Composite Materials

Composite is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties without blending or dissolving into each other, when
combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components.
The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The
different materials work together to give the composite unique properties. It should be
understood that the aforesaid composite material is not the by-product of any chemical
reaction between two or more of its constituents.

Natural composites Natural composites exist in both animals and plants. Wood is a
composite – it is made from long cellulose fibres (a polymer) held together by a much weaker
substance called lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton, but without the lignin to bind it
together it is much weaker. The two weak substances – lignin and cellulose – together form a
much stronger one.
The bone in your body is also a composite. It is made from a hard but brittle material called
hydroxyapatite (which is mainly calcium phosphate) and a soft and flexible material called
collagen (which is a protein). Collagen is also found in hair and finger nails. On its own it
would not be much use in the skeleton but it can combine with hydroxyapatite to give bone
the properties that are needed to support the body.

Classifications of composites based on Matrix and Reinforcement

Matrix

Polymer Matrix Metal Matrix Ceramic Matrix

Reinforcement

Fiber Structural Particulates

Continuous Discontinuous Laminates Sandwich Large Dispersion

Matrix
The basic requirement of the matrix is to transmit the external load onto the reinforced phase.
For the matrix, a good bond strength with the reinforcing phase material (i.e. perfect
wettability without or to some extent chemical interaction at the interface of the matrix and
reinforcement) is required. Light weight matrix is more preferable for many applications. In
comparison with the reinforcement phase, a matrix has generally lower strength and greater
plasticity.
Classification Based on the type of matrix material
 Polymer Matrix Composite (OMC)
 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)

Reinforcement
The reinforcement phase bears the external loads. It is expected to have high strength and a
modulus of elasticity E (E is about one order higher than that of the matrix), as well as a
small deformation at a fracture with a high proportion of elastic deformation. Regarding the
tensile behaviour of the composite it is given by the shape, concentration and orientation of
reinforcement. The shape of reinforcement particles can be considered approximately as a
sphere (the powder form of reinforcement) or as a cylinder (fibres). Their size and
distribution then determine the texture of the composite. The concentration is a density of the
reinforcing phase, expressed in terms of volume or the quantity of weight. It is one of the
most important parameters that affect the properties of the composite material. The
orientation of the reinforcing phase affects the isotropy of the system. If the reinforcing
particles have the shape and dimensions in all directions about the same (for example
powders), the composite behaves basically as an isotropic material, therefore its properties
are the same in all directions. On the contrary systems reinforced with cylindrical
reinforcement (fibres) show an anisotropy of properties.

According to their size we distinguish the particles as follows:

 Particles of 2000 – 1m
 Dispersions 1m – 0.01m
 Nanoparticles below 10 nm
 Nanofibers - to 100 nm
 Microfibers - 0.1 to 1 m - whiskers
 Middle-sized fibers - 1 to 10 m
 Coarse (rough) fibers - over 10 m
In case of dispersion strengthening, the load is borne by the matrix only. Disperse phase
hampers the dislocation movement resulting in increase in strength. It is taken that the
strengthening is proportional to the effective barrier to dislocation. The strength level of
dispersion hardened composite material depends on the concentration of a strengthening
phase, uniformity of its distribution, degree of dispersity and spacing between particles.
According to the Orwans equation the shear resistance increase with decrease in spacing
between particles. Thus strength is defined as , where G is the shear modulus, b is the

interatomic spacing and is the spacing between particles.

Hybrid composite:
Hybrid Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) were formed by reinforcing the base matrix with
more than one reinforcement having different properties. The composites which have a
combination of two or more reinforcement of particles are capable of enhancing the
mechanical characteristic properties of the composite materials. The performance of hybrid
composites is a collective effect of the individual constituents in which there is a better
balance between the inbuilt advantages and disadvantages. The Silicon carbide material
(SiC), aluminum ( ), boron carbide material ( ),,tungsten carbide (WC), graphite

(Gr), single or multi types of carbon nanotubes (CNT) and silica ( ), and are a few of the

reinforcements which are used, but silicon carbide and aluminum are characteristically used
compared to other reinforcing composite materials.

Particle
Particle reinforcement adds a similar effect to precipitation hardening in metals and ceramics.
Large particles impede dislocation movement and crack propagation as well as contribute to
the composite's Young's Modulus. In general, particle reinforcement effect on Young's
Modulus lies between values predicted by

as an upper bound.
as a lower bound and

Fiber-reinforced composites
Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength and other mechanical properties
and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating strong, stiff but brittle fibers into a softer, more
ductile matrix. The matrix material acts as a medium to transfer the load to the fibers, which
carry most off the applied load. The matrix also provides protection to fibers from external
loads and atmosphere. These composites are classified as either continuous or discontinuous.
Generally, the highest strength and stiffness are obtained with continuous reinforcement.
Discontinuous fibers are used only when manufacturing economics dictate the use of a
process where the fibers must be in this form. The mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced
composites depend not only on the properties of the fiber but also on the degree of which an
applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase.

Length of fibers, their orientation and volume fraction in addition to direction of external
load application affects the mechanical properties of these composites.

Effect of fiber length: Some critical length ( ) is necessary for effective strengthening and

stiffening of the composite material, which is defined as:

ultimate/tensile strength of the fiber, d – diameter of the fiber, – interface bond

strength. Fibers for which >> lc (normally >15 ) are termed as continuous, discontinuous

or short fibers on the other hand.

Effect of fiber orientation and concentration: with respect to orientation, two extremes
possibilities are – parallel alignment and random alignment. Continuous fibers are normally
aligned, whereas discontinuous fibers are randomly or partially orientated. Two instants of
loading are: longitudinal loading and transverse loading.
(a) Continuous fiber composites: Under longitudinal loading, by assuming that deformation
of both matrix and fiber is the same i.e. isostrain condition, rule-of-mixtures results in the
following:

where and are the area fractions of the matrix and fiber phases respectively. In the

composite, if matrix and fiber are all of equal length, area fractions will be equal to volume
fractions. Thus,

When the isostrain assumption is taken into account, the above equation transforms into

The ratio of the load carried by the fibers to that carried by the matrix is given by

In case of transverse loading, it is assumed that both matrix and fiber will experience the
equal stress i.e. isostress condition. Then the modulus of the composite is given by

Longitudinal tensile strength: as mentioned earlier, matrix material is softer i.e. fibers strain
less and fail before the matrix. And once the fibers have fractured, majority of the load that
was borne by fibers is now transferred to the matrix. Based on this criterion the following
equation can be developed for longitudinal strength of the composite:

where – stress in the matrix at fiber failure, – fiber tensile strength. Whereas

longitudinal strength is dominated by fiber strength, a variety of factors will have a

significant influence on the transverse strength. These include properties of both the fiber and
matrix, interface bond strength, and the presence of voids.

(b) Discontinuous and aligned fiber composites: Even though reinforcement efficiency is
lower for discontinuous fiber composites than continuous fiber composites, discontinuous
and aligned fiber composites are commercially gaining an important place. The longitudinal
strength of these composites is given by

when <

when >

where – smaller of either the fiber-matrix bond strength or the matrix shear yield strength.

(c) Discontinuous and randomly orientated fiber composites: Reinforcement efficiency of

these fiber composites is difficult to calculate, and is usually characterized by a parameter

known as fiber efficiency parameter, K. K depends on and the ratio. If rule-of-mixtures

can be applied, elastic modulus of these composites is given by