Introduction to Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing: Mobile

computing refers to various devices that
allow people to access data and
information from anywhere. It transports
data, voice, and video over a network via
a mobile device.
Aspects of Mobile Computing

User mobility: The user is mobile it means

user can communicate wireless i.e.
anytime and anywhere.
Device portability: The device is portable it
means the communication device moves
i.e. device can be connected anytime,
anywhere to the network.
 Applications
• Vehicles
• Emergencies
• Replacement of fixed networks
• Location aware services
• Follow-on services
• Information services
 Telecommunication Generations
• First Generation (1G)
• Second Generation (2G)
• Third Generation (3G)
• Fourth Generation (4G)
• Fifth Generation (5G)
Telecommunication Generations
First Generation (1G)

• Technology: AMPS, NMT

• Frequency: 30khz
• Access Method: FDMA
• Bandwidth: 2kbps
• Analog Systems make phone calls
• Cell coverage not good
• Lack of Encryption
• Not able to send/receive text message
• Core Network is PSTN
 Telecommunication Generations
Second Generation (2G)

• Technology: GSM
• Frequency: 1.8 Ghz
• Access Method: TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
• Bandwidth: 14.4 – 64 kbps
• In 1991 2G came in existence
• Digital Systems
• Can send/receive SMS and MMS
• In 1997 WAP browser i.e. GPRS was introduced,
send/receive emails.
• Core Network is PSTN
Telecommunication Generations
Third Generation (3G)
• Technology: WCDMA
• Frequency: 1.6 – 2 Ghz
• Access Method: CDMA
• Bandwidth: 2Mbps
• High Speed
• Video conferencing, 3D Gaming
• Core Network is Packet Network
Telecommunication Generations
Fourth Generation (4G)

• Technology: LTE, WiMax

• Frequency: 2 – 8 Ghz
• Access Method: CDMA
• Bandwidth: 2000Mbps – 1Gbps
• Five times faster than 3G network
• Speed 100Mbps to 1Gbps
• Better Latency, High voice quality
• High definition mobile TV
• Core Network is Internet
Telecommunication
Generations
Fifth Generation (5G)
• Technology: MIMO, mm Waves
• Frequency: 3 – 30 Ghz
• Access Method: OFDM/BDMA
• Bandwidth: 1Gbps and higher
• Core Network is Internet
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Frequencies for mobile communication
twisted coax cable optical transmission
pair

1 Mm 10 km 100 m 1m 10 mm 100 m 1 m
300 Hz 30 kHz 3 MHz 300 MHz 30 GHz 3 THz 300 THz

VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared visible light UV

VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency
HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

Frequency and wave length:

 = c/f
wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f
 Frequencies for mobile communication
• VLF, LF, MF HF are not used for wireless
• VHF-/UHF ranges for mobile radio
➢ simple, small antenna for cars
• SHF and higher frequencies are for directed radio links,
satellite communication
➢ small antenna, beam forming
➢ large bandwidth available
• UHF to SHF range frequencies are used in wireless LANs
➢ some systems planned up to EHF
➢ limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
➢ weather dependent fading. E.g signal loss caused by heavy rain
 Antennas
• Antenna:
➢ Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves
➢ coupling of wires to space for radio transmission
• Isotropic radiator:
➢ Equal radiation in all directions
➢ Real antennas have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
➢ Radiation pattern is the measurement of radiation around an
antenna z
y z

y x ideal
x isotropic
radiator
 Antennas: simple dipoles
• Real antennas are not isotropic radiators
➢ dipoles with lengths /4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
➢ shape of antenna proportional to wavelength

/4 /2

• Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole

y y z

simple
x z x
dipole
side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)
 Antennas: Directed and Sectorized
• Used for microwave connections or base stations for mobile phones
(e.g. radio coverage of a valley)

y y z
directed
x z x antenna

side view (xy-plane) side view (yz-plane) top view (xz-plane)

z
z

x
sectorized
x
antenna

top view, 3 sector top view, 6 sector

 Antennas: diversity
• Grouping of 2 or more antennas: multi-element antenna arrays
• Antenna diversity
➢ switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
➢ diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain

/2 /2
/4 /2 /4 /2

+ +

ground plane
 Signals
• physical representation of data
• function of time and location
A [V] A [V] Q = M sin 

t[s] 
I= M cos 

 f [Hz]

• signal parameters of periodic signals:

period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
• sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier
 Signals
• Different representations of signals
➢ amplitude (amplitude domain)
➢ frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
➢ phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in
polar coordinates)
What is Analog Signal and Digital Signal
• An analog signal signifies a continuous signal that
keeps changes with a time period.
• A digital signal signifies a discrete signal that
carries binary data and has discrete values.
• Analog signals are continuous sine waves.
• Digital signal is square waves.
 Signal propagation ranges
Transmission range
➢ communication is possible
➢ low error rate is there
Detection range
➢ detection of the signal is
sender
possible
➢ communication is not transmission
possible distance
detection
Interference range
➢ signal may not be interference

detected in this
range
➢ background noise can
be added to the
signal.
 Signal propagation
Propagation in free space is always like light that is a straight line
Receiving power proportional to 1/d² in vacuum where d is the distance between
the sender and the receiver
Receiving power is influenced by
➢ fading
➢ shadowing
➢ reflection (large obstacles)
➢ refraction depending on the density of a medium
➢ scattering (small obstacles)
➢ diffraction at edges

shadowing reflection refraction scattering diffraction

 Multipath propagation
Because of reflection, scattering and diffraction signal can take many
different paths between sender and receiver.

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted

Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and location
❑ signal paths change
❑ different delay variations of different signal parts
❑ different phases of signal parts

The power of received signal power long term

changes considerably fading

overtime and this quick

changes in received power is
short term fading.
t
Average power over time is short term fading

long term fading that is

varying distance to the
sender or remote obstacles.
Multiplexing
channels ki

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
t c
Multiplexing t
➢ space (si) s1
f
➢ time (t) s2
f
c
➢ frequency (f)
t
➢ code (c)
s3
f
Frequency division multiplexing
Separation of spectrum into smaller frequency bands.
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum.
Advantages:
➢ dynamic coordination not
necessary k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
➢ works for analog signals also
c
f
Disadvantages:
➢ In case of unevenly
traffic distribution
there is waste of
bandwidth
➢ guard spaces
t
Time division multiplexing
The whole spectrum is assigned to a channel for a certain
amount of time
Advantages:
➢ only one carrier in the
medium at any time
➢ throughput is high for k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
many users
c
Disadvantages: f
➢ synchronization
necessary

t
Time and frequency division multiplexing

A channel is assigned a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time

Advantages:
➢ compared to code

multiplexing higher data rates k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
f

t
Code division multiplexing
A unique code is assigned to each
channel and all channels use same
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
spectrum at the same time

c
Advantages:
➢ bandwidth efficient
➢ coordination and synchronization
is not required

f
Disadvantages:
➢ lower user data rates
➢ signal regeneration is complex

t
 Modulation

Digital modulation
➢ digital data is translated into an analog signal
Analog modulation
➢ shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio
carrier
Types of Modulation
➢ Amplitude Modulation (AM)
➢ Frequency Modulation (FM)
➢ Phase Modulation (PM)
Modulation and Demodulation
analog
digital baseband
data signal
digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal data
analog synchronization
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
1 0 1
➢ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
t

1 0 1
➢ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

➢ Phase Shift Keying (PSK) 1 0 1

t
 Cellular Systems
• It implements
space division
multiplex

• The base station

covers a certain
transmission area
which is termed as
cell.

• Mobile stations
communicate via
the base station
 Cellular Systems
• Advantages of cell structures:
➢higher capacity
➢higher number of users
➢less transmission power needed
➢ more robust, decentralized
➢base station deals with interference,
transmission area i.e. locally
 Cellular Systems
• Disadvantages:
➢ fixed network needed for the base stations
➢ handover
➢ interference with other cells

Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to, e.g., 35 km on

the country side (GSM) - even less for higher
frequencies
 Frequency Planning

• Frequency reuse only with a certain distance

between the base stations

• 7 frequencies cluster
Frequency Planning

3 cell cluster

3 cell cluster with 3 sector antennas

 Frequency Planning
• Fixed frequency assignment:
➢To a cell certain frequencies are assigned
➢There is different traffic load in different cells
• Dynamic frequency assignment:
➢base station chooses frequencies depending
on the frequencies already used in neighbor
cells
➢ In case of more traffic there is more capacity
➢assignment can also be based on interference
measurements
 Cell Breathing

• For CDM systems the cell size depends on

current load in the system.
• Additional traffic appears as noise. If the noise
level is too high users drop out of cells
 Co-channel interference
Co-channel interference (CCI) is crosstalk
from two different radio transmitters using
the same channel.
Interference is caused due to:
• Call in progress by neighboring cells
• Base station operating at same frequency
level
• Crosstalk by different mobile users
As a result to these consequences:
• Call status is blocked
• System capacity is low
Co-channel interference
Each cell contains n
number of channel and n
number of frequencies.
Q- co-channel reuse factor
N- cluster size
R- radius of cell
D- distance between two
centres of nearest cell

Q = D/R = 3𝑁

Frequency reuse
technique increases
overall system capacity.
 Frequency Planning
For hexagonal cells, i.e., with 'honeycomb' cell lay-outs commonly used in
mobile radio, possible cluster sizes are K = i2 + ij + j2, with integer i and j (K =
1, 3, 4, 7, 9, ...). Integers i and j determine the relative location of co-channel
cells. 7-cell reuse with i = 2 and j =1.
 Spread spectrum technology
Problem in radio transmissionis that frequency dependent fading can
wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the interference.
Therefore, spreading the narrow band signal into a broad band signal
using special code.

power interference spread power signal

signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver

f f
protection against narrowband interference

Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

Effects of spreading and interference
dP/df dP/df

user signal
i) ii) broadband interference
narrowband interference
f f
sender
dP/df dP/df dP/df

iii) iv) v)
f f f
receiver
Spreading and frequency selective fading
channel
quality

2 narrowband
1 5 6
3 channels
4
frequency
narrow band guard space
signal

channel
quality
2
2
2 spread spectrum
2 channels
2
1

spread frequency
spectrum
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number i.e.chipping
sequence
Advantages
tb
➢ reduces frequency selective
fading user data

➢ In cellular networks the base 0 1 XOR

stations can use the same tc

frequency range and can chipping

sequence
detect and recover signal 01101010110101 =
➢ soft handover
resulting
Disadvantages signal

➢ precised power control is necessary 01101011001010

tb: bit period

tc: chip period
DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
spread
spectrum transmit
user data signal signal
X modulator

chipping radio
sequence carrier

transmitter

correlator
lowpass sampled
received filtered products sums
signal signal data
demodulator X integrator decision

radio chipping
carrier sequence

receiver
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random
number sequence
There are two versions in FHSS
❑ Fast Hopping(several frequencies are assigned per user bit)

❑ Slow Hopping(several user bits are assigned per frequency)

Advantages
➢ frequency selective fading and interference is limited to short period
➢ small portion of spectrum is used at any time
Disadvantages
➢ not as robust as DSSS
➢ simpler to detect
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
tb

user data

0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3
slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1

td t
f
f3
fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
f1

tb: bit period td: dwell time

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
narrowband spread
signal transmit
user data signal
modulator modulator

frequency hopping
synthesizer sequence
transmitter

narrowband
received signal
signal data
demodulator demodulator

hopping frequency
sequence synthesizer
receiver