COMPUTER HARDWARE

Overview
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know
about computers.
A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input,
processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.
Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five
functions −
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
High Speed
Computer is a very fast device.
It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend
many months to perform the same task.
Accuracy
In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
The calculations are 100% error free.
Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
Storage Capability

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Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

It can store large amount of data.

It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
Diligence
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
A computer is a very versatile machine.
A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may
be playing a card game.
Reliability
A computer is a reliable machine.
Modern electronic components have long lives.
Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
Computer is an automatic machine.
Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a
program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction
can control the program execution without human interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work and Cost
The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and
results in speeding up the process.
As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of
large number of paper files gets reduced.

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Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of
each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
No I.Q.
A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

Each instruction has to be given to the computer.

A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
Environment
The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
Computers have no feelings or emotions.
It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike humans.
Application areas of computers
Business
Computer Fundamentals
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for
1. Payroll calculations
2. Budgeting
3. Sales analysis
4. Financial forecasting
5. Managing employee database
6. Maintenance of stocks, etc.
Banking

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Computer Banking
Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.
Banks provide the following facilities:
1. Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and
overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
2. ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers
to deal with banks.
Insurance
Computer Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing:
1. Procedure to continue with policies
2. Starting date of the policies
3. Next due installment of a policy
4. Maturity date
5. Interests due
6. Survival benefits
7. Bonus
Education
Computer Educational
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.
1. The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
2. CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
3. Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.
4. There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to
educate the students.
5. It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis.

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Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following:
1. Computer Marketing
2. Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
3. Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of
orders to be filled by the customers.
Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines.
It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT
scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.
1. Computer Healthcare
2. Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.
3. Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.

4. Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
5. Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates,
harmful side effects, etc.
6. Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and
modification of images. Some of the fields are −
Computer Engineering
1. Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings,
budgets, airplanes, etc.

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2. Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement
of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.
3. Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military
Computer Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are
−
1. Missile Control
2. Military Communication
3. Military Operation and Planning
4. Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are:
Computer Communication
1. E-mail
2. Chatting
3. Usenet
4. FTP
5. Telnet
6. Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are
−
Computer Government
1. Budgets

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2. Sales tax department
3. Income tax department
4. Computation of male/female ratio
5. Computerization of voters lists
6. Computerization of PAN card
7. Weather forecasting
Input devices
Input devices are used to allow us to enter information into a computer system. This might be,
for example, to control a character in a game, click on a shortcut icon on your desktop, or type
data into a spreadsheet.
Some example input devices include:

Keyboard
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Joy Stick
4. Light pen
5. Track Ball
6. Scanner
7. Graphic Tablet
8. Microphone
9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
10. Optical Character Reader(OCR)
11. Bar Code Reader
12. Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

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Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

1. Typing Keys
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same
layout as that of typewriters.
2. Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys
that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
3. Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of
the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
4. Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control
keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).
5. Special Purpose Keys
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and
sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.

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Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.

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Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

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The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

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Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions

Processing devices
When a computer receives data from an input device e.g. keyboard, the data is transmitted to an
output device e.g. monitor, via an intermediate stage.
A processing unit is any system on a computer that manages the incoming data in the
intermediate stage of processing.
Computer processing devices play an important role in processing operations. They are all used
to process the data, using instructions from the program.
They manage the functions they do various calculations, and they even monitor the hardware
tools.
CPU recognizes and executes all of our instructions that can be either input/output operations or
numerical or logical comparisons.
This also coordinates the tasks of other computer units and ensures everything runs smoothly.
The CPU has a lot of tasks to perform.
Some of the devices used for information processing in computer are:

1. CPU
2. Motherboard

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3. Clock
4. Chipset
5. Data bus
6. Expansion slots, Network cards
7. Address bus
8. Random-access memory
1. CPU
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the component of a computer system, generally known as
a machine’s “brain”.
The processor or microprocessor is also known as the CPU. A sequence of the stored instructions
known as a program is executed by the CPU.
The CPU is a critical part that manages all instructions and calculations that are sent to it from
other computer components and peripherals.
Even the speed at which software program runs depends very much on how powerful the CPU is
functioning.
Types of Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The two competing producers of CPUs are Intel and AMD, and each has its variants of CPUs.
Single Core CPU
The oldest type of computer CPU available is single-core CPUs, and this was initially the only
CPU type that could be used on computers.
Single-core CPUs can only start one task at a time, so multitasking wasn’t very successful.
This means output declines were noticeable every time more than one application was running.
Since only one operation could be started at a time, another could be triggered before the first
one was done but the machine would run more slowly with every new operation.
Dual Core CPU
A dual-core Processor has two main CPUs and therefore operates like two single CPUs.
In comparison, if more than one operation is performed, the Dual-core CPUs can perform several
tasks more effectively, whereas in the single Core CPUsthe processor has to move between the
various data-stream sets.
To optimize the use of a dual-core CPU, a specialized code, called SMT (simultaneous multi-
threading technology), needs to be implemented on the operating system and the programs
working on it.

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Dual-core CPUs are more quickly than core processors, but not very fast as quad-core CPUs.
Quad Core CPU
Quad-core CPUs are multi-core CPUs with four cores on a single CPU. Like two core CPUs,
quad cores will break the workload between fourcores, so much more work is done with the
quad.
Every core is connected to other circuits inside the chip, such as cache, memory and I / O port
management.
Such kinds of CPUs are beneficial for people who need to run several different programs
simultaneously and for gamers.
Components of CPUs
CPU has the following 3 components
1. Memory or storage unit
2. Control unit
3. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Memory or Storage Unit
The memory unit stores all the instructions and data. This unit provides data to other units of the
computer if necessary.

It is sometimes referred to as the internal storage unit or main memory, or the primary storage or
RAM (Random Access Memory).
1. All the data and instructions required for processing are stored in the memory unit.
2. Intermediate results of any data processing are stored in the memory unit.
3. Once the final results are processed before the results are released to output devices, the
memory unit stores it.
4. The main memory transfers all the inputs and outputs.
Control Unit
This unit monitors all computing processes but does not execute actual data processing.
Following are the functions of the Control unit
1. It regulates the transfer of data and instructions among other computer units.
2. All the units of the computer is managed and coordinated by the control unit.
3. It interacts with input and output devices for data transfer.

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4. The control unit gets the memory instructions, interprets the instructions and controls the
computer operations.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
This unit is the most important part that does all the calculations and makes the decisions.
This computer processing unit (CPU) is the fundamental building block of the computer. Modern
CPUs contain highly complicated and efficient ALUs.
Modern CPUs have a control unit (CU) in addition to ALUs. ALUs consists of following
subsections –
1. Arithmetic Section
2. Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
The arithmetic section performs all the mathematical calculations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. This section handles all the complex calculations.
Logic Section
The logic section’s purpose is to carry out logical activities such as data comparison, collection,
matching and merging.
Main functions of the CPU
Fetch
First, the CPU fetches instructions from program memory. Program memory is the location of
the instruction.
This location also stores a number that is the address of the next instruction that needs to be
fetched.

The program counter increases itself by the duration of the instruction after the instruction is
fetched so that it can include the address of the next instruction in the sequence.
Decode
After the CPU can decide what to do next with the data, this step is the decoding stage.
This phase is done by the circuit known as the Instruction Decoder. The instruction then
transforms into signals that monitor other parts of the CPU.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) for the CPU defines how the instruction will be interpreted.
Execute

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The execution stage takes place after the steps of fetching and decoding.
This stage can consist of a single or a series of actions, depending on the CPU architecture.
Throughout each action, various parts of the CPU are connected electrically, so that they can
execute the desired activity.
The results of the execution are then updated to the internal CPU register.

Motherboard
The Circuit Board is the motherboard. The CPU, memory, buses, and all other components are
located within the computer.
It allocates power and facilitates connectivity to and from the CPU, RAM, and all other hardware
components of the computer.
Clock
Inside the computer, the clock is used to synchronize all computer calculations. It ensures all the
circuits within the computer operate simultaneously.
Chipset
Chipset is the name of a group of integrated circuits that work together and manage and operate
the entire computer system.
The chipset manages the flow of data throughout the system.
Data bus
A data bus is found on a motherboard, and it is a collection of wires used by the CPU to transfer
data in a computer between components.
The data bus is two-way. Data flows from microprocessors to computers used for memory and
input/output.

And then data flows into the microprocessor from memory and input/output devices as well.
Expansion Slots
An expansion slot is a motherboard based socket. It is used to insert an expansion card, also
called a circuit board that provides additional features like a video, sound, or memory, etc. to a
computer.
You must open the system unit to plug a card into the slot. A card has a socket at its end which
sticks out of the device unit so that a cable can be plugged into it.
Popular card types consist of graphics, sound, and network cards.

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Network Cards
A network interface card is a device that is installed in your computer to link the user to the
network.
The main feature it supports is to connect the system user or standalone system to a specific full-
time network.
The network interface card is abbreviated as an Ethernet card, network adapter, LAN adapter is
also known as NIC.
It is a type of expansion card that connects to the network with the same function.
Not so popular is the Ethernet standard, so most computers build network interfaces directly into
the motherboard.
NIC contains electronic circuits that are required to communicate using wired connections such
as Ethernet, and wireless connections such as WiFi.
Address Bus
A set of conducting wires that hold addresses only is the address bus. The address bus is
unidirectional.
The data flows from microprocessor to memory, or from the microprocessor to devices for
input/output.
The address bus carries memory, I / O (or peripherals), and other addressable devices around the
processor addressing signals from the processor. Control signals move but not in from the
processor.
Communication devices
A communications device is any type of hardware capable of transmitting data, instructions, and
information between a sending device and a receiving device.
Examples of communication devices includes:
Modem
One type of communications device that connects a communications channel to a sending or
receiving device such as a com- puter is a modem. Computers process data as digital signals.
Data, instructions, and information travel along a communications channel in either analog or
digital form, depending on the com- munications channel.
An analog signal consists of a continuous electrical wave. A digital signal consists of individual
electrical pulses that represent bits grouped together into bytes.

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For communications channels that use digital signals (such as cable television lines), the modem
transfers the digital signals between the computer and the communications channel.
If a communications channel uses analog signals (such as some telephone lines), however, the
modem first converts between analog and digital signals.
Network Cards
A network card is an adapter card, PC Card, ExpressCard module, USB network adapter, or flash
card that enables a computer or device that does not have networking capability to access a
network.
The network card coordinates the transmission and receipt of data, instructions, and information
to and from the computer or device containing the network card.
Wireless Access Points
A wireless access point is a central communications device that allows com- puters and devices
to transfer data wirelessly among themselves or to transfer data wire- lessly to a wired network
(Figure 8-7 on page 303). Wireless access points have high-quality antennas for optimal signals.
Routers
A router is a communications device that connects multiple computers or other routers together
and transmits data to its correct desti- nation on the network. A router can be used on any size of
network.
On the largest scale, routers along the Internet backbone forward data packets to their
destination using the fastest available path.
For smaller business and home networks, a router allows multiple computers to share a single
high-speed Internet connection such as a cable modem or DSL modem. These routers connect
from 2 to 250 computers.
Factors that determine the processing power of a computer
Processor Speed (4.77 Mhz, 8 Mhz, 25Mhz, 33Mhz, 133Mhz,233Mhz, 350Mhz, 900 Mhz, 1.8
Ghz, 2.6 Ghz, 3.2 Ghz)
Processor Instructions Set: (8088, 286, 386SX, 386DX,486SX, 486DX, Pentium I,Pentium
MMX, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4)
Bus Width or Path: 8 bit, 16 bit, 32 bit, 64 bit
Also: The bus width of the processor, memory, expansion slots, and internal bus can be
different and make a difference
Bus Speed: (4.77mhz, 8 mhz, 16 mhz, 33mhz, 50mhz, 66mhz, 75mhz, 100Mhz, 400Mhz,
800Mhz)

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Chipset: Instructions and features
Cache Memory: None, 4k, 8k, 16k,32k, 128k, 256k,512k, 1mb, and whether its Level 1, 2, etc
The Celeron originally had no cache memory and was extremely poor in performance. When
they put some cache memory in it, it became a popular low cost choice
System Memory Speed: Memory is made with different speeds and it must be matched to the
system motherboard for speed and type.
System Memory Amount: Windows 95 wants 16mb, Windows 98 wants 32Mb, Windows Me
wants 64MB, Windows XP wants 128 Mb as their minimums and if you double these amounts,
you can expect almost twice the speed as an increase. After these amounts are doubled, their will
on be 3-5% increase in speed unless something requires more.
Operating System: Can make a difference: a newer OS can slow the computer because there are
many more files to load and use
How full the Hard Drive is: As a hard drive fills and goes beyond about 2/3 full, you will see a
decrease in performance or speed that is very noticeable.
Fragmented Hard Drive: As a hard drive is used, files from programs and data and drivers get
fragmented all over the drive and it takes longer to access them, thereby slowing down your
system.
The Number of Programs and Utilities that Automatically Startup: when a computer is turned on:
Most computers have programs or parts of them as well as utilities starting when the computers
starts up. All of these take away from the computer’s resources and power as they are running,
using the processors power that has to be shared with other things you want to run.
Selection and acquisition of computer hardware
The task of determining a suitable computer system for an individual or organisation is not
easy.A good computer system must meet all the requirements of the user.Therefore,before
selecting the computer system to implement,it is advisable to do an analysis of all the
requirements necessary in order to avoid acquiring a system that may disappoint the users.
Requirements analysis for selecting a computer system should cover the following:

1. Identifying all user requirements.

2. Evaluating hardware requirements that will meet the user’s needs.
3. Evaluating software requirements that will meet the user’s needs. The computer hardware and
software to be acquired should therefore be able to meet all needs of the data processing
environment that, they are intended for effectively.
Hardware considerations

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Some factors considered when selecting computer hardware are;
Processor speed
The processing power and speed of a computer mainly depends on the processor speed.A good
computer must have high processor speed.
Memory capacity
Although,a computer may have a very fast processor,it may not perform as expected if it has low
memory capacity as expected . Because of the current multimedia driven applications,a good
computer should have sufficient memory to handle
the heavy applications that require a lot of memory space in order to run.A computer with at least
128 MB of RAM is recommended for most contemporary applications.
RAM is packaged as either dual in-line memory Module.(DIMM) or single in-line memory
module(SIMM).
Therefore, before one buys a memory module for the computer the following factors have to be
considered:
1. The type of module supported by the computers motherboard.
2. Does the motherboard have an empty memory slot?
3. Will the module work well(be compatible)with the other existing modules on the
motherboard?
4. What is the capacity of the module?

Warranty
A warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and conditions
of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction.
The most important consideration to make is whether the seller is ready to actually provide after
sales services.
On top of the actual cost of the item, most manufacturers and suppliers include a certain
percentage charge to cover the Warranty.
A good warranty should cover the following points:
1. Scope of cover for example six months, one year etc.
2. Callout response and liability agreement. For example how long should the supplier take to
repair a fault or replace the product, and if he/she delays who bears the cost.
3. Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service, at intervals etc.

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Cost
The cost of a computer system depends on:
1. Its processing capability.
2. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than their equivalent
clones. This is because of their reliability and good after sale services.
3. Its size. Portable computers are more expensive than their desktop equivalents because of the
superior technology involved in manufacturing smaller components without losing performance
abilities.
It is important to do a market survey from magazines, newspapers, and electronic media or visit a
number of vendors to compare prices before purchasing a computer.
Computer information and technology exhibitions also enlighten a buyer on current trends and
costs.
Upgradeability and compatibility
When buying a computer, the best option would be to get one that can easily be upgraded to
accommodate emergent technologies. For examples older computers cannot support large hard
disks available in the market today hence, difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard
disks are no longer in circulation
Portability
The size of electronic devices including computers has become a major consideration because
smaller devices enhance mobility.
User needs
When selecting computer hardware, consider the unique needs of the user. For example if the
users have special disability like in ability to use their hands, consider buying input devices that
capture data through voice input.
The user needs also determine the type of data that will be processed hence, the choice of the
type of hardware most appropriate to satisfy the needs.
For example in a supermarket a special computerized devise called a point of sale (POS)
terminal is most suitable to record transactions.
Other considerations
Other considerations for selecting computer hardware are;
Monitor

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Depending on preference, your choice for a monitor may depend on size, resolution and the
technology used to make it. Currently flat panel displays have become a new market standard
quickly replacing the cathode ray tube (CRT).
Multimedia capability
This is the combination of video, audio, text and images to provide an interactive, creative and
effective way of producing and communicating information. A multimedia system should have
speakers, CD/DVD drive, sounds card and a SVGA monitor. It should also have software that
supports multimedia capability
Output devices
A computer can still function without an output device.
However, without an output device, there’s no way to determine what the computer is doing.
There is no indicator of errors, nor of the need for additional input.
For example, if you detach your monitor from your computer, the computer will still function,
but it’s not going to be very helpful.
1. Monitor
Mode: Visual
Function
A monitor consists of a screen, circuitry, a power supply, buttons to adjust screen settings, and a
casing that contains all of these components.
A monitor displays data from a computer onto a screen so the user can interact with the data via
a digital interface.

Popular Brands: Acer, Alienware, Apple, Asus, Dell, HP, LG, Lenovo, Samsung

The first monitors used the same technology as early televisions, relying on a cathode ray tube
and a fluorescent screen. This technology was first utilized for computer monitors in 1965 in the
Uniscope 300 machine, which had a built-in CRT display.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube ) display lights up a series of dots with a beam on an active part of the
screen. This resulted in a maximum resolution of 1600 by 1200 pixels.
LCD (liquid crystal display) entered the market in 2000 and outsold CRT monitors in 2007.
Nowadays, monitors incorporate flat display technology.
Plasma monitors are brighter than both CRT and LCD and function by illuminating tiny charged
gas bubbles, or plasma, in the screen.

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VDT (video display terminal) and VDU (video display unit) are alternative names for monitors.

2. Printer
Mode: Print

Function
The function of a printer is to create a copy of whatever is sent from the computer to the printer.
Printers take electronic data sent from a computer and generate a hard copy.
Popular Brands: Brother, Canon, Epson
Photocopying, also known as xerography, is the origin-technology of modern-day printing and
was invented in 1938 by Chester S. Carlson of Queens, New York.
The first inkjet printer was developed in 1951.
There are many different types of printers, with inkjet and laser printers being two of the most
common.
Modern printers usually connect to a computer with a USB cable or via Wi-Fi.
A plotter, which is also a type of print output device, is a similar type of hardware device to a
printer.
Unlike a printer, however, plotters use writing tools, such as pen, pencil, marker, to draw lines.
Designed to use vector graphics, plotters were once commonly employed for computer-aided
design, but have now been largely replaced by wide-format printers.
Types of Printers
Ink Jet
– This kind of printer sprays tiny dots of ink onto a surface to form an image.
Laser
– This type utilises toner drums that roll through magnetized pigment, and then transfers the
pigment onto a surface.
Dot Matrix
– Dot matrix printers utilise a print head to set images on a surface, using an ink ribbon. These
printers were commonly used between 1980 and

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3. Headphones
Mode: Sound
Function
Headphones output audio from a computer through two individual headphones for a single
listener.
Also known as earphones, headphones allow you to listen to audio without disrupting other
people in the vicinity.
There’s no single figure who invented headphones, but the use of headphones stems from the
military.
Nathaniel Baldwin of Utah submitted a headphone prototype to the U.S. Navy in 1910, which
was adopted some years after by Naval radio operators.
Koss Corporation then created the first commercial stereo headphones in 1958.
Nowadays, headphones come in all shapes and sizes, from basic earbuds to the traditional style
with padding around the earpieces and a connecting band that fits over the user's head.

4. Computer Speakers
Mode: Sound

Function
Computer speakers are hardware devices that transform the signal from the computer's sound
card into audio.
Speakers create sound using internal amplifiers that vibrate at different frequencies according to
data from the computer. This produces sound.
Speakers are essential if you want a louder sound, surround sound, fuller bass, or just higher
quality audio.
The first internal computer speaker (a speaker inside the chassis of a laptop) was created in 1981
by IBM.
External computer speakers began to appear in stores in the early 1990s when computer gaming,
digital music, and other forms of media became popular. Some computer speakers are wireless
nowadays, connecting to the computer via Bluetooth.
5. Projector

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Mode: Visual

Function
As its name suggests, this output device "projects" computer images or video onto a wall or
screen.
This is a display device that projects a computer-created image onto another surface: usually
some sort of whiteboard or wall.
The computer transmits the image data to its video card, which then sends the video image to the
projector.
It is most often used for presentations, or for viewing videos.
Originally, projectors weren’t an output device. Projectors were first created and used in late
19th-century France.
Throughout history, biunial lanterns were used to project ink on glass by photographers,
lecturers, and magicians.
A biunial lantern is a lantern with projection capabilities. "Biunial" means combining two things
into one, so a biunial lantern is a directional lantern and a glass slide with a print on it for
projecting.
In the early 1920s, filmstrips were used to show “films” in classrooms.
Turning the knob allowed teachers to stop on specific slides.
Clear film copies for projectors weren’t invented until the 1960s, and 3M became the leading
producer in clear film and projectors.
Nowadays, projectors are typically used for presentations, watching movies, or as a teaching aid,
as they enable an entire roomful of people to see images generated by a single computer.
Modern projectors usually connect to the computer via an HDMI (high-definition multimedia)
cable or VGA (video graphics array) cable.
3D projectors are designed to project two images of the same thing from different angles at the
same time.
Wearing 3D glasses, the viewer can see a 3D projection composed of multiple superimposed
images.

6. GPS (Global Positioning System)

Mode: Data

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Function
GPS is a radio-based navigation system that’s composed of a sender computer and a receiver.
The sender broadcasts signals to 24 satellites that ping to the sender the exact location of the
sender computer in the form of latitude and longitude coordinates.
The satellites use microwave signals to “talk” to the GPS, giving information on location, vehicle
speed, and a number of other pieces of data.
Computer sends data to the sound card, which then translates the data into vibrational patterns.
These patterns are output by speakers as sound.
7. Sound Card
Mode: Sound

Function
The sound card controls the output of sound signals, enabling devices like speakers and
headphones to work.
The sound card is known as an expansion card, which means it can be added to the motherboard.
Although a sound card is not essential to a computer's basic functionality, you need one if you
wish to play games, watch movies, listen to music, and use audio and video conferencing.
When computer data is sent through a sound card, it is sent to the card digitally.
The sound card then translates the digital information (in the form of binary, or 0s and 1s) into
analog information: vibrations, output in the form of sound.
8. Video Card
Mode: Visual

Function
As with the sound card, the video card is an expansion card that slots into the motherboard.
The video card processes images and video, enabling visuals to be seen on a display.
Most computers have basic video and graphics capabilities built into the computer's
motherboard, but for faster, more detailed graphics, a video card is required.
Video cards are also known as GPUs or graphics processing units. Before modern-day GPUs,
IBM introduced the MDA (monochrome display adapter).

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The MDA supported visuals such as text and lines for uses such as drafting but didn't offer any
graphical experiences.
In order to increase the functionality of the burgeoning computing technology, Hercules
Computer Technology invented the Hercules Graphics Card, which integrated with the MDA to
offer a bitmapped (or "rasterized," or pixelated), graphics experience.
From the 1990s on, graphics technology was increasingly like modern-day graphics cards and
has increased in graphic quality and speed significantly since then.
Video cards can work in both 2D images and 3D images. Images like browsers, computer
desktops, and PDFs are considered 2D images, whereas computer games are considered 3D.
9. Braille Reader
Mode: Print
Function
A braille reader is a peripheral device that enables a blind person to read text displayed on a
computer monitor.
The text is sent by the computer to the device, where it is translated into a braille format and
made readable by pushing rounded pins up through a flat surface.
Braille readers are also called braille displays and come in various sizes.
Braille readers come in the form of separate devices from a keyboard or as part of a keyboard.
Most use piezoelectric technology, or electricity generated by mechanical stress, to create a
single line of text at a time in the form of raised bumps.
This was the case until late 2018 when Blitlab proposed an electronic solution to the limited
capabilities of braille readers.
Blitlab, upon its release, will allow the visually impaired to use the internet and read books and
newspapers more independently.
The technology is still in development. The device will cost only around $500, which is little
compared to traditional braille readers, which cost around $5,000 to $11,000.
Braille is a 63 character alphabet invented in 1824 by Louis Braille.
Braille was embossed on paper and other materials for decades before braille reader technology
was invented.
The first braille output technology was patented in 1975 by the Schönherr Company, and braille
reader technology has evolved slowly since.
Blitlab is the first tablet-style braille reader technology that will utilize a perforated glass screen
that raises bumps as the computer reads the text from websites and translates it to braille.

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10. Speech-Generating Device (SGD)
Mode: Sound
Function:
SGDs, also known as voice output communication aids, generate text to speech.
A user types something and when the command is sent, the SGD reads the sentence out loud.
The first version of the SGD used print output.
The “patient-operated selector mechanism,” or POSSUM, found symbols on a display and
illuminated them for the reader.
In the 1980s Dynavox was formed by students from Carnegie Mellon University with the goal to
make an effective SGD for a young woman with cerebral palsy.
This resulted in the invention of the EyeTyper, a device that allowed the user to spell with their
eyes that would then be spoken.
The most famous use of an SGD was by Stephen Hawking.
Hawking was an astrophysicist with Lou Gehrig’s disease (also known as ALS). Lou Gehrig’s
disease slowly deteriorates nerves in the spine and brain that results in gradual loss of muscle
control.
This often includes the ability to speak.

Other Output Device Examples

Computer Output Microfilm (COM, or Microfiche):
COM is used to create a film image of the page sent from a computer.
Plotter
This generates a hard copy of a digitally depicted design.
The design is sent to the plotter through a graphics card, and the design is formed by using a pen.
It is generally used with engineering applications, and essentially draws a given image using a
series of straight lines.
Television
A television (TV) is fed video and sound data which is output to the user in the form of
synchronized sound and pictures.

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Devices That Both Output and Input Data
Input/Output devices don’t only produce output, but can also be used as storage and input
devices. The computer transmits data to the drive, where it is saved and can be later accessed.
Examples of I/O devices are CD drives, DVD drives, USB drives, hard disk drives (HDDs), and
floppy disk drives, Modem, Touch Screen, Network Card (NIC)
CDs and DVDs are two kinds of optical disc which save data in a digital format.
Data is written onto the disc using a laser writer that embeds the data directly into the disc’s
coating.
A floppy disk is a magnetic storage device. A layer of magnetised material is placed within a
proactive plastic casing. The computer then embeds the data into the magnetized material, by
using a writing head.

Modem
A modem sends and receives information over a telephone line or cables.
Touch Screen
Touch screens accept input in the form of touch and display the output from the computer.
Network Card (NIC)
A network card is an expansion card for a computer that allows the device to connect to the
network or internet.
Memory
Memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called
cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus
one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536
memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Three types of memory
1. Cache Memory
2. Primary Memory/Main Memory
3. Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU.
It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory.

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It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating
system, from where the CPU can access them.
Advantages
1. Cache memory is faster than main memory.
2. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
3. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
4. It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
1. Cache memory has limited capacity.
2. It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working.
It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off.
It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers.
The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into
two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
1. These are semiconductor memories.
2. It is known as the main memory.
3. Usually volatile memory.
4. Data is lost in case power is switched off.
5. It is the working memory of the computer.
6. Faster than secondary memories.
7. A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result.

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It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine
is switched off, data is erased.
Primary Memory
Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular
basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher.
SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
1. Long life
2. No need to refresh
3. Faster
4. Used as cache memory
5. Large size
6. Expensive
7. High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data.

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This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second.
DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small.
All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
1. Short data lifetime
2. Needs to be refreshed continuously
3. Slower as compared to SRAM
4. Used as RAM
5. Smaller in size
6. Less expensive
7. Less power consumption
Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture.
A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred
to as bootstrap.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.
The various types of ROMs
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are
small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is
not erasable.

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EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use,
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
1. Non-volatile in nature
2. Cannot be accidentally changed
3. Cheaper than RAMs
4. Easy to test
5. More reliable than RAMs
6. Static and do not require refreshing
7. Contents are always known and can be verified
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not
access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of
secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.
For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
1. These are magnetic and optical memories.
2. It is known as the backup memory.
3. It is a non-volatile memory.
4. Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
5. It is used for storage of data in a computer.

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6. Computer may run without the secondary memory.
7. Slower than primary memories.
Storage devices
A storage device for a computer enables its user to store and safely access the data and
applications on a computer device.
There are four types of devices in which computer data can be stored.
1. Magnetic Storage Devices
The most commonly used storage devices in today’s time are magnetic storage devices. These
are affordable and easily accessible. A large amount of data can be stored in these through
magnetised mediums.
A magnetic field is created when the device is attached to the computer and with the help of the
two magnetic polarities, the device is able to read the binary language and store the information.
Given below are the examples of magnetic storage devices.
Floppy Disk – Also known as a floppy diskette, it is a removable storage device which is in the
shape of a square and comprises magnetic elements. When placed in the disk reader of the
computer device, it spins around and can store information. Lately, these floppy disks have been
replaced with CDs, DVDs and USB drives
Hard Drive – This primary storage device is directly attached to the motherboard’s disk
controller. It is integral storage space as it is required to install any new program or application to
the device. Software programs, images, videos, etc. can all be saved in a hard drive and hard
drives with storage space in terabytes are also easily available now
Zip Disk – Introduced by Iomega, is a removable storage device which was initially released
with a storage space of 100 MB which was later increased to 250 and then finally 750 MB
Magnetic Strip – A magnetic strip is attached in the device comprising digital data. The most
suitable example for this is a debit card which has a strip placed on one of its sides which stores
the digital data
2. Optical Storage Devices
Such devices used lasers and lights to detect and store data. They are cheaper in comparison to
USB drives and can store more data. Discussed below are a few commonly used optical storage
devices.
CD-ROM – This stands for Compact Disc – Read-Only Memory and is an external device which
can store and read data in the form of audio or software data
Blu-Ray Disc – Introduced in 2006, Blu-ray disk was backup up by major IT and computer
companies. It can store up to 25 GB data in a single-layer disc and 50 GB data in a dual-layer
disc

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DVD – Digital Versatile Disc is another type of optical storage device. It can be readable,
recordable, and rewritable. Recordings can be done in such devices and then can be attached to
the system
CD-R – It is a readable Compact Disc which uses photosensitive organic dye to record data and
store it. They are a low-cost replacement for storing software and applications
3. Flash Memory Devices
These storage devices have now replaced both magnetic and optical storage devices. They are
easy to use, portable and easily available and accessible. They have become a cheaper and more
convenient option to store data.
Discussed below are the major flash memory devices which are being commonly used by the
people nowadays.
USB Drive – Also, known as a pen drive, this storage device is small in size and is portable and
ranges between storage space of 2 GB to 1 TB. It comprises an integrated circuit which allows it
to store data and also replace it
Memory Card – Usually attached with smaller electronic and computerised devices like mobile
phones or digital camera, a memory card can be used to store images, videos and audios and is
compatible and small in size
Memory Stick – Originally launched by Sony, a memory stick can store more data and is easy
and quick to transfer data using this storage device. Later on, various other versions of memory
stock were also released
SD Card – Known as Secure Digital Card, it is used in various electronic devices to store data
and is available in mini and micro sizes. Generally, computers have a separate slot to insert an
SD card. In case they do not have one, separate USBs are available in which these cards can be
inserted and then connected to the computer
There are various other flash memory drives which are also easily available in the market and are
easily accessible and easy to use.
4. Online Cloud Storage
The term Cloud computing is used to describe the data centers available for users over the
Internet where they can save their databases and files. This data can easily be accessed over the
internet anytime and anywhere.
This has become a common mode to store data. The largest or the smallest computerized devices
can use the online cloud storage to save their data files. This option is also available in mobile
phones where a backup of our files and data is

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