Report on

Cyber Security

School of Engineering & Computing

Topic: Networking

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Mrs.GunjanBhattnagar Name: Kanishka

Asst.prof Admission no: 22BCA0161
Course: BCA
Section: B

Certification:
 Title: Networking Basics

Introduction:

When most people think of the Internet, they think of a magical cloud that lets you
access your favorite websites, shop online, and your seemingly endless stream of
movies and web series. But in reality, there isn’t any magic involved. There’s no
mysterious entity that grants us an online resource. The Internet is just an
interconnection of computers around the world, like a giant spider web that brings
all of us together. We call the interconnection of computers, a network.

Communication in a connected world: In our modern era, communication stands as

the cornerstone of human interaction, facilitating connections that transcend
geographical boundaries and cultural differences.
Network types:

The internet is not owned by any individual or group. The internet is a worldwide
collection of interconnected networks (internetwork or internet for short),
cooperating with each other to exchange information using common standards.
Through telephone wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless transmissions, and satellite
links, internet users can exchange information in a variety of forms.

Small home networks connect a few computers to each other and to the internet. The
SOHO network allows computers in a home office or a remote office to connect to a
corporate network, or access centralized, shared resources. Medium to large
networks, such as those used by corporations and schools, can have many locations
with hundreds or thousands of interconnected hosts. The internet is a network of
networks that connects hundreds of millions of computers world-wide.

Data transmission: The following categories are used to classify types of personal
data:

Volunteered data - This is created and explicitly shared by individuals, such as social
network profiles. This type of data might include video files, pictures, text, or audio
files.

Observed data - This is captured by recording the actions of individuals, such as

location data when using cell phones.

Inferred data - This is data such as a credit score, which is based on analysis of
volunteered or observed data.

The term bit is an abbreviation of “binary digit” and represents the smallest piece of
data. Each bit can only have one of two possible values, 0 or 1.

There are three common methods of signal transmission used in networks:

Electrical signals - Transmission is achieved by representing data as electrical pulses

on copper wire.

Optical signals - Transmission is achieved by converting the electrical signals into

light pulses.

Wireless signals - Transmission is achieved by using infrared, microwave, or radio

waves through the air.

Bandwidth and throughtput: Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data.

Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in the number
of bits that (theoretically) can be sent across the media in a second. Common
bandwidth measurements are as follows:

Thousands of bits per second (Kbps)

Millions of bits per second (Mbps)

Billions of bits per second (Gbps)

Network Components, types, and connection:

Client and server:

All computers connected to a network that participate directly in network

communication are classified as hosts. Hosts can send and receive messages on the
network. In modern networks, computer hosts can act as a client, a server, or both.
The software installed on the computer determines which role the computer plays.

Network components: There are symbols that represent various types of networking
equipment. The network infrastructure is the platform that supports the network. It
provides the stable and reliable channel over which our communications can occur.

End devices, or hosts, form the interface between users and the underlying
communication network. Some examples of end devices include:

Computers (workstations, laptops, file servers, web servers)

Network printers

Telephones and teleconferencing equipment

Security cameras

Mobile devices (such as smartphones, tablets, PDAs, and wireless debit/credit card
readers and barcode scanners)

ISP connectivity Options: An ISP provides the link between the home network and
the internet. An ISP can be the local cable provider, a landline telephone service
provider, the cellular network that provides your smartphone service, or an
independent provider who leases bandwidth on the physical network infrastructure
of another company.

Wireless and mobile network:

Mobile phones use radio waves to transmit voice signals to antennas mounted on
towers located in specific geographic areas. When a telephone call is made, the
voice signal is relayed from one tower to another tower until it is delivered to its
destination. This type of network is used when you make a phone call to another
mobile phone or to a wired telephone.

Mobile device connectivity: Almost all mobile devices are capable of connecting to
Wi-Fi networks. These precautions should be taken to protect Wi-Fi
communications on mobile devices:

Never send login or password information using unencrypted text (plaintext).

Use a VPN connection when possible if you are sending sensitive data.

Enable security on home networks.

Use WPA2 or higher encryption for security.

Build a home network:

Most home networks consist of at least two separate networks. The public network
coming in from the service provider. The router is connected to the internet. Most
likely, the home router is equipped with both wired and wireless capabilities. A
home network is a small LAN with devices that usually connect to an integrated
router and to each other in order to exchange information.

Network technologies in a home:Wireless technologies use electromagnetic waves

to carry information between devices. The electromagnetic spectrum includes such
things as radio and television broadcast bands, visible light, x-rays, and gamma-
rays.

Communication principes:

communication standards - A standard is a set of rules that determines how

something must be done. Networking and internet standards ensure that all devices
connecting to the network implement the same set of rules or protocols in the same
manner. Using standards, it is possible for different types of devices to send
information to each other over the internet.

OSI Model layer description:

7 – Application - The application layer contains protocols used for process-to-

process communications.

6 – Presentation - The presentation layer provides for common representation of the

data transferred between application layer services.
5 – Session - The session layer provides services to the presentation layer to
organize its dialogue and to manage data exchange.

4 – Transport - The transport layer defines services to segment, transfer, and

reassemble the data for individual communications between the end devices.

3 – Network - The network layer provides services to exchange the individual pieces
of data over the network between identified end devices.

2 - Data Link - The data link layer protocols describe methods for exchanging data
frames between devices over a common media

1 – Physical - The physical layer protocols describe the mechanical, electrical,

functional, and procedural means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical
connections for a bit transmission to and from a network device.

Network media:

Communication transmits across a network on media. The media provides the

channel over which the message travels from source to destination.

Modern networks primarily use three types of media to interconnect devices are:

Metal wires within cables - Data is encoded into electrical impulses.

Glass or plastic fibers within cables (fiber-optic cable) - Data is encoded into pulses of
light.

Wireless transmission - Data is encoded via modulation of specific frequencies

of electromagnetic waves.

Gateway to other network:

Network boundaries:

Every host on a network must use the router as a gateway to other networks.
Therefore, each host must know the IPv4 address of the router interface connected
to the network where the host is attached. This address is known as the default
gateway address. It can be either statically configured on the host or received
dynamically by DHCP.

NAT operations: The process used to convert private addresses to internet-routable

addresses is called NAT. With NAT, a private (local) source IPv4 address is
translated to a public (global) address. The process is reversed for incoming packets.
The wireless router is able to translate many internal IPv4 addresses to the same
public address, by using NAT. The ARP process:
MAC and IP: Sometimes a host must send a message, but it only knows the IP
address of the destination device. The host needs to know the MAC address of that
device. The MAC address can be discovered using address resolution. There are two
primary addresses assigned to a device on an Ethernet LAN:

Physical address (the MAC address) – Used for NIC-to-NIC communications on

the same Ethernet network.

Logical address (the IP address) – Used to send the packet from the source
device to the destination device. The destination IP address may be on the
same IP network as the source, or it may be on a remote network.

Routing between network:

A router is a networking device that connects multiple Layer 3, IP networks. At the

distribution layer of the network, routers direct traffic and perform other functions
critical to efficient network operation. Routers, like switches, are able to decode and
read the messages that are sent to them.

The routing table: Routing tables contain the addresses of networks, and the best
path to reach those networks. Entries can be made to the routing table in two ways:
dynamically updated by information received from other routers in the network, or
manually entered by a network administrator.

Creating a LAN: Within a LAN, it is possible to place all hosts on a single local
network or divide them up between multiple networks connected by a distribution
layer device.Placing all hosts on a single local network allows them to be seen by all
other hosts. This is because there is one broadcast domain and hosts use ARP to find
each other.

TCP and UDP:

UDP is a 'best effort' delivery system that does not require acknowledgment of
receipt. UDP is preferable with applications such as streaming audio and VoIP.
Acknowledgments would slow down delivery and retransmissions are undesirable.
Packets take a path from the source to a destination. A few packets may be lost but it
is usually not noticeable.

TCP packets take a path from the source to the destination. However, each of the
packets has a sequence number. TCP breaks up a message into small pieces known
as segments. The segments are numbered in sequence and passed to the IP process
for assembly into packets.