AP Calculus AB & BC Exam Review

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0. Preparation
Before the exam begins make sure to have your calculator cleared and in Radians.

1. Limits and Continuity

Relationship between the limit and one-sided limits
lim f (x) = L ⇒ lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = L lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = L ⇒ lim f (x) = L
x→a x→a x→a x→a x→a x→a

lim f (x) ≠ lim− f (x) ⇒ lim f (x) = Does Not Exist

x→a+ x→a x→a
Squeeze Theorem:
If ​h(x) ​<​ f(x) ​<​ g(x) ​and lim h(x) = lim g (x) = L, then lim f (x) = L
x→c x→c x→c

Example:
Find the lim x2 sin(1/x).
x→0
sin(1/x) is bounded between -1 and 1, so that’s our inequality (it has the same range as the normal sine function
because its amplitude is the same).

-1 ​<​ sin(1/x) ​<​ 1

We can then multiply everything by x​2​ to make the middle look like the initial problem.

-x​2​ ​<​ x​2​ sin(1/x) ​<​ x​2

Take the limits of the outer pieces, and you get 0 for both. So the limit of the middle function must also be 0.

Continuity at a point:
Check if a function is continuous at a certain point (​NEEDED FOR THE AP EXAM)
1. f(x) is defined 2. lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim f (x) & exists 3. lim f (x) = f (c)
x→c x→c+ x→c− x→c
Terminology​: If a function f is not continuous at x = c, then we say f is discontinuous at c and c is a point of discontinuity

Types of Discontinuity:
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Indeterminate Forms:
Note: these apply for ±∞ and ±0
● 0/0
● ∞/∞
● ∞-∞
● 0*∞
● 0⁰
● 1​∞
● ∞⁰
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L’Hopital’s Rule:

●
○ Note: L’Hopital’s only works with the following Indeterminate forms:
■ ±0/±0
■ ±∞/±∞
○ L’Hopital’s rule may need to be utilized multiple times
○ ​ ​by L’Hopital’s Rule:” before using the rule on FRQ
Be sure to write “limit is indeterminate ∴

Limits you should know:

Small Angle Approximation:

Definition: For small values of x (aka lim​x->0​), sin(x)=x

Example:

Vertical Asymptotes:
● Find where the denominator equals zero. At that x-value you have a vertical asymptote.

Horizontal Asymptotes:
● Take the limit as x --> ∞ AND the limit as x --> ​-​∞
● End Behavior/Infinite Limits:
○ Let N = highest growing term in the numerator and let D = highest growing term in the denominator
■ If N < D
● the N becomes insignificant compared to it at large x, so there is a H.A. at 0
■ If N == D
● then the HA is the ratio of their coefficients
■ If N > D
● then the function increases without bound, so no HA :(

“Race to Infinity”:
Here are the types of functions ranked by how quickly they approach infinity from fastest to slowest:
● x​x​, x!, a​x​, Polynomial (x​n​) , ln(x), log​a​x, x​1/a

Limit definitions of “e” (this is where “e” comes from!)

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2. Differentiation: Definition and Fundamental Properties

A Derivative is just a slope. It can be defined as instantaneous (at a point) or average respectively:

Derivative Rules:
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Common Derivatives:

Logarithmic Differentiation:
d/dx[x​x​] = x​x​ (ln|x| + 1)
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Derivatives can be defined through limits but they are intricately related to continuity:

Differentiability implies continuity!

A function is not differentiable at a point when one of the following is true:

1. You are not continuous then you CANNOT be differentiable.
2. The graph has a sharp corner/cusp at that point - if one-sided derivatives (derivative
definitions from left and right) aren’t equal (commonly seen thru piecewise or abs-value
graphs).

3. The tangent line at that point has a vertical/nonexistent slope (derivative definition
approaches +/- infinity from both sides)

Log Properties:
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3. Differentiation: Composite, Implicit, and Inverse Functions

The Chain Rule

implicit vs explicit forms

Implicit differentiation:
Note: implicit derivative of y² wrt x is 2y * dy/dx. Not just 2y!!!
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This is derived from the fact that for inverse functions f and g, f(g(x))=x
f(g(x))=x ⇒ f’(g(x))g’(x)=1⇒ g’(x)=1/f’(g(x))
Alternatively defined as:

Inverse Differentiation Example:

f(x)=x²
f'(x)=2x
f'(y)=2y
(f^(-1))'(x)=1/(2y)
Flip: x=y² -> y=√x
(f^(-1))'(x)=1/(2√x)
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4. Contextual/Analytical Applications of Differentiation

○ Extrema on an Interval
■ Local/Relative Extrema are U or n shaped max/min. Absolute extrema are t​ he one​ max/min on the given [a, b]
● Horizontal lines experience extrema at every point
■ Critical number​: Any x-value which makes f ‘(x) = 0 or f ’(x) = DNE
■ Relative extrema occurs only at critical numbers.
■ Guidelines for Finding Absolute Extrema on a Closed Interval
● Find the critical numbers of f in (a,b).
● Evaluate f at each critical number in (a,b).
● Evaluate f at each endpoint of [a,b].
● The least of these values is the absolute minimum. The greatest is the absolute maximum.
○ The Extreme Value Theorem (EVT): If f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b], then f has both an absolute minimum and an
absolute maximum on the interval.
○ Intermediate Value Theorem

■
○ The Mean Value Theorem (MVT) and Rolle’s Theorem
■ Mean Value Theorem (MVT)
● If f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b), then there exists a
number c in (a,b) such that f ′(c) = f (b)−f (a)
b−a .
● Rolle’s Theorem
○ Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b). If
f(a)=f(b), then there is at least one number c in (a,b) such that f ‘(c)=0.
○ Increasing and Decreasing Functions and the First Derivative Test
■ Guidelines for finding intervals on which a function is increasing or decreasing
● Let f be continuous on the interval (a,b). To find the open intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing, use
the following:
○ Locate the critical numbers of f in (a,b), and use these numbers to determine test intervals.
○ Determine the sign of f ‘(x) at one test value in each of the intervals.
○ Use the following
■ f ′(x) > 0 increasing.
■ f ′(x) < 0 decreasing.
■ f ′(x) = 0 or f ′(x) = DNE extrema of f(x).
● If f’ changes from + to - then max
● If f’ changes from - to + then min
○ Concavity and the Second Derivative Test
■ Point of inflection- A point in which f(x) changes concavity.
● Inflection points can be represented by f ‘’(x)=0 or DNE AND a sign-change around x
■ Second derivative test
● f ′′(x) > 0 concave up, relative minimum at (x, f(x))
● f ′′(x) < 0 concave down, relative maximum at (x,f(x))
● f ′′(x) = 0 could be an inflection point or local extrema, refer to the first derivative test.
○ Summary of Curve Sketching (AB Only)
■ x-intercepts, y-intercepts
■ Symmetry
■ Domain and range
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■ Continuity, differentiability
■ Vertical and horizontal asymptotes
■ Relative Extrema
■ Points of inflection
■ Concavity
■ Infinite limits at infinity/End behavior
○ Related Rates

■
○ Optimization Problems
■ Guidelines for solving applied minimum and maximum problems
● Identify all g ​ iven​ quantities and all quantities to be ​determined​. If possible, make a sketch.
● Write a primary equation for the quantity that is to be maximized or minimized.
● Reduce the primary equation to one having a ​single independent variable. T ​ his may involve the use of
secondary equations relating the independent variables of the primary equation.
● Determine the feasible domain of the primary equation. That is, determine the values for which the stated
problem makes sense.
● Determining the desired maximum or minimum value.
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■
○ Linearization:
■ Tangent Line Approximation
● Approximating the tangent line of f at c yields y = f (c) + f ′(c)(x − c)
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6. Integration and Accumulation of Change

● Integration (AB/BC)
○ Antiderivatives and Indefinite Integration
■ Basic Integration Rules
● Integration is the “inverse” of differentiation.
● Differentiation is the “inverse” of integration.

○ Area, Riemann Sums and Definite Integrals

■
■ Sigma Notation
■ Partial Summation formulas (AB only):
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■ Riemann Sum Formula
● Right: b−a
n * [f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + ... + f (xn )]

b−a
● Left: n * [f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + ... + f (xn−1 )]

b−a
● Midpoint: n * [f (x1/2 ) + f (x3/2 ) + ... + f (xn−1/2 )]

○ Numerical Integration
■ Trapezoidal Rule
b
● ∫ f (x) dx ≈ b−a
2n
[f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + ... + 2f (xn−2 ) + 2f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )]
a
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● The Trapezoidal sum is exactly the same as the average of the left and right
endpoint Riemann sums
■ Definite Integral Notation

●
● Implies the area under f, on the closed interval [a,b] bounded by the x-axis, and the vertical lines x=a, x=b.
● If a=b, the integral is equal to 0.

●
● ^answer is B
■ Integral Properties:
b a
● ∫ f (x) dx = - ∫ f (x) dx
a b

●
b c b
● ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx where a≤c≤b
a a c
○ The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
■ First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (1 FTC)
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[∫ ]
x
d
● dx
f (t) dt = f (x)
a

●
d
dx [ b(x)

a(x)
∫ f (t) dt ] = f (b(x))b′(x) − f (a(x))a′(x)

■ Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (2nd FTC)

b
● ∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) where F is the antiderivative function
a
■ Average Value of a Function on an Interval
b
● f​avg​(x) = 1
b−a ∫ f (x) dx
a
■ Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
● If f is a continuous function on the closed, bounded interval [a, b], then there is at least one number c in (a, b)
for which:
b
● ∫ f (x) dx = f (c)(b − a)
a
○ Misc functions
■ Displacement on [a,b]
b
● ∫ v(t) dt
a
■ Total distance traveled on [a,b]
b
● ∫ |v(t)| dt
a

■ Velocity
● Velocity is the rate of change in position, so its definite integral will give us the
net displacement of the moving object, while the derivative of the function will
give the object's acceleration.
■ Acceleration
● In calculus, acceleration is found as being the derivative of velocity, or the double
derivative of the displacement of an object with respect to time.

○ Integration by Substitution (U-Substitution)

■ Guidelines for making a change of variables
● Choose a substitution u=g(x). Usually, it is best to choose the ​inner​ part of a composite function, such as a
quantity raised to a power.
● Compute d ​ u=g’(x)dx.
● Rewrite the integral in terms of the variable u.
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● Find the resulting integral in terms of u.
● Replace u by g(x) to obtain an antiderivative in terms of x.
● Check your answer by differentiating.
■ Integration of even and odd functions
a a
● If f is an even function, then ∫ f (t) dt = 2 ∫ f (t) dt
−a 0
a
● If f is an odd function, then ∫ f (t) dt = 0
−a
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7. Differential Equations

Separation of Variables:
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Slope fields:

Law of natural growth:

dP
Let dt = k P (t) , where:
P =population (dependent variable)
k = constant of proportionality
t = time
● Solution is P (t) = C ekt
● P ′(t) = C (kekt ) = k (Cekt ) = k P (t)
dP
● dt ≈ k P (t) if P is small (initial growth rate is proportional to P)

Newton’s Law of Cooling:

dT T: temperature of object at time ​t
dt = k (T − T S )
k: proportionality constant
T​(​t​) = ​T​S​ + (​T​0​ − ​TS​ )​​ ekt​
T​S​: surrounding temperature (constant)
t​: is the time after the object starts cooling

For AB Students: THE END

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AP Calculus BC ONLY starts here: ​Units 1-8 + 5 topics in Unit 10 (10.2, 10.5, 10.7, 10.8, and 10.11)
Logistic Differential Equation:

Population experiences the fastest growth at half the carrying capacity.

dP
● dt ≈ k P (t) if L >> P
dP
● dt < 0 if P > L (P decreases if it ever exceeds L)
L L − P₀
● P (t) = 1 + Ce −kt ; C = P
● lim P (t) = L
t→∞
dP
● lim =0
P → L dt

Euler’s Method:
​ ifferential equation
Euler’s Method is a step-based method for approximating the solution to a d
Point-Slope Form:
y​2​ - y​1​ = m(x​2​ - x​1​)
becomes:
y​new​ = y​old​ + y’(x, y) · ∆x

​ x​ (which is almost always given in the problem statement on the

First, you must choose a small step size ∆
AP exam).

Then draw a table as follows:

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Note: Since x increments by +2, ∆x=2

x y dy/dx

0 100 36.4

2 y​new​ = 100 + 36.4*2 = 172.8 57.867264

4 y​new​ = 172.8 + 57.867264*2 N/A

= 288.534528 = 288.535

It’s important to realize that Euler’s method does not give exact answers — just good estimates. Unless the
directions specify to use Euler’s Method, do not use it!
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8. Applications of Integration
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Volumes of Solids with Known Cross Sections

Around y=k (y=f(x)):

Around x=h (x=f(y)):

Surface Area:

or SA = 2π∫r(x)h(x)dx where h(x)=arc length

Arc Length:
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● Integration Techniques, L’Hopital’s Rule, and Improper Integrals (BC)

○ Basic Integration Rules
■ Procedures for Fitting Integrands to Basic Integration Rules
● Expand (numerator)
● Separate numerator.
● Complete the square.
● Divide improper rational function.
● Add and subtract terms in numerator.
● Use trigonometric identities.
● Multiply or divide by Pythagorean conjugate.
○ Long Division
■ When the rational function has a numerator of greater or equal degree than the denominator,
we can use long division
● When we divide, we want to achieve a polynomial term and a fractional term that we can
work with
● Example: Evaluate ∫(x² +1)/(x-2) dx
2
○ ∫ (xx−2+1) dx = ∫ (x−2)(x+2)+5
x−2 dx = ∫(x + 2)dx + ∫ x−2
5
dx = x2
2 + 2x + 5ln(x − 2) + C

○ If you could not understand the jump from the first to second term, please brush
up on polynomial long division
○ For the first step, try to rewrite the numerator ​x2​​ + 1 in terms of something in the
denominator ​x​ - 2. We see that it is not immediately factorable, so we chip away
constant values until we have something that is (kind of like the opposite of
“completing the square”). We see that we can rewrite x​ ​2​ + 1 as ​x​2​ - 4 + 5 where
we see a difference of squares, which can be factored into (​x​-2)(​x+ ​ 2) giving us
(​x-​ 2)(​x+
​ 2) + 5 in the numerator.
■ You get better with this by getting intuition after practice algebra.
○ To go from the first to the second term, you must divide (x​2​ + 1) by (x - 2); there
are other methods to achieve the second term since it has a relatively simple
polynomial as the numerator
○ Partial Fraction Decomposition
■ This should be used if you have a rational function where the denominator has a greater degree
than the numerator
■ What you should aim for is to “decompose” the fraction into multiple fractions of degree 1

■ Example: Evaluate ∫ x −x
3
3x+2
2−2x dx

● First, note that x3 − x2 − 2x = (x)(x − 2)(x + 1)

3x+2 A B C
● Therefore, our decomposed expression should be of the form x3 −x2 −2x = x + x−2 + x+1 ,
where each value A, B, C is a real number.
● We begin finding A, B, and C by multiplying both sides by x3 − x2 − 2x to get:
● 3x + 2 = A(x − 2)(x + 1) + B (x)(x + 1) + C (x)(x − 2)
● 3x + 2 = A(x2 − x − 2) + B (x2 + x) + C (x2 − 2x)
● 3x + 2 = (A + B + C )x2 + (− A + B − 2C)x + (− 2A)
○ Note that all of the coefficients must match, so we get the following system:
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○ (A + B + C ) = 0
○ (− A + B − 2C) = 3
○ − 2A = 2
● From the system, we can immediately see that A = − 1 , so our system becomes:
○ (B + C ) = 1
○ (B − 2C) = 2
● From here, it is trivial to find that B = 4/3, C = − 1/3
● Going back to the original equation, we can now see that:

○ ∫ x −x
3 2−2x dx = ∫((− 1) x + ( 3 ) x−2 + (− 3 )( x+1 )dx =− ln|x| + 3 ln|x − 2| − 3 ln|x + 1| + C
3x+2 1 4 1 1 1 4 1

○ And this thus ends our solution.

■ Types of PFD:
● Factor in denominator -> PFD Term
● ax+b -> A/(ax+b)
● (ax+b)​k​ -> A​1​/(ax+b) + A​2​/(ax+b)² + … + A​k​/(ax+b)​k
● ax²+bx+c -> (Ax+B)/(ax²+bx+c)
■ Note that Partial Fraction Decomposition and Long Division are often used in conjunction.
2
● Exercise: Show that ∫ x x+3x+1 11 1
−4 dx = x + 4 ln|x − 2| + 4 ln|x + 2| + C
2

○ Integration by Parts
■ Method of reducing an integral, whose integrand is the product of two functions of the variable integration, to make it
easier to integrate.
■ Derived from the Product Rule for Differentiation (multiply both sides by dx , integrate, and isolate the integral of u
w.r.t. v ).

■ The trick is determining what u and dv should be to make the integral easier to solve. In general, u should simplify
when differentiated and dv should remain manageable when integrated.
● Follow the acronym LIPET for choosing u : Logarithmic first, Inverse Trigonometric next, then Polynomial,
Exponential and Trigonometric.
■ When u is more complicated, you may have to apply the By Parts method more than once.
■ Sometimes with repeated use of By Parts, you will end up with the same integral as the one you are trying to solve for.
In these cases, assign the unknown integral to some variable and solve.
■ Sometimes you may get the integral you started with from the ∫ v du part. If so, then add that to both sides and
divide.
■ With bounds:

○ Trigonometric Substitution (​not tested explicitly but has been in multiple past FRQs where they
graded ONLY for the answer; no work. So not knowing how to do this IS ok​)
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■ Always remember to look at the denominator of a fraction to know which trig function to substitute

○ Improper Integrals:
■ Definition of Proper Integrals with Infinite Integration Limits
● 1. ​If f is continuous on the interval [a ∞), then
∞ b
○ ∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx .
b→∞ a
a
● 2. ​If f is continuous on the interval (-∞, b], then
b b
○ ∫ f (x) dx = lim
a→−∞
∫ f (x) dx .
−∞ a
● 3. ​If f is continuous on the interval (-∞, ∞), then
∞ c b
○ ∫ f (x) dx = lim ∫ f (x) dx + lim ∫ f (x) dx , where c is any real number.
a→−∞ a b→∞ c
−∞
● In the first two cases, the improper integral ​converges​ if the limit exists--otherwise, the
improper integral ​diverges.​ In the third case, the improper integral on the left diverges if
either of the improper integrals on the right converges.
■ Definition of Improper Integrals with Infinite Discontinuities
● 1. ​If f is continuous on the interval [a, b) and has an infinite discontinuity at b, then
b c
○ ∫ f (x) dx = lim− ∫ f (x) dx .
a c→b a
● 2. ​If f is continuous on the interval (a, b] and has an infinite discontinuity at a, then
b b
○ ∫ f (x) dx = lim+ ∫ f (x) dx .
c→a c
a
● 3. ​If f is continuous on the interval [a, b] ,except for some c in (a,b) at which f has an
infinite discontinuity, then
b c b
○ ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx .
a a c
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● In the first two cases, the improper integral ​converges​ if the limit exists--otherwise, the
improper integral ​diverges​. In the third case, the improper integral on the left diverges if
either of the improper integrals on the right diverges.

10.2 Working with Geometric Series

Derived from taking lim​n->∞​ of S​n

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10.5 Harmonic Series and p-Series

converges for p > 1 and diverges for p ≤ 1

Special Case:

The Harmonic series (p=1) diverges

Even though the lim​n->∞​ 1/n = 0, ∑1/n still diverges as the pieces still add up to non-negligible
amounts which eventually add up infinity (it approaches 0 at too slow a rate)
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10.7 Alternating Series Test for Convergence

1.

2.
Alternating Series Remainder:
Error = | S - S​n​ |

Alternating Series Error ≤ abs value of First Term left off the series
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10.8 Ratio Test for Convergence

If asked to find an interval, REMEMBER to check endpoints!!

Example Problem:

Note: When you are conditionally convergent, you are on the endpoints of the interval of convergence
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10.11 Finding Taylor Polynomial Approximations of Functions

Common MacLaurin Expansions​:

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