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Why Modulation
• A modulation process described as 'up-conversion' (similar to FDM)
allows the baseband signal to be translated to higher 'radio'
frequencies.
Analog Communication • Generally 'low' radio frequencies 'bounce' off the ionosphere and
travel long distances around the earth,
• high radio frequencies penetrate the ionosphere and make space
communications possible.
Modulation

Need of Modulation
Baseband signal transmission cannot be used for radio Practical Design of Antennas
communication. To transmit the baseband signal for
radio communication, modulation must be used. 
Modulation is necessary because of following
advantages:
1. Reduction in height of antenna.
2. Avoids mixing of signals.
3. Increase the range of communication.
4. Multiplexing is possible.
5. Improves quality of reception

Signals in the Modulation Process Types of Modulation

Message or Modulating Signal

Carrier Signal

Modulated Signal

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Pulse Modulation
Types of ANALOGUE Modulation • In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of
rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier wave.
• It is divided into analog and digital modulation.

Analogue PAM -Pulse Amplitude Modulation

modulation PWM – Pulse Width modulation
technique PPM – Pulse Position Modulation

Digital PCM –Pulse code modulation

Modulation
Technique DM – Delta Modulation

Amplitude Modulation

Consider a ‘cos wave' carrier.

Amplitude
Modulation
vc(t) = Vc cos(ct), peak amplitude = Vc, carrier frequency c radians per second.
Since c = 2fc, frequency = fc Hz where fc = 1/T.

Amplitude Modulation AM

In AM, the modulating signal (the message signal) m(t) is 'impressed' on to the
amplitude of the carrier.

Schematic Diagram for Amplitude Modulation Equations for AM

From the diagram where VDC is the DC voltage that can

be varied. The equation is in the form Amp cos  ct and we may 'see' that the amplitude
is a function of m(t) and VDC. Expanding the equation we get:

VDC is a variable voltage, which can be set between 0 Volts and +V Volts. This
schematic diagram is very useful; from this all the important properties of AM and
various forms of AM may be derived.

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Equations for AM Spectrum and Waveforms

The following diagrams

represent the spectrum
of the input signals,
namely
(VDC + m(t)),
with
m(t) = Vm cos mt,
and the carrier
cos ct
and corresponding
waveforms.
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚

Spectrum and Waveforms

[Equation 1]

Modulation Index • Hence, we can calculate the value of modulation index by using the
above formula, when the amplitudes of the message and carrier
• A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is signals are known.
calculated, then such an attempt is called as Modulation • Now, let us derive one more formula for Modulation index by
Index or Modulation Depth. It states the level of modulation that a considering Equation 1. We can use this formula for calculating
carrier wave undergoes. modulation index value, when the maximum and minimum
amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.
• Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
modulated wave.
[Equation 2] • We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave, when
• Cos (2πfmt) is 1.

• ⇒Amax=Ac + Am (Equation 4)
[Equation 3]

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We will get the minimum amplitude of the The ratio of Equation 7 and Equation
modulated wave, when Cos (2πfmt) is -1. 6 will be as follows. Modulating signal
⇒Amin=Ac−Am
(Equation 5)
Add Equation 4 and Equation 5. Unmodulated carrier

Amax +Amin =Ac + Am + Ac − Am = 2Ac

[Equation 8]
[Equation 6] 50% modulated wave
• Equation 3 and Equation 8 are the two
Subtract Equation 5 from Equation 4. formulas for Modulation index.
• modulation index is denoted in
percentage i.e.. Percentage of
Modulation
[Equation 7] 100% modulated wave
• A Modulation index value of 1 = 100%

• For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the

modulation index is 0.5, then the modulated output
would look like the following figure.

• It is referred to as Under-modulation. Such a wave is

called as an under-modulated wave.

• If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so,
Bandwidth of AM Wave
then the wave will be an over-modulated wave. It would look like • Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest
the following figure. and lowest frequencies of the signal. Mathematically,
we can write it as

• As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier

experiences a 1800 phase reversal, which causes additional
sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-
modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

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Power Calculations of AM Wave

First, let us find the powers of the Now, let us add these three powers in
carrier, the upper and lower sideband order to get the power of AM wave.
one by one.
Carrier power
If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM
wave is equal to 1.5 times the carrier power. So, the
Upper sideband power
power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5
times the carrier power for a perfect modulation.
Similarly, we will get the lower
sideband power same as that of the We can use the above formula to
upper side band power. calculate the power of AM wave, when
the carrier power and the modulation
index are known.

Numerical Problems 1 Numerical Problems 1

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Substitute, Am and Ac values in the above We know the formula for power required for
formula. transmitting AM wave is

Therefore, the value of modulation index is 0.2

and percentage of modulation is 20%.
The formula for Carrier power, Pc = is
Substitute Pc and μ values in the above
formula.

Assume R=1Ω and substitute Ac value in the

above formula.

Therefore, the power required for

Therefore, the Carrier power, Pc is 1250 watts. transmitting AM wave is 1275 watts.

Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

 Side frequencies, or sidebands are generated as part of the
modulation process and occur in the frequency spectrum directly
above and below the carrier frequency.

Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Sidebands and the Frequency Domain
Sideband Calculations
The AM wave is the
 Single-frequency sine-wave modulation generates two
algebraic sum of the carrier
sidebands. and upper and lower
 Complex wave (e.g. voice or video) modulation sideband sine waves.
generates a range of sidebands. (a)Intelligence or
 The upper sideband (fUSB) and the lower sideband (fLSB) modulating signal.
are calculated: (b)Lower sideband.
(c)Carrier.
fUSB = fc + fm and fLSB = fc − fm (d)Upper sideband.
(e)Composite AM wave.

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Sidebands and the Frequency Domain Sidebands and the Frequency Domain
Frequency-Domain Representation of AM
 Observing an AM signal on an oscilloscope, you see only amplitude
variations of the carrier with respect to time.
 A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is referred to as frequency-
domain display.
 A spectrum analyzer is used to display the frequency domain as a
signal.
 Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower sideband
frequencies.
BW = fUSB−fLSB
The relationship between the time and frequency domains.

Sidebands and the Frequency Domain AM Modulators

Frequency-Domain Representation of AM
 Example: In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators,
A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating which generate amplitude modulated wave. The
frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a frequency of
980 kHz, what are sideband frequencies and total bandwidth? following two modulators generate AM wave.
fUSB = 980 + 5 = 985 kHz • Square law modulator
fLSB = 980 – 5 = 975 kHz
BW = fUSB – fLSB = 985 – 975 = 10 kHz • Switching modulator
BW = 2 (5 kHz) = 10 kHz

Square Law Modulator

This summer block produces an output, which is the addition of the
• The following is the block diagram of the square law modulator. modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can write it as;

This signal V1t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like diode. The
characteristics of the diode are closely related to square law
[Equation 1]

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and

Where, k1 and k2 are constants.
Acos(2πfc t) respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to
the summer (adder) block.

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• Substitute V1(t) in Equation 1

• The last term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave
and the first three terms of the above equation are unwanted. So,
with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and
eliminate the first three terms.

Switching Modulator
Following is the block diagram of switching modulator switching Modulator

Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only

difference is that in the square law modulator, the diode is operated in a
non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching modulator, the diode has to
operate as an ideal switch.

• Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
respectively.
• These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. Summer
block produces an output, which is the addition of modulating and carrier
signals. Mathematically, we can write it as:
[Equation 2]

• This signal V1(t) is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of the
modulating signal is very small when compared to the amplitude of carrier signal
Ac.
• So, the diode’s ON and OFF action is controlled by carrier signal c(t). This means,
the diode will be forward biased when c(t)>0 and it will be reverse biased when
c(t)<0.

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AM Demodulators

• The process of extracting an original message signal from the

modulated wave is known as detection or demodulation. The
circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as
the demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used
for demodulating AM wave.

• Square Law Demodulator

• Envelope Detector

Square Law Demodulator Square Law Detector

Non-Linear Devices (NLD)
 A NLD is a device whose input-output relation is non-linear. One such
example is the diode
/𝑣
𝑖𝐷 = 𝑒𝑣 𝐷 𝑇

 The output of a NLD can be expressed as a power series of the input, that
is
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑡) + 𝑐𝑥3(𝑡) + …
 When x(t) << 1, the higher powers can be neglected, and the output can be
approximated by the first two terms.
 When the input x(t) is the sum of two signal, m(t)+c(t), x2(t) will have the
product term m(t)c(t)

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AM Demodulation : Envelope (Diode/Rectifier)

Detector Rectifier Detector: Time Domain
 Because of the presence of a carrier term in the received signal,
switching can be performed in the same way we did in the
modulator.

m(t)
[A+m(t)]cos(ct) LPF
R

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Rectifier Detector (Frequency Domain)

Envelope Detector

vo(t)
[A+m(t)]cos(ct) C R

 When D is forward-biased, the capacitor charges and

follows input.
 When D is reverse-biased, the capacitor discharges
through R.

Double Sideband Modulation

Envelope Detection
• In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave
 The operations of the circuit requires consists of the carrier wave and two sidebands.
careful selection of t=RC
 If RC is too large, discharging will be
• The modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands.
slow and the circuit cannot follow a • Sideband is a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the
decreasing envelope.
lower and higher frequencies of the carrier frequency.
 When RC is too small the ripples will
be high.
 1/(2B) << t << 1/c
 The ripples are finally removed by
LPF.
 The DC value is blocked by a capacitor.

Graphical Representation of Modulation Depth and Modulation

Double Sideband Modulation 'Types' Types.
There are 3 main types of DSB

 Double Sideband Amplitude Modulation, DSBAM – with carrier

 Double Sideband Diminished (Pilot) Carrier, DSB Dim C

 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier, DSBSC

 The type of modulation is determined by the modulation depth, which for a fixed m(t) depends on
the DC offset, VDC. Note, when a modulator is set up, VDC is fixed at a particular value. In the
following illustrations we will have a fixed message, Vm cos mt and vary VDC to obtain different
types of Double Sideband modulation.

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Graphical Representation of Modulation Depth and Modulation Graphical Representation of Modulation Depth and Modulation
Types 2 & 3. Types

Note then that VDC may be set to give

the modulation depth and modulation
type.

DSBAM VDC >> Vm, m  1

DSB Dim C 0 < VDC < Vm,
m > 1 (1 < m < )
DSBSC VDC = 0, m = 

The spectrum for the 3 main types of

amplitude modulation are summarised

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

DSBSC

Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

From the DSBAM remove the DC part

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Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave Time and Frequency Representation of DSBSC Modulation

Process

Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave

DSBSC Modulators

The following two modulators generate DSBSC wave.

• Balanced modulator
• Ring modulator

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Balanced Modulator
• The same carrier signal c(t)=Accos(2πfct) is applied as one of the inputs to these
• Following is the block diagram of the Balanced modulator.
two AM modulators. The modulating signal m(t) is applied as another input to
the upper AM modulator. Whereas, the modulating signal m(t) with opposite
polarity, i.e., −m(t) is applied as another input to the lower AM modulator.

Ring Modulator • For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D1 and
• Following is the block diagram of the Ring modulator.
D3 are switched ON and the other two diodes D2 and D4 are
• In this diagram, the four Diodes D1, switched OFF.
D2, D3 and D4 are connected in the
ring structure. Hence, this modulator • In this case, the message signal is multiplied by +1.
is called as the ring modulator. • For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D2 and
• Two center tapped transformers are
• D4 are switched ON and the other two diodes D1 and D3 are
used in this diagram. The message
signal m(t) is applied to the input switched OFF.
transformer. • In this case, the message signal is multiplied by -1.
• Whereas, the carrier signals c(t) is
applied between the two center
• This results in 18001800 phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.
tapped transformers.

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Demodulation of DSBSC
 The modulator circuits can be used for demodulation, but
replacing the BPF by a LPF of bandwidth B Hz.
 The receiver must generate a carrier frequency in phase
and frequency synchronization with the incoming carrier.
 This type of demodulation is therefore called coherent
demodulation (or detection).
e(t) HLPF()
gDSBSC(t) X BW = 2B
f(t)

c(t)

DSBSC Demodulator (receiver)

Time and Frequency Representation of DSBSC Demodulation

DSBSC Demodulators Process

Coherent Detector
• The same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is used to
detect the message signal.
• This process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection.

• In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC wave by
multiplying it with a carrier.
• Local oscillator signal is exactly coherent (both frequency and phase) with the
carrier signal used in DSBSC modulation
• The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter
is the desired message signal.

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Costas Loop
Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC
modulation) and the locally generated signal in phase.

SSBSC Modulation

• The DSBSC modulated signal has two sidebands.

• the two sidebands carry the same information
• We can eliminate one sideband since there is no need
to transmit both sidebands.

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SSB Representation

This SSBSC system, which transmits a single

sideband has high power, as the power allotted
for both the carrier and the other sideband is
utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.

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• Generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product

Frequency Discrimination
Method modulator.
SSBSC Modulators
• Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter.

• This band pass filter produces an output, which is SSBSC

Two methods that can be used for SSBSC generation are
wave
• Frequency discrimination
• Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the
• Phase discrimination spectrum of the desired SSBSC wave.

• This means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper
sideband or lower sideband frequencies to get the
respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower
sideband.

M()

Selective Filtering 
SSB Circuits
C 2B +2B C

GDSBSC()

USB LSB LSB USB


C2B C C+2B C2B C C+2B

M() (an example of an

HUSB()
audio signal) Guard Band
BW = 2B (B Hz)
of 600 Hz Center Freq = c+B

C2B C C+2B C2B C C+2B

 GUSB()
5000 Hz 300 Hz 300 Hz 5000 Hz
USB USB


C2B C C C+2B

HLSB()
BW = 2B (B Hz)
Center Freq = c– B


C2B C C+2B C2B C C+2B

GLSB()

LSB LSB


C C+2B C2B C

An SSB transmitter using the filter method.

Phase Discrimination • This block diagram consists of two product

modulators, two −900 phase shifters, one local
Method oscillator and one summer block.
• The product modulator produces an output,
which is the product of two inputs.
• The −900 phase shifter produces an output, which
has a phase lag of −900 with respect to the input.
• The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier
signal.
• Summer block produces an output, which is
either the sum of two inputs or the difference of
two inputs based on the polarity of inputs.

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Phase-shifting Method: Frequency-Domain Illustration

SSBSC Demodulator

• The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC

wave is known as detection or demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent
detector is used for demodulating SSBSC wave.

Coherent Detector • Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for
generating SSBSC wave) is used to detect the
message signal.
• Hence, this process of detection is called
as coherent or synchronous detection.
• In this process, the message signal can be
extracted from SSBSC wave by multiplying it
with a carrier, having the same frequency and the
phase of the carrier used in SSBSC modulation.
• The resulting signal is then passed through a Low
Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the desired
message signal.

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• VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is
VSBSC Modulation modulated along with one sideband.
• To recap, SSBSC modulated signal has only one sideband frequency.
The frequency spectrum of VSBSC • Along with the upper sideband, a part
• Theoretically, we can get one sideband frequency component completely by using an wave is shown in the following figure of the lower sideband is also being
ideal band pass filter. transmitted in this technique.
• Similarly, we can transmit the lower
• However, practically we may not get the entire sideband frequency component.
sideband along with a part of the upper
• Due to this, some information gets lost. sideband.

• To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and
• A guard band of very small width is laid
on either side of VSB in order to avoid
SSBSC. the interferences.
• This is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC) technique. • VSB modulation is mostly used in
television transmissions.
• The word “vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.

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the message signal is extracted from Demodulation of VSBSC

VSBSC wave by multiplying it with a
carrier [which has the same frequency ]
and the phase of the carrier used in
VSBSC modulation.

The resulting signal is then passed

through a Low Pass Filter.

The output of this filter is the desired

message signal.

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