sharp blows applied at high speed to free-falling either due to impact with the hammers or to the
140 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.23 (a) Diagram of a hammer mill, and (b) close-up of hammers ((b) Courtesy Sandvik).

subsequent impact with the casing or grid. Since the parti-

cles are given high velocities, much of the size reduction
is by attrition (i.e., particle on particle breakage), and this
leads to little control on product size and a much higher
proportion of fines than with compressive crushers.
The hammers can weigh over 100 kg and can work on
feed up to 20 cm. The speed of the rotor varies between 500
and 3,000 rpm. Due to the high rate of wear on these
machines (wear can be taken up by moving the hammers on
the pins) they are limited in use to relatively non-abrasive
materials. They have extensive use in limestone quarrying
and in the crushing of coal. A great advantage in quarrying
is the fact that they produce a relatively cubic product.
A model of the swing hammer mill has been developed
FIGURE 6.24 Impact mill.
for coal applications (Shi et al., 2003). The model is able to
predict the product size distribution and power draw for
given hammer mill configurations (breaker gap, under-screen
orientation, screen aperture) and operating conditions (feed cubic particles. The impact plates are reversible to even out
rate, feed size distribution, and breakage characteristics). wear, and can easily be removed and replaced.
The impact mill gives better control of product size
than does the hammer mill, since there is less attrition.
The product shape is more easily controlled and energy is
6.5.2 Impact Mills saved by the removal of particles once they have reached
For coarser crushing, the fixed hammer impact mill is often the size required.
used (Figure 6.24). In these machines the material falls tan- Large impact crushers will reduce 1.5 m top size
gentially onto a rotor, running at 250
500 rpm, receiving a ROM ore to 20 cm, at capacities of around 1500 t h21,
glancing impulse, which sends it spinning toward the impact although units with capacities of 3000 t h21 have been
plates. The velocity imparted is deliberately restricted to a manufactured. Since they depend on high velocities for
fraction of the velocity of the rotor to avoid high stress and crushing, wear is greater than for jaw or gyratory
probable failure of the rotor bearings. crushers. Hence impact crushers are not recommended for
The fractured pieces that can pass between the clear- use on ores containing over 15% silica (Lewis et al.,
ances of the rotor and breaker plate enter a second chamber 1976). However, they are a good choice for primary
created by another breaker plate, where the clearance is crushing when high reduction ratios are required (the ratio
smaller, and then into a third smaller chamber. The grind- can be as high as 40:1) and the ore is relatively non-
ing path is designed to reduce flakiness and to produce abrasive.
 Crushers Chapter | 6 141

FIGURE 6.25 (a) Cross section of Barmac VSI Crusher, and (b) rock on rock crushing action in the chamber (Courtesy Metso).

FIGURE 6.26 Example Canica VSI crusher internal chamber configurations: (a) Rock on Rock, (b) Rock on Anvil, and (c) Shoe and Anvil
(Courtesy Terexs Mineral Processing Systems).

6.5.3 Vertical Shaft Impact (VSI) Crushers into a highly turbulent particle “cloud” contained
within the crushing chamber, where reduction occurs
Barmac Vertical Shaft Impact Crusher primarily by rock-on-rock impact, attrition, and
Developed in New Zealand in the late 1960s, over the years abrasion.
it has been marketed by several companies (Tidco, Svedala,
Allis Engineering, and now Metso) under various names
(e.g., duopactor). The crusher is finding application in the Canica Vertical Shaft Impact Crusher
concrete industry (Rodriguez, 1990). The mill combines This crusher developed by Jaques (now Terexs Mineral
impact crushing, high-intensity grinding, and multi-particle Processing Solutions) has several internal chamber con-
pulverizing, and as such, is best suited in the tertiary crush- figurations available depending on the abrasiveness of
ing or primary grinding stage, producing products in the the ore. Examples include the Rock on Rock, Rock on
0.06
12 mm size range. It can handle feeds of up to Anvil and Shoe and Anvil configurations (Figure 6.26).
650 t h21 at a top size of over 50 mm. Figure 6.22 shows a These units typically operate with 5 to 6 steel impellers
Barmac in a circuit; Figure 6.25 is a cross-section and or hammers, with a ring of thin anvils. Rock is hit or
illustration of the crushing action. accelerated to impact on the anvils, after which the bro-
The basic comminution principle employed involves ken fragments freefall into the discharge chute and onto
acceleration of particles within a special ore-lined rotor a product conveyor belt. This impact size reduction pro-
revolving at high speed. A portion of the feed enters the cess was modeled by Kojovic (1996) and Djordjevic
rotor, while the remainder cascades to the crushing et al. (2003) using rotor dimensions and speed, and rock
chamber. Breakage commences when rock enters the breakage characteristics measured in the laboratory. The
rotor, and is thrown centrifugally, achieving exit veloci- model was also extended to the Barmac crushers
ties up to 90 m s21. The rotor continuously discharges (Napier-Munn et al., 1996).
142 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

FIGURE 6.27 (a) A Bradford breaker during installation (casing not installed), and (b) internal view from the discharge end of the breaker showing
screen plates and lifters (Courtesy TerraSource Global).

6.6 ROTARY BREAKERS have been constructed, and in-pit crushing units have
been used, which allow relatively cheap ore transportation
Where large tonnages of coal are treated, the rotary coal by conveyor belts, rather than by trucks, to a fixed
breaker (commonly termed the Bradford breaker) can be crushing station (Griesshaber, 1983; Frizzel, 1985; Utley,
used (Figure 6.27(a)). This is similar to the cylindrical 2009). The in-pit units are either fixed plants at the pit
trommel screen (Chapter 8), consisting of a cylinder edge or semi- or fully-mobile units in the pit. A mobile
1.8
4.5 m in diameter and length of about 11/2 to 21/2 times crusher is a completely self-contained unit, mounted on a
the diameter, revolving at a speed of about 10
18 rpm. frame that is moved by means of a transport mechanism
The machine is massively constructed, with perforated either in the open pit as mining progresses or through differ-
walls, the size of the perforations being the size to which ent mineral processing plants as required. Depending on the
the coal is to be broken. The ROM coal is fed into the crusher size, the mobile unit can be used to support primary
rotating cylinder, at up to 1,500 t h21 in the larger or secondary crushing stages or to process the critical size
machines. The machine utilizes differential breakage, the pebbles from a SAG mill. Semi-mobile units can include
coal being much more friable than the associated stones gyratories, being the crusher of choice for throughputs over
and shales, and trash such as wood or steel from the 2,500 t h21. Fully-mobile units typically use jaw, hammer,
mine. The resulting small particles of coal fall through or roll crushers, fed directly or by apron feeders, at rates of
the holes, while the larger lumps of coal are transported up to 1,000 t h21.
by longitudinal lifters (Figure 6.27(b)) within the cylinder Crushing plants may be housed with the rest of the
until they reach a point where they slide off the lifters and milling plant but today are often a separate facility, one
fall to the bottom of the cylinder, breaking by their own reason being to better control dust. Two possible
impact, and fall through the holes. The lifters are inclined flowsheets were illustrated in Figure 6.1 to provide feed
to give the coal a forward motion through the breaker. to rod (or ball mill) or to an AG/SAG mill. In some cases,
Shale and stone do not break as easily, and are usually the crushing circuit is designed not only to produce mill
discharged from the end of the breaker, which thus cleans feed, but also to provide media for autogenous grinding
the coal to a certain degree and, as the broken coal is (Wills, 1983). Crushing plants are characterized by exten-
quickly removed from the breaker, produces few coal sive use of conveyors and the energy for transport is a
fines. Although the rotary breaker is an expensive piece consideration in selecting the type of circuit.
of equipment, maintenance costs are low, and it produces Two possible flowsheets for a crushing plant produc-
positive control of top size product. ing ball mill feed are shown in Figure 6.28. The circuit
Esterle et al. (1996) reviewed the work on modeling in Figure 6.28(a) is a “conventional” design and is typi-
of rotary breakers. The work was based at three open pit cal in that the secondary feed is scalped and the second-
coal mines in Central Queensland, Australia, where 3 m ary product is screened and conveyed to a storage bin,
diameter breakers were handling ROM coal. rather than feeding the tertiary crushers directly. The
intermediate bins allow good mixing of the secondary
screen oversize with the circulating load, and regulation
6.7 CRUSHING CIRCUITS AND CONTROL of the tertiary crusher feed, providing more efficient
Efforts continue to improve crusher energy efficiency and crushing. Note the tertiary circuit is an example of
to reduce capital and operating costs. Larger crushers crushers operating in parallel. The circuit is adaptable to
 Crushers Chapter | 6 143

FIGURE 6.28 (a) Three-stage crushing circuit for ball mill feed, and (b) crushing circuit including HPGR ((a) Adapted from Motz, 1978;
(b) Adapted from Rosario et al., 2009).

automatic feed control to maintain maximum power uti- dump to the crushers. Steel can tear a conveyor belt lead-
lization (Mollick, 1980). Figure 6.28(b) shows a circuit ing to downtime and often is undetected as it is hidden
including an HPGR stage. Rosario et al. (2009) provide beneath ore on the conveyor after the crusher.
a selection of possible crushing circuits that plant The operating and process control objectives for sec-
designers can contemplate. ondary and tertiary crushing circuits differ from one plant
Advances in instrumentation and process control to the next. Typically, the main objective is to maximize
hardware have made the implementation of computer crusher throughput at some specified product size which
control more common in crushing circuits. often requires ensuring, as best as possible, choke feed in
Instrumentation includes ore level detectors, oil flow the crusher and a properly selected closed side setting.
sensors, power measurement devices, belt scales, vari- Due to an increase in power cost and availability at a
able speed belt drives and feeders, blocked chute detec- number of operations, the efficient use of power is
tors, and particle size measurement devices (Horst and becoming a more dominant issue. Numerous variables
Enochs, 1980; Flintoff et al., 2014). An early example of affect the performance of a crusher, but only three—ore
the importance of automatic control is the crushing plant feed rate, crusher set, and, in some cases, feed size—can
at Mount Isa in Australia, where the output increased by be adjusted (with the exception of a water flush crusher
over 15% after controls were introduced (Manlapig and or HPGR where additional degrees of freedom exist).
Watsford, 1983). Lynch (1977) has described case studies of automatic
Supervisory control systems are not usually applied to control systems for various applications. When the pur-
primary crushers, the instrumentation basically being used pose of the crushing plant is to produce feed for the grind-
to protect them. Thus lubrication flow indicators and ing circuit, the most important objective of the control
bearing temperature detectors may be fitted, together with system is to ensure a supply of crushed ore at the rate
high and low level alarms in the chamber under the required by the grinding plant. The fineness of the crusher
crusher. Vision systems are increasingly being used on product is maintained by the selection of screens of the
both the feed and discharge of primary crushers to guide appropriate aperture in the final closed circuit loop.
when changes in the discharge setting are required. The most effective way of maximizing throughput is
Additionally, various systems, including vision, are being to maintain the highest possible crusher power draw, and
explored to detect metal (steel bars, etc.) in the truck this has been used to control many plants. A benefit of
144 Wills’ Mineral Processing Technology

automated control is the ability to better regulate the feed In those circuits where the crushers produce a saleable
to the crusher and therefore lessen the variability of the product (e.g., road-stone quarries), the control objective is
power draw, enabling the system to run closer to the usually to maximize the production of certain size frac-
power limit without fear of an overshoot. This alone can tions from each ton of feed. Since screen efficiency
result in increased efficiency of over 2% in increased decreases as circulating load increases, producing a finer
throughput. There is an optimum closed side setting for product size, circulating load can be used to control the
crushers operating in closed circuit that provides the product size (Chapter 8). This can be effected by control
highest tonnage of finished screen product for a particular of the crusher setting using a hydraulic adjustment system
power or circulating load limit, noting that the feed (Flavel, 1977, 1978; Anon., 1981).
tonnage to the crusher increases at larger closed side set- The required variation in crusher setting can be deter-
tings. The power draw can be maintained by the use of a mined by the use of mathematical models of crusher per-
variable speed belt feeding the crusher, although this is formance (Lynch, 1977; Napier-Munn et al., 1996), from
not common due to the control challenges of managing empirical (historical) data, or by measuring product size
the belt. More common is control of the feeders deposit- on-line. Image processing based systems for the continu-
ing the ore onto the feed belt from a bin or stockpile. This ous measurement of fragmentation size for use throughout
provides the necessary flexibility while greatly simplify- the crushing circuit have been in use in the mining indus-
ing overall control. try since the mid-1990s and have now become best prac-
Typical control algorithms are based on supervisory tice (Chapter 4). These systems measure, on a real time
control that manages feed versus the power draw and/or a basis, the size of the ore on a belt or a feeder. Currently
combination of power draw and level in the crusher bowl. four systems are in use: PRC from Portage Technologies
These algorithms incorporate expert systems for overall Inc., Split-Online from Split Engineering, WipFrag from
strategy and model predictive controllers to provide a WipWare Inc., and VisoRock from Metso. An example of
predictable feed rate. In situations where the size deliv- the screen capture from a moving conveyor belt is shown
ered from individual feeders is known, another degree of in Figure 6.29 (see also Chapter 4).
freedom for control is added, the incorporation of feeder Additional loops are normally required in crushing cir-
bias and selection. Uneven feed from the bin or stockpile cuits to control levels in surge bins between different
combined with the long time delays inherent in the dis- stages. For instance, the crusher product surge bins can be
tance between the feed stock and crusher, reduce the effi- monitored such that at high level feed is increased to
cacy of traditional control and have driven the industry to draw down the bins.
embrace more advanced expert, model-based and multi- The importance of primary crusher control on SAG
variable control. At the same time, the software and tech- mill performance at Highland Valley Copper was well
nology for these solutions has become more accessible to recognized, and through the use of image analysis, HVC
the plants, resulting in robust solutions. was able to quantify the effect, and thereby regulate
Operations under choked conditions also require sens- crusher product size through a combination of feed rate
ing of upper and lower levels of feed in the crusher by and setting control (Dance, 2001). Figure 6.30 illustrates
mechanical, nuclear, sonic, vision, or proximity switches. the effect of primary crusher product size on the SAG
Operation at high power draw (choked conditions) leads mill throughput. Tracking the crusher product through the
to increased fines production, such that if the increased stockpile network, as the amount of medium size material
throughput provided by the control system cannot be (50
125 mm) increased, the amount of this material in
accommodated by the grinding plant, then the higher the feed to the SAG mill increased, as measured 24 hours
average power draw can be used to produce a finer prod- later (the 124 hours key in the figure). This size material
uct. In most cases, high throughput increases screen load- constitutes SAG mill critical size in this operation and, as
ing, which decreases screening efficiency, particularly for expected, as the amount fed to the SAG mill increased
the particles close to the screen aperture size. This has the the tonnage decreased, for one of the SAG mills from
effect of reducing the effective “cut-size” of the screen, 2,000 to 1,800 t h21. This change in amount of medium
producing a finer product (see also Chapter 8). Thus a size material was caused by an increase in the amount in
possible control scheme during periods of excess closed the feed to the primary crusher, resulting from a period of
circuit crushing capacity or reduced throughput require- higher energy blasting, which reduced the amount of 1
ment is to increase the circulating load by reducing the 125 mm. Because in this operation the medium size mate-
number of screens used, leading to a finer product. The rial passed through the crusher virtually unchanged, the
implementation of this type of control loop requires accu- increase was reflected in the crusher product. It is neces-
rate knowledge of the behavior of the plant under various sary to understand these interacting factors to effect con-
conditions. trol and maximize the throughput of the circuit.
 Crushers Chapter | 6 145

FIGURE 6.29 Screen capture of Portage PRCs (Courtesy Portage Technologies Inc.).

Blake, E.W., 1858. Machine for Crushing Stone. US Patent No.

US20542.
Brachthauser, M., Kellerwessel, H., 1988. High pressure comminution
with roller presses in mineral processing. Forssberg, E. (Ed.), Proc.
16th International Mineral Processing Cong., (IMPC), Stockholm,
Sweden, pp. 209
219.
Broman, J., 1984. Optimising capacity and economy in jaw and gyratory
crushers. Eng. Min. J. 185 (6), 69
71.
Clarke, A.J., Wills, B.A., 1989. Technical note enhancement of cassiterite
liberation by high pressure roller comminution. Miner. Eng. 2 (2),
259
262.
Dance, A., 2001. The importance of primary crushing in mill feed size
optimisation. Proc. International Autogenous and Semiautogenous
Grinding Technology (SAG) Conf., vol. 2, Vancouver, BC, Canada,
pp. 270
281.
Daniel, M.J., Morrell, S., 2004. HPGR model verification and scale-up.
FIGURE 6.30 Effect of increasing medium size (50
125 mm) fraction
Miner. Eng. 17 (11-12), 1149
1161.
in crusher product (and mill feed) on mill throughput (tonnage)
Djordjevic, N., et al., 2003. Applying discrete element modelling to vertical
(Courtesy Teck, Highland Valley Copper).
and horizontal shaft impact crushers. Miner. Eng. 16 (10), 983
991.
Erikson, M.T., 2014. Innovations in comminution equipment: high pressure
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240. Esna-Ashari, M., Kellerwessel, H., 1988. Interparticle crushing of gold ore
Anon., 2014. World’s largest cone crushers go into service at African improves leaching. Randol Gold Forum 1988, Scottsdale, AZ, USA, pp.
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