LECTURE NOTES

ON

ENERGY CONVERSION-II

(TH-2)

SEM:5TH SEM

Department of Electrical Engineering

Topics Periods
1. Alternator (Synchronous Generator) 14
2. Synchronous Motor 08
3. Induction motor 14
4. Single Phase induction motor 08
5. Commutator motors 06
6. Special Electric Machine 05
7. Three phase transformers 05 Total 60
COURSE CONTENT: 1. ALTERNATOR: 1.1. Types of alternator and their constructional features. 1.2. Basic working
principle of alternator and the relation between speed and frequency. 1.3. Terminology in armature winding and
expressions for winding factors (Pitch factor, Distribution factor). 1.4. Explain harmonics, its causes and impact on
winding factor. 1.5. E.M.F equation of alternator. (Solve numerical problems). 1.6. Explain Armature reaction and
its effect on emf at different power factor of load. 1.7. The vector diagram of loaded alternator. (Solve numerical
problems) 1.8. Testing of alternator (Solve numerical problems) 1.8.1. Open circuit test. 1.8.2. Short circuit test.
1.9. Determination of voltage regulation of Alternator by direct loading and synchronous impedance method.
(Solve numerical problems) 1.10. Parallel operation of alternator using synchro-scope and dark & bright lamp
method. 1.11. Explain distribution of load by parallel connected alternators.
2. SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR: 2.1. Constructional feature of Synchronous Motor. 2.2. Principles of operation,
concept of load angle 2.3. Derive torque, power developed. 2.4. Effect of varying load with constant excitation.
2.5. Effect of varying excitation with constant load. 2.6. Power angle characteristics of cylindrical rotor motor. 2.7.
Explain effect of excitation on Armature current and power factor. 2.8. Hunting in Synchronous Motor. 2.9.
Function of Damper Bars in synchronous motor and generator. 2.10. Describe method of starting of Synchronous
motor. 2.11. State application of synchronous motor.
3. THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: 3.1. Production of rotating magnetic field. 3.2. Constructional feature of
Squirrel cage and Slip ring induction motors. 3.3. Working principles of operation of 3-phase Induction motor. 3.4.
Define slip speed, slip and establish the relation of slip with rotor quantities. 3.5. Derive expression for torque
during starting and running conditions and derive conditions for maximum torque. (solve numerical problems)
3.6. Torque-slip characteristics. 3.7. Derive relation between full load torque and starting torque etc. (solve
numerical problems) 3.8. Establish the relations between Rotor Copper loss, Rotor output and Gross Torque and
relationship of slip with rotor copper loss. (solve numerical problems) 3.9. Methods of starting and different types
of starters used for three phase Induction motor. 3.10. Explain speed control by Voltage Control, Rotor resistance
control, Pole changing, frequency control methods. 3.11. Plugging as applicable to three phase induction motor.
3.12. Describe different types of motor enclosures. 3.13. Explain principle of Induction Generator and state its
applications.
4. SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR: 4.1. Explain Ferrari’s principle. 4.2. Explain double revolving field theory
and Cross-field theory to analyze starting torque of 1-phase induction motor. 4.3. Explain Working principle,
Torque speed characteristics, performance characteristics and application of following single phase motors. 4.3.1.
Split phase motor. 4.3.2. Capacitor Start motor. 4.3.3. Capacitor start, capacitor run motor. 4.3.4. Permanent
capacitor type motor. 4.3.5. Shaded pole motor. 4.4. Explain the method to change the direction of rotation of
above motors.
5. COMMUTATOR MOTORS: 5.1. Construction, working principle, running characteristic and application of single
phase series motor. 5.2. Construction, working principle and application of Universal motors. 5.3. Working
principle of Repulsion start Motor, Repulsion start Induction run motor, Repulsion Induction motor.
6. SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINE: 6.1. Principle of Stepper motor. 6.2. Classification of Stepper motor. 6.3.
Principle of variable reluctant stepper motor. 6.4. Principle of Permanent magnet stepper motor. 6.5. Principle of
hybrid stepper motor. 6.6. Applications of Stepper motor.
7. THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS: 7.1. Explain Grouping of winding, Advantages. 7.2. Explain parallel operation of
the three phase transformers. 7.3. Explain tap changer (On/Off load tap changing) 7.4. Maintenance Schedule of
Power Transformers.
 CHAPTER -1
ALTERNATOR

Introduction
An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy in the form of alternating current. Synchronous generators are also called as
alternators.
A.C. generators are used in to generate electricity in hydroelectric and thermal plants.
Alternators are also used in automobiles to generate electricity.

Like a D.C. generator, an alternator also has an armature winding and a field winding.
But there is one important difference between the two.
 In D.C. generators, the field poles are stationary and the armature conductors rotate.
The voltage generated in the armature conductors is of alternating nature. This
generated alternating voltage is converted to a direct voltage at the brushes with the
help of the commutator.
 But in the synchronous generator it is convenient and advantageous to place the
field winding on the rotating part (i.e., rotor) and armature winding on the stationary
part (i.e., stator). No commutator is required in an alternator

Advantages of Stationary Armature:

Most alternators have the rotating field and the stationary armature. The rotating-field
type alternator has several advantages over the rotating-armature type alternator.
1. A stationary armature is more easily insulated for the high voltage for which the
alternator is designed. This generated voltage may be as high as 33K V.
2. The armature windings can be fixed better mechanically against high electro-
magnetic forces due to large short-circuit currents when the armature windings are
in the stator.
3. The armature windings, being stationary, are not subjected to vibration and
centrifugal forces.
4. The output current can be taken directly from fixed terminals on the stationary
armature without using slip rings, brushes, etc.
5. Only two slip rings are required for d.c. supply to the field winding on the
rotor.
6. The stationary armature may be cooled more easily because the armature can be
made large to provide a number of cooling ducts.

Types of synchronous machines:

According to the arrangement of armature and field winding, the synchronous machines are
classified as rotating armature type or rotating field type.
  In rotating armature type the armature winding is on the rotor and the field winding
is on the stator. The generated EMF or current is brought to the load via the slip
rings. These type of generators are built only in small units.
 In case of rotating field type generators field windings are on the rotor and the
armature windings are on the stator. Here the field current is supplied through a pair
of slip rings and the induced EMF or current is supplied to the load via the stationary
terminals.

Based on the type of the prime movers employed the synchronous generators are classified
as
1. Hydro generators: The generators which are driven by hydraulic turbines are called
hydro generators. These are run at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.
2. Turbo generators: These are the generators driven by steam turbines. These
generators are run at very high speed of 1500rpm or above.
3. Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC engines. These are run at aspeed
less than 1500 rpm.

Construction of Alternator:
An alternator consists of two main parts namely, the

i. stator
ii. rotor

The stator is the stationary part of the machine. It carries the armature winding in which the
voltage is generated. The output of the machine is taken from the stator.The rotor is the
rotating part of the machine. The rotor produces the main field flux.
Stator Construction:
The Stationary part of the alternator is known as stator. It provides housing and support for
the rotor. Statoris built up of sheet-steel laminations having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-
phase winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of the alternator.
The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to ground.
The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consists of
 The outer cylindrical frame called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel,
cast iron.
 The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called stator
core pressed into the cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is
laminated to reduce eddy currents, reducing losses and heating.

Rotor Construction:
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two slip rings
by a separate d.c. source. This d.c. source (called exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt or
compound generator mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
There are two types of rotor constructions namely,
i. Salient(or projecting) pole type
ii. Non salient (or Cylindrical) pole type.
Salient (or projected) pole type.
 The pole is made of steel or cast iron and the pole winding is excited by a D.C.
generator driven by the shaft of alternator.
 These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with concentrated field
windings. This type of construction is for the machines which are driven by hydraulic
turbines or Diesel engines.
 The salient pole type of rotor is used for low to medium speed/rpm alternators,
where more number of poles are required may be 20 or 30 poles.
 A salient pole alternator can be identified by large diameter and short axial length.
The large diameter accommodates a large number of poles.
 A salient-pole synchronous machine has a non-uniform air gap. The air gap is
minimum under the pole centres and it is maximum in between the poles.
 Salient-pole alternators driven by water turbines are called hydro-alternators or
hydro-generators.
Damper windings are provided in the pole faces of salient pole alternators. Damper
windings are nothing but the copper or aluminium bars housed in the slots of the pole faces.
These damper windings are serving the function of providing mechanical balance; provide
damping effect, reduce the effect of over voltages and damp out hunting in case of
alternators.

Salient pole type rotor

Non salient (or cylindrical or Round) pole type:

 The rotor is made of steel cylinder with number of slots cut on the periphery of the
cylinder. The field windings are placed in the slots.
 These machines are having cylindrical smooth rotor construction with distributed
field winding in slots.
 Cylindrical pole type of rotor construction is employed for the machine driven by
steam turbines.
 These cylindrical pole type alternators have large axial length and smaller diameter.
 Cylindrical rotors are particularly useful in high-speed machines. The cylindrical rotor
type alternator has two or four poles on the rotor. Such a construction provides a
greater mechanical strength and permits more accurate dynamic balancing.
 The cylindrical rotor machine makes less windage losses and the operation is less
noisy because of uniform air gap.

Smooth cylindrical or non salient type rotor

 3D view of smooth cylindrical or non-salient type rotor

Working Principle of Alternator:

An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle of electromagnetic Induction as a
D.C. generator i.e., when the flux linking a conductor changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the
conductor.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field (rotor windings for
synchronous machines); armature windings are the windings where the main voltage is
induced (stator windings for synchronous machines).
The rotor winding is energized from the d.c. exciter to produce a rotor magnetic field and
alternate N and S poles are developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in anti-
clockwise direction by a prime mover, the stator or armature conductors are cut by the
magnetic flux of rotor poles. Consequently, e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors due
to electromagnetic induction. The induced e.m.f. is alternating since N and S poles of rotor
alternately pass the armature conductors. The direction of induced e.m.f. can be found by
Fleming’s right hand rule and frequency is given by;
𝑃𝑁
f= where N=speed of rotor in r.p.m
120
P=number of rotor poles

When the rotor is rotated, a 3-phase voltage is induced in the armature winding. The
magnitude of induced e.m.f. depends upon the speed of rotation and the d.c.exciting
current. The magnitude of e.m.f. in each phases of the armature windingis the same.

Fleming’s Right hand rule:

Statement: The thumb, fore finger and middle finger of the right hand are stretched to be
perpendicular to each other and if the thumb represents the direction of the movement of
conductor, fore-finger represents direction of the magnetic field,then the middle finger
represents direction of the induced emf.
Relation between speed and frequency:

The frequency of induced e.m.f in the armature conductors depends upon speed &the
number of poles.
Let N=rotor speed in r.p.m
P= number of rotor poles
f =frequency of emf in HZ

 Armature (stator) conductor successively swept by N &S poles of the rotor. If a

positive voltage is induced when a N-pole sweeps across the conductor, similarly
negative voltage is induced when a S-pole sweeps by.

That is one complete cycle of e.m.f is generated in the conductor as a pair of poles passes it
i.e., one N-pole and the adjacent following S-pole.

No of cycles/revolution = No. of pair of poles = P/2

No of revolution/second =N/60
No. of cycles/second = (P/2)(N/60)
But no. of cycles of e.m.f per second is its frequency.
𝑃𝑁
So f= 120
where N=speed of rotor in r.p.m
P =number of rotor poles

For a given alternator,P is fixed, therefore, the alternator must be run at synchronous speed
to give an output of desired frequency. For this reason the alternator is also called as
synchronous generator.

Terminology in Armature Winding:

Conductor: Each individual length of wire lying in the magnetic field is called conductor.
Turn: When the two conductors lying in the magnetic field are connected in series, so that the emf
induced in them help each other or the resultant induced emf becomes double of that due to one
conductor is called turn.
Coil: When one or more turns are connected in series and two ends of it are connected to the
adjacent commutator segments it is called a coil.
Pole Pitch: A pole pitch is defined as the peripheral distance between two adjacent poles.
Or
The pole pitch is defined as distance is measured in term of armature slots or armature
conductors per pole.Pole pitch is always equal to 180° electrical.
Coil Span or Coil Pitch: The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is called coil-span
or coil- pitch. It is usually measured in terms of teeth, slots or electrical degrees.

Windings in Alternators: In case of three phase alternators the following types of

windings are employed.
 Based on type of winding connections, the armature winding of Alternator are of two
types.
 Lap winding.
 Wave winding.

Lap winding of an Alternator:

In this type of winding the finishing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment
and to the start end of adjacent coil located under the same pole and similarly all coils are
connected. This type of winding is known as lap because the sides of successive coils overlap
each other.The purposes of such type of windings are,

a) To increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature current to increase
i.e., for high current output.
b) To improve commutation as the current per conductor decreases.

Wave winding of Alternator:

In wave winding the coils which are carrying current in one direction are connected in series
circuit and the carrying currents in opposite direction are connected in another series
circuit. In wave winding, the conductors are so connected that they are divided into two
parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. Thus, if the machine has Z
armature conductors, there will be only two parallel paths each having Z/2 conductors in
series. In this case number of brushes is equal to two, i.e. number of parallel paths.
  Based on pitch of the coil
 full pitched
 short pitched

Full Pitched Coil:

If the coil-span (or coil-pitch) is equal to the pole-pitch, then the coil is termed a full-pitch
coil.In this situation, two opposite sides of the coil lie under two opposite poles. Hence emf
induced in one side of the coil will be in 180˚ phase shift with emf induced in the other side
of the coil. Thus, the total terminal voltage of the coil will be the arithmetic sum of these
two emfs.

Short Pitched Coil:

If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is referred as short pitched coil
or fractional pitched. In this coil, there will be a phase difference between induced emf in
two sides, less than 180 ˚. Hence resultant terminal voltage of the coil is vector sum of these
two emf’s and it is less than that of full-pitched coil.
  Based on number of layers
 Single layer
 Double layer

Single layer Winding

Double layer winding

 Based on distribution of windings

 Concentrated winding
 Distributed winding
Concentrated winding
 A winding with only one slot per pole per phase is called a concentrated winding.
 In this type of winding, the e.m.f. generated/phase is equal to the arithmetic sum of
the individual coil e.m.f.s in that phase.
Examples of concentrated winding are
 field windings for salient-pole synchronous machines
 D.C. machines
 Primary and secondary windings of a transformer
Distributed winding:
 If the coils/phase are distributed over several slots in space,then it is called
distributed winding.
 The e.m.f.s in the coils are not in phase (i.e., phase difference is not zero) but are
displaced from each by the slot angle α (The angular displacement in electrical
agrees between the adjacent slots is called slot angle).
 The e.m.f./phase will be the phasor sum of coil e.m.f.s.
Examples of distributed winding are
 Stator and rotor of induction machines
 The armatures of both synchronous and D.C. machines
Winding factors:
Pitch Factor:
The ratio of phasor (vector) sum of induced emfs per coil to the arithmetic sum of
induced emfs per coil is known as pitch factor (Kp) or coil span factor (Kc) which is
always less than unity.
Phasor sum of coilside emfs
𝑲𝒑 =
Arithmatic sum of coilside emfs

Expression for Kp.

Consider a coil AB which is short-pitch by angle β electrical degrees. The e.m.f.s generated in
the coil sides A and B differ in phase by an angle b and can be represented by phasors
𝐸 𝐴and 𝐸 𝐵 respectively. The diagonal of the parallelogram represents the resultant e.m.f.
𝐸 𝑅 of the coil.

𝛽
Since 𝐸 𝐴 = 𝐸 , 𝐸 𝑅 = 2𝐸𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ⁄2)
e. m. f. induced in short − pitch coil
𝑲𝒑 =
e. m. f. induced in full − pitch coil
𝛽⁄
= 2𝐸 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2) 𝛽⁄
2𝐸𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2)
𝖰
𝑲𝒑 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ⁄𝟐)
For a full-pitch winding, Kp = 1. However, for a short-pitch winding, Kp < 1.
Distribution Factor:
 A winding with only one slot per pole per phase is called a concentrated winding. In this
type of winding, the e.m.f. generated/phase is equal to the arithmetic sum of the individual
coil e.m.f.s in that phase.
However, if the coils/phase are distributed over several slots in space (distributed winding),
the e.m.f.s in the coils are not in phase (i.e., phase difference is not zero) but are displaced
from each by the slot angle α. The e.m.f./phase will be the phasor sum of coil e.m.f.s.

The ratio of the phasor sum of the emfs induced in all the coils distributed in a number of
slots under one pole to the arithmetic sum of the emfs induced(or to the resultant of emfs
induced in all coils concentrated in one slot under one pole) is known as breadth factor (Kb) or
distribution factor (Kd).The distribution factor is always less than unity.

e. m. f. with distributed windings

𝑲𝒅 =
e. m. f. with concentrated winding
Phasor sum of coilemf/phase
𝑲𝒅 =
Arithmatic sum of coilemf/phase

Expression for 𝑲𝒅:

Slot angle α: The angular displacement in electrical agrees between the adjacent slots is
called slot angle
𝟏𝟖𝟎°
Slot angle = 𝑎 =
No.of slots/pole

𝒎 = slots per pole per phase

Let m=3.The three coil e.m.f.s are phasors AB, BC and CD each of which is a chord of circle
with centre at O and subtends an angle a at O shown in phasor diagram. The phasor sum of
the coil e.m.f.s subtends an angle 𝑚𝛼 ( m= 3) at O. OX,OY perpendicular bisector of AD and
AB respectively.
𝐴𝐷 2×𝐴𝑋 𝐴𝑋
𝐾𝑑 = = =
𝑚×𝐴𝐵 (2𝐴𝑌) 𝑚𝐴𝑌

𝑂𝐴 × 𝑠𝑖(𝑚𝛼⁄2)
=
𝑚 × 𝑂𝐴 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼⁄2)
𝒎𝑎
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ( )
𝟐
𝑲𝒅 =
𝒎𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝑎)
𝟐

 A group of adjacent slots belonging to one phase under one pole pair is known as
Phase belt. The angle subtended by a phase belt is known as Phase spread.
Phase spread = 𝒎𝑎
Winding Factor: Both distribution factor (Kd) and pitch factor Kp together is known as
winding factorKw.

𝑲𝒘=𝑲𝒅 × 𝑲𝒑

Harmonics:
Harmonics are unwanted higher frequencies which superimposed on the fundamental
waveform creating a distorted wave pattern. The sources of harmonics in the output voltage
waveform are the non- sinusoidal waveform of the field flux.

When the uniformly sinusoidal distributed air gap flux is cut by either the stationary or
rotating armature sinusoidal EMF is induced in the alternator. Hence the nature of the
waveform of induced EMF and current is sinusoidal. But when the alternator is loaded
waveform will not continue to be sinusoidal or becomes non sinusoidal. Such non sinusoidal
wave form is called complex wave form. By using Fourier series representation, it is possible
to represent complex non sinusoidal waveform in terms of series of sinusoidal components
called harmonics, whose frequencies are integral multiples of fundamental wave.
The fundamental wave form is one which is having the frequency same as that of complex
wave. The waveform, which is of the frequency twice that of the fundamental is called
second harmonic. The one which is having the frequency three times that of the
fundamental is called third harmonic and so on. These harmonic components can be
represented as follows.

Fundamental: e1 = Em1 Sin (ωt ± θ1)

2nd Harmonic e2 = Em2 Sin (2ωt ± θ2)
3rd Harmonic e3 = Em3 Sin (3ωt ± θ3)
5th Harmonic e5 = Em5 Sin (5ωt ± θ5) etc.
In case of alternators as the field system and the stator coils are symmetrical the induced
EMF will also be symmetrical and hence the generated EMF in an alternator will not contain
any even harmonics.

Slot Harmonics:
As the armature or stator of an alternator is slotted, some harmonics are induced into the
EMF which is called slot harmonics. The presence of slot in the stator makes the air gap
reluctance at the surface of the stator non uniform. Since in case of alternators the poles are
moving or there is a relative motion between the stator and rotor, the slots and the teeth
alternately occupy any point in the air gap. Due to this the reluctance or the air gap will be
continuously varying. Due to this variation of reluctance ripples will be formed in the air gap
between the rotor and stator slots and teeth. This ripple formed in the air gap will induce
ripple EMF called slot harmonics.

Minimization of Harmonics:
To minimize the harmonics in the induced waveforms following methods are employed:
1. Distribution of stator winding: distribution of the armature winding along the air-gap
periphery
2. Short Chording: with coil-span less than pole pitch
3. Fractional slot winding
4. Skewing: skew the pole faces if possible
5. Larger air gap length: Small air gap at the pole centre and large air gap towards the
pole ends
Effect of Harmonics of pitch and distribution Factor:
β
 The pitch factor is given by 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 , where β is the chording angle.
2 𝑛β
For any harmonic say nth harmonic the pitch factor is given by 𝐾𝑝𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ,
2
sin 𝑚𝛼
( )
 The distribution factor is given by 𝐾𝑑 = 2𝛼
𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑚𝛼
th ( 2 )
For any harmonic say n harmonic the distribution factor is given by𝐾𝑑𝑛= 𝑛𝛼
𝑚𝑠𝑖( 2 )
E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator:

Let Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series per phase

∅ = Flux per pole in webers
P = Number of rotor poles
N = Rotor speed in r.p.m.

In one revolution (i.e., 60/N second), each stator conductor is cut by 𝑃∅, webers
i.e.,
60
𝑑∅ = 𝑃∅,𝑡 =
𝑁
𝑑∅
Average e.m.f. induced in one stator conductor =
𝑑𝑡

𝑃∅ 𝑃∅𝑁
= 60⁄ = volts
𝑁 60

Since there are Z conductors in series per phase,

𝑃∅𝑁
Average e.m.f./phase = ×𝑍
60
𝑃∅𝑍 120 𝑓 120 𝑓
= × [𝑁 = ]
60 𝑃 𝑃

= 2𝑓∅𝑍 volts
R.M.S. value of e.m.f./phase = Average value/phase x form factor

= 2𝑓∅𝑍 × 1.11 = 2.22𝑓∅𝑍 volts

𝐸𝑟.𝑚.𝑠⁄
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 =2.22𝑓∅𝑍 volts
Since, 𝑍 = 2𝑇

𝐸𝑟.𝑚.𝑠⁄
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4.44𝑓∅𝑇 volts

This is the general EMF equation for the machine having concentrated and full
pitchedwinding.

If 𝐾𝑝 and 𝐾𝑑 are the pitch factor and distribution factor of the armature winding,
then,

𝐸𝑟.𝑚.𝑠⁄
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 4.44𝐾𝑝𝐾𝑑𝑓∅𝑇 Volts
Armature Reaction in Alternator:

When an alternator is running at no-load, there will be no current flowing through the
armature winding and the flux produced in the air-gap will be only due to the rotor ampere-
turns.
When load current flows through the armature windings of an alternator, the resulting
mmf produces flux. This armature flux reacts with the main-pole flux, causing the resultant
flux to become either less than or more than the original main flux.

The effect of the armature (stator) flux on the flux produced by the rotor field poles is called
armature reaction.

Two things are worth noting about the armature reaction in an alternator.

 First, the armature flux and the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns rotate at the
same speed (synchronous speed) in the same direction and, therefore, the two
fluxes are fixed in space relative to each other.
 Secondly, the modification of flux in the air-gap due to armature flux depends on the
magnitude of stator current and on the power factor of the load. It is the load power
factor which determines whether the armature flux distorts, opposes or helps the
flux produced by rotor ampere-turns.
To illustrate this important point, we shall consider the following three cases:
1. When load P.f. is unity
2. When load P.f. is zero lagging
3. When load P.f. is zero leading
When load Power Factor is unity:
Fig:1(a)(i)showsanalternatoronnoload.Sincethearmatureisonopen-circuit,there is no stator
current and the flux due to rotor current is distributed symmetrically in the air-gap. Since the
direction of the rotor is assumed clockwise, the generated e.m.f. in phase R1R2 is at its
maximum and is towards the paper in the conductor R1 and outwards in conductor R2. No
armature flux is produced since no current flows in the armature winding.

Fig:1(a)
Fig:1(a)(ii) shows the effect when a resistive load (unity p.f.) is connected across the
terminals of the alternator. According to right hand rule, the current is “in” in the
conductors under N-pole and “out” in the conductors under S-pole. Therefore, the armature
flux is clockwise due to currents in the top conductors and anti clockwise due to currents in
the bottom conductors. The armature flux is at 90° to the main flux (due to rotor current)
and is behind the main flux.
In this case, the flux in the air-gap is distorted but not weakened. Therefore, at unity p.f., the
effect of armature reaction is merely to distort the main field; there is no weakening of the
main field and the average flux practically remains the same. Since the magnetic flux due to
stator currents (i.e., armature flux) rotate; synchronously with the rotor, the flux distortion
remains the same for all positions of the rotor.

Distorting effect of armature reaction

When load Power Factor is Zero lagging:

When a pure inductive load (zero P.f. lagging) is connected across the terminalsof the
alternator, current lags behind the voltage by 90°. This means that current will be maximum
at zero e.m.f. and vice-versa.

Fig:1(b)
Fig:1(b)(i) shows that in case of Resistive load the e.m.f. as well as current in phase R 1R2 is
maximum. When the alternator is supplying a pure inductive load, the current in phase R 1R2
will not reach its maximum value until N-pole advanced90° electrical which is shown in
Fig:1(b)(ii). Now the armature flux is from right to left and field flux is from left to right.All
the flux produced by armature current (i.e., armature flux) opposes the field flux and,
therefore, weakens it.
In other words, armature reaction is directly demagnetizing. Hence at zero P.f. lagging, the
armature reaction weakens the main flux. This causes a reduction in the generated e.m.f.

Demagnetizing effect of armature reaction

When load Power Factor is Zero leading:

When a pure capacitive load (zero P.f. leading) is connected across the terminals of the
alternator, the current in armature windings will lead the induced e.m.f. by 90°. The effect
of armature reaction will be the reverse that for pure inductive load. Thus armature flux
now aids the main flux and the generated e.m.f. is increased.

Fig:1(c)
When alternator supplying resistive load ,e.m.f. as well as current in phase R1R2 is maximum
in the position shown in fig:1(c)(i). When the alternator is supplying a pure capacitive load,
the maximum current in R1R2 will occur 90° electrical before the occurrence of maximum
induced e.m.f. Therefore, maximum current in phase R1R2 will occur if the position of the
rotor remains 90° behind as compared to its position under resistive load which is shown in
fig:1(c)(ii).
It is clear that armature flux is now in the same direction as the field flux and, therefore,
strengthens it. This causes an increase in the generated voltage. Hence at zero P.f. leading,
the armature reaction strengthens the main flux.

Magnetizing effect of armature reaction

For intermediate values of P.f, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly
weakening for inductive loads. For capacitive loads, the effect of armature reaction is partly
distorting and partly strengthening. In practice, loads are generally inductive load.
Alternator on Load:
When the load on the alternator is increased (i.e., armature current Ia is increased), the field
excitation and speed being kept constant, the terminal voltage V (phase value) of the
alternator decreases. This is due to
i. Voltage drop 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎where 𝑅𝑎 is the armature resistance per phase.
ii. Voltage drop 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐿 where 𝑋𝐿 is the armature leakage reactance per phase.
iii. Voltage drop because of armature reaction.

i. Armature Resistance (Ra)

Since the armature or stator winding has some resistance, there will be an IaRa drop
when current (Ia) flows through it. The armature resistance per phase is generally
small so that 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 drop is negligible for all practical purposes.
ii. Armature Leakage Reactance (XL)
When current flows through the armature winding, flux is set up and a part of it does
not cross the air-gap and links the coil sides. This leakage flux alternates with current
and gives the winding self-inductance. This is called armature leakage reactance.
Therefore, there will be 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐿 drop which is also effective in reducing the terminal
voltage.
iii. Armature reaction
The load is generally inductive and the effect of armature reaction is to reduce the
generated voltage. The armature reaction effect is accounted for by assuming the
presence of a fictitious reactance X AR in the armature winding. The quantity XAR is
called reactance of armature reaction. The value of IaXAR represents the voltage drop
due to armature reaction.

Equivalent Circuit:

E0 = No-load e.m.f.
E = Load induced e.m.f. It is the induced e.m.f. after allowing for armature reaction. It is
equal to phasor difference of E0 and IaXAR.
V = Terminal voltage. It is less than E by voltage drops in XL and Ra.
E  V  Ia (Ra  j XL )
and E0  E Ia ( jXAR )
Synchronous Reactance (Xs)and Synchronous Impedance:
The sum of armature leakage reactance (XL) and reactance of armature reaction (XAR) is
called synchronous reactance Xs. All quantities are per phase.
Xs  XL  XAR

The synchronous reactance is a fictitious reactance employed to account for the voltage
effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature leakage reactance and the
change in the air-gap flux caused by armature reaction.

The synchronous impedance is the fictitious impedance employed to account for the voltage
effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature resistance, the actual
armature leakage reactance and the change in the air-gap flux produced by armature
reaction.
Synchronous impedance, Zs = Ra + j Xs
E0  V  IaZs  V  Ia (Ra  j Xs)

Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator:

E0 is the no-load voltage. It is the maximum voltage induced in the armature without giving
any load.
E is the load voltage. It is the induced voltage after overcoming the armature reaction. E is
vectorially less than the no-load voltage.
Ia is the armature current per phase
V is the terminal voltage. It is vectorially less than E by IaZ and also vectorially less
than E0 by IaZS.
Φ is the cosine angle between terminal voltage and current.
The impedances are given by

𝑍 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿

𝑍𝑠 = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠

where XL is the leakage reactance, XAR is the armature reaction reactance and XS is the
synchronous reactance and ZS is the synchronous impedance.

Unity power factor load:

The armature current Ia is in phase with the terminal voltage V. The phasor sum of V and
drops IaRa and IaXL gives the load induced voltage E. It is the induced e.m.f. after allowing
for armature reaction. The phasor sum of E and IaXAR gives the no-load e.m.f. E0.

𝑬𝟎 = √((𝑽 + 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂)𝟐 + (𝑰𝒂𝑿𝒔)𝟐)

Lagging power factor load:

The armature current Ia lags the terminal voltage V by p.f. angle Ф. The phasor sum of V and
drops IaRa and IaXL gives the load induced voltage E. It is the induced e.m.f. after allowing
for armature reaction. The phasor sum of E and IaXAR gives the no-load e.m.f. E0.

𝑬𝟎 = √((𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ + 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂)𝟐 + (𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ + 𝑰𝒂𝑿𝒔)𝟐)

Leading power factor load:

The armature current Ia leads the terminal voltage V by p.f. angle Ф. The phasor sum of V
and drops IaRa and IaXL gives the load induced voltage E. It is the induced e.m.f. after
allowing for armature reaction. The phasor sum of E and IaXAR gives the no-load e.m.f. E0.

𝑬𝟎 = √((𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ + 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂)𝟐 + (𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ − 𝑰𝒂𝑿𝒔)𝟐)

Testing of Alternator:

The following tests are performed on an alternator to know its performance.

a) D.C resistance test

b) Open circuit test
c) Short circuit test

a) D.C resistance test:

The armature resistance Ra per phase is determined by using direct current and the
voltmeter-ammeter method. This is the d.c. value. The effective armature resistance (a.c.
resistance) is greater than this value due to skin effect. It is 1.5 times the d.c. value
(Rac = 1.5Rdc).

b) Open circuit test:

The alternator is run on no-load at the rated synchronous speed and terminals are kept
open. The field current If is gradually increased from zero (by adjusting field rheostat) until
open-circuit voltage E0(phase value) is about 50% greater than the rated phase voltage. A
graph is drawn between open-circuit voltage values and the corresponding values of field
current If. The characteristic curve so obtained is called open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C).
This open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C) takes the shape of a the magnetization curve for a
d.c. machine. The extension of the linear portion of an O.C.C is called the air-gap line of the
characteristic.
 Fig: O.C.C of an Alternator

c) Short circuit test:

In a short-circuit test, the alternator is run at rated speed and the armature terminals are
short-circuited through identical ammeters. The field current If isgradually increased from
zero until the short-circuit armature current ISC is abouttwice the rated current. The graph
between short-circuit armature current andfield current gives the short-circuit
characteristic. This characteristic is a straight line.
 Fig: S.C.C of an alternator

Short-Circuit Ratio:
The short-circuit ratio is defined as the ratio of the field current required to produce rated
volts on open circuit to field current required to circulate full-load current with the armature
short-circuited.
𝐼𝑓𝑜𝑐
Short-circuit ratio (S.C.R) =
𝐼𝑓𝑠𝑐

Voltage Regulation of Alternator:

The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from
no-load to full-load divided by the full-load voltage when the speed and field current
remaining constant.
𝑁𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒−𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
% Voltage Regulation = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 100

𝐸0 − 𝑉
= × 100
𝑉
Where 𝐸0= No load voltage per phase
𝑉= Terminal voltage per phase
The factors affecting the voltage regulation of an alternator are:
i. 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎drop in armature winding
ii. 𝐼𝑎𝑋𝐿drop in armature winding
iii. Voltage change due to armature reaction

The change in terminal voltage due to armature reaction depends upon the armature
current as well as power-factor of the load. For leading load P.f., the no-load voltage is less
than the full-load voltage. Hence voltage regulation is negative in this case.
Determination of Voltage Regulation:

Direct Load Test:

The alternator runs at synchronous speed, and its terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated
value V. The load is varied until the Ammeter and Wattmeter indicate the rated values at
the given power factor. The load is removed, and the speed and the field excitation are kept
constant. The value of the open circuit or no load voltage (𝐸0)is recorded.

𝐸0−𝑉
% Voltage Regulation = × 100
𝑉

The method of direct loading is suitable only for small alternators of the power rating less
than 5 kVA.

Indirect Methods:
For large alternators, there are three indirect methods of determining the voltage regulation
of an alternator. These methods require only a small amount of power as compared to the
power required for direct loading method.These methods are:

1. Synchronous impedance or E.M.F. method

2. Ampere-turn or M.M.F. method
3. Zero power factor method or Potier method

Synchronous impedance or E.M.F. method:

In this method of finding the voltage regulation of an alternator, we find the synchronous
impedance Zs (and hence synchronous reactance Xs) of the alternator from the O.C.C. and
S.S.C. For this reason, it is called synchronous impedance method.
The method involves the following steps:
(i) Plot the O.C.C. and S.S.C. on the same field current base.
(ii) Determination of synchronous impedance Zs:
As the terminals of the stator are short circuited in SC test, the short circuit current is
circulated against the impedance of the stator called the synchronous impedance. This
impedance can be estimated form the O.C and S.C characteristics.

The ratio of open circuit voltage to the short circuit current at a particular field current, or at
a field current responsible for circulating the rated current is called the synchronous
impedance.
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
Synchronous impedance 𝑍 = 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 for same 𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑐
𝑍 = for same 𝐼
𝑠 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑓

(iii) Synchronous Reactance

𝑿𝒔 = √𝒁𝒔𝟐 − 𝑹𝒂𝟐

(iv) After knowing Ra and Xs, the phasor diagram can be drawn for any load and any p.f.
The phasor sum of terminal voltage V, IaRa and IaXs gives the no-load e.m.f. E0.

𝐸0−𝑉
% Voltage Regulation = × 100
𝑉
Drawback:
This method if easy but it gives approximate results. Thecombined effect of XL(armature
leakage reactance) and XAR(reactance ofarmature reaction) is measured on short-circuit.
Since the current in thiscondition is almost lagging 90°, the armature reaction will provide
itsdemagnetizing effect. This method gives a value higher than the value obtained from an
actual load test. For this reason, it is called pessimistic method.
Parallel Operation of Alternators:
The method of connecting an incoming alternator safely to the live busbar is known as
synchronizing. Certain conditions must be fulfilled before this can be effected. The incoming
machine must have its voltage and frequency equal to that of the bus bars and, should be in
same phase with bus bar voltage. The instruments or apparatus for determining when these
conditions are fulfilled are called synchro scopes. Synchronizing can be done with the help
of (i) dark & bright lamp methodby(ii) using synchro scope

Advantages of Parallel operation of Alternators:

a) Continuity of service: The continuity of service is one of the important requirements
of any electrical apparatus. If one alternator fails, the continuity of supply can be
maintained through the other healthy units. This will ensure uninterrupted supply to
the consumers.
b) Efficiency: The load on the power system varies during the whole day; being
minimum during late night hours. Since alternators operate most efficiently when
delivering full-load, units can be added or put off depending upon the load
requirement. This permits the efficient operation of the power system.
c) Maintenance and repair: It is often desirable to carry out routine maintenance and
repair of one or more units. For this purpose, the desired unit/units can be shut
down and the continuity of supply is maintained through the other units.
d) Load growth: The load demand is increasing due to the increasing use of electrical
energy. The load growth can be met by adding more units without disturbing the
original installation.
Conditions for Paralleling Alternator with Infinite Busbars:
For proper synchronization of alternators, the following four conditions must be satisfied

1. The terminal voltage (r.m.s. value) of the incoming alternator must be the same as
bus bars voltage.
2. The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to
the bus bars frequency.
3. The phase of the incoming alternator voltage must be identical with the phase of the
bus bars voltage. In other words, the two voltages must be in phase with each other.
4. The phase sequence of the voltage of the incoming alternator should be the same as
that of the bus bars.
The magnitude of the voltage of the incoming alternator can be adjusted by changing its
field excitation. The frequency of the incoming alternator can be changed by adjusting the
speed of the prime mover driving the alternator.

Methods of Synchronization:
The method of connecting an incoming alternator safely to the live bus bars is called
synchronizing. The equality of voltage between the incoming alternator and the bus bars
can be easily checked by a voltmeter. The phase sequence of the alternator and the bus bars
can be checked by a phase sequence indicator. Differences in frequency and phase of the
voltages of the incoming alternator and bus bars can be checked by one of the following two
methods:
 i. By Dark & Bright Lamp method
ii. By Synchroscope

i. By Dark & Bright Lamp method:

In three phase alternators, it is necessary to synchronize one phase only, the other two
phases will be then synchronized automatically. However, first it is necessary that the
incoming alternator is correctly ‘phased out’ i.e. the phases are connected in the proper
order of R, Y &B not R, B, Y etc.

In this method of synchronizing, three lamps L1, L2 and L3 are connected as shown in Fig.
below. The lamp L1 is straight connected between the corresponding phases (R1 and R2)
and the other two are cross-connected between the other two phases. Thus lamp L2 is
connected between Y1 and B2 and lamp L3 between B1 and Y2. When the frequency and
phase of the voltage of the incoming alternator is the same as that of the bus bars, the
straight connected lamps L1 will be dark while cross-connected lamps L2 and L3 will be
equally bright. At this instant, the synchronization is perfect and the switch of the incoming
alternator can be closed to connect it to the bus bars.

Phasors R1, Y1 and B1 represent the bus bars voltages and phasorsR2, Y2 and B2 represent
the voltages of the incoming alternator. At the instant when R1 is in phase with R2, voltage
across lamp L1 is zero and voltages across lamps L2 and L3 are equal. Therefore, the lamp L1
is dark while lamps L2 and L3 will be equally bright. At this instant, the switch of the
incoming alternator can be closed. Thus incoming alternator gets connected in parallel with
the bus bars.
 ii. By Synchroscope:
A synchro scope is an instrument that indicates by means of a revolving pointer the phase
difference and frequency difference between the voltages of the incoming alternator and
the bus bars.

It is essentially-a small motor, the field being supplied from the bus bars through a potential
transformer and the rotor from the incoming alternator. A pointer is attached to the rotor.
When the incoming alternator is running fast (i.e., frequency of the incoming alternator is
higher than that of the bus bars), the rotor and hence the pointer moves in the clockwise
direction. When the incoming alternator is running slow (i.e., frequency of the incoming
alternator is lower than that of the bus bars), the pointer moves in anti-clockwise direction.
When the frequency of the incoming alternator is equal to that of the bus bars, no torque
acts on the rotor and the pointer points vertically upwards (“12 O’ clock”). It indicates the
correct instant for connecting the incoming alternator to the bus bars. The synchroscope
method is superior to the lamp method because it not only gives a positive indication ofthe
time to close the switch but also indicates the adjustment to be made should there be a
difference between the frequencies of the incoming alternator and the bus bars.

Sharing of Load Currents by Two Alternators in Parallel:

Consider two alternators with identical speed/load characteristics connected in Parallel.
Let
𝑬𝟏,𝟐 = induced e.m.f.s per phase
𝒁𝟏,𝟐 = synchronous impedances per phase
𝒁 = load impedance per phase
𝑰𝟏,𝟐 = currents supplied by two machines
𝑽 = common terminal voltage per phase

𝑽 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑰𝟏𝒁𝟏=𝑬𝟐 − 𝑰𝟐𝒁𝟐
𝑬𝟏−𝑽 𝑬𝟐−𝑽
𝑰 𝟏= ; 𝑰𝟐=
𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐
𝐈=𝑰 +𝑰 = 𝑬𝟏−𝑽
+
𝑬𝟐−𝑽
𝟏 𝟐 𝒁𝟏 𝒁𝟐

𝑽 = (𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐)𝒁 = 𝑰𝒁

Circulating current on no-load is

𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐
𝑰𝒄 =
𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝟐
 CHAPTER-2
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Constructional feature of Synchronous Motor:
A synchronous motor is a machine that operates at synchronous speed and converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. As the name implies, a synchronous motor runs at synchronous
speed (Ns = 120f/P) i.e., in synchronism with the revolving field produced by the 3-phase
supply.

Like an alternator, a synchronous motor has the following two parts:

(i) a stator which houses 3-phase armature winding in the slots of the stator core and
receives power from a 3-phase supply.
(ii) a rotor that has a set of salient poles excited by direct current to form alternate N and S
poles. The exciting coils are connected in series to two slip rings and direct current is fed
into the winding from an external exciter mounted on the rotor shaft. The stator is
wound for the same number of poles as the rotor poles.

Some salient features of a synchronous motor are:

(i) A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed. Its speed is constant (synchronous
speed) at all loads. The only way to change its speed is to alter the supply frequency
(Ns = 120 f/P).
(ii) The characteristic of a synchronous motor is that it can be made to operate over a wide
range of power factors (lagging, unity or leading) by adjustment of its field excitation.
Therefore, a synchronous motor can be made to carry the mechanical load at constant
speed and at the same time improve the power factor of the system.
(iii) Synchronous motors are generally of the salient pole type.
(iv) A synchronous motor is not self-starting and an auxiliary means has to be used for
starting it.
Principles of operation:
Consider a 3-phase synchronous motor having two rotor poles NR and SR. Then the stator will
also be wound for two poles NS and SS.The armature winding of a 3-phase synchronous motor is
connected to a suitable balanced 3-phase source and the field winding to a D.C source of rated
voltage. When a 3 phase armature winding is fed by a 3 phase supply then a magnetic field of
constant magnitude but rotating synchronous speed is produced in the stator. Consider two
stator pole Ns and Ss rotating at synchronous speed in clockwise direction. The direct current
sets up a two-pole field which is stationary. Thus, there exists a pair of revolving armature poles
(i.e., NS- SS) and a pair of stationary rotor poles (i.e., NR- SR).

Suppose at any instant, the stator poles are at positions A and B as shown in Fig.(i). It is clear
that poles NS and NR as well as the poles SS and SR will repel each other. Therefore, the rotor
tends to move in the anticlockwise direction. After a period of half-cycle (or 1/2f = 1/100
second), the polarities of the stator poles are reversed but the polarities of the rotor poles
remain the same as shown in Fig.(ii). Now SS attracts NR and NS attracts SR. Therefore, the rotor
tends to move in the clockwise direction. Since the stator poles change their polarities rapidly,
they tend to pull the rotor first in one direction and then after a period of half-cycle in the
other. Due to high inertia of the rotor, the motor fails to start.

Hence, a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque i.e., a synchronous motor cannot start
by itself.

Motor on Load:
In d.c. motors and induction motors, an addition of load causes the motor speed to decrease.
The decrease in speed reduces the counter e.m.f. enough so that additional current is drawn
from the source to carry the increased load at a reduced speed. This action cannot take place in
a synchronous motor because it runs at a constant speed (i.e., synchronous speed) at all loads.
The rotor poles fall slightly behind the stator poles while continuing to run at synchronous
speed. The angular displacement between stator and rotor poles (called torque angle δ) causes
the phase of back e.m.f. Eb to change w.r.t. supply voltage V. This increases the net e.m.f. Er in
the stator winding. Consequently, stator current Ia ( = Er/Zs) increases to carry the load.

δ δ

δ δ
The following points may be noted in synchronous motor operation:
i. A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed at all loads. It meets the increased load
not by a decrease in speed but by the relative shift between stator and rotor poles i.e.,
by the adjustment of torque angle δ.
ii. If the load on the motor increases, the torque angle δ also increases (i.e., rotor poles lag
behind the stator poles by a greater angle) but the motor continues to run at
synchronous speed. The increase in torque angle δ causes a greater phase shift of back
e.m.f. Eb w.r.t. supply voltage V. This increases the net voltage Er in the stator winding.
Consequently, armature current Ia (= Er/Zs) increases to meet the load demand.
iii. If the load on the motor decreases, the torque angle δ also decreases. This causes a
smaller phase shift of Eb w.r.t. V. Consequently, the net voltage Erin the stator winding
decreases and so does the armature current Ia (=Er/Zs).

Load angle (or Torque angle):

The load angle is defined as the angle between Induced EMF and terminal voltage.For a
synchronous generator, rotor field and stator field are rotated at synchronous speed. These
two fields are not fully aligned. The stator field lags the rotor field. This lagging expressed in
angle is called load angle. This angle is represented by δ.

The power developed by the generator is directly proportional to sine of this angle. This angle
plays an important role for the stability of the generator. If the angle goes beyond 90º, the
generator becomes unstable. This may happen when sudden change of large load occurs or
fault sustains longer time.
For the case of synchronous motor, the angle is called torque angle and the rotor field lags the
stator field in this case.

Equivalent Circuit:
The synchronous motor is connected to two electrical systems; a d.c. source at the rotor
terminals and an a.c. system at the stator terminals.
1. Under normal conditions of synchronous motor operation, no voltage is induced in the
rotor by the stator field because the rotor winding is rotating at the same speed as the
stator field. Only the impressed direct current is present in the rotor winding and ohmic
resistance of this winding is the only opposition to it as shown in Fig.(i).
2. In the stator winding, two effects are to be considered, the effect of stator field on the
stator winding and the effect of the rotor field cutting the stator conductors at
synchronous speed.

i. The effect of stator field on the stator (or armature) conductors is accounted for by
including an inductive reactance in the armature winding. This is called synchronous
reactance Xs. A resistance Ra must be considered to be in series with this reactance to
account for the copper losses in the stator or armature winding. This resistance
combines with synchronous reactance and gives the synchronous impedance of the
machine.
ii. The second effect is that a voltage is generated in the stator winding by the
synchronously-revolving field of the rotor as shown in Fig.(ii).This generated e.m.f. E b is
known as back e.m.f. and opposes the stator voltage V. The magnitude of Eb depends
upon rotor speed and rotor fluxΦ per pole. Since rotor speed is constant; the value of Eb
depends upon the rotor flux per pole i.e. exciting rotor current If.

For synchronous motor

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎𝑍𝑠
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎(𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠)
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎 − 𝑗𝐼𝑎𝑋𝑠
𝑍𝑠 = √𝑅𝑎2 + 𝑋𝑠2
A synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that 𝐸𝑏= V. If
the field excitation is such that𝐸𝑏< V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor is said to
be over-excited if the field excitation is such that 𝐸𝑏> V.

For both normal and under excitation, the motor has lagging power factor. However, for over-
excitation, the motor has leading power factor.

Phasor Diagram of a Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Motor:

Unity power factor:
At unity power factor, the current I, drawn by the motor is in phase with supply voltage V.

OM2=OL2+LM2
𝑬𝒃𝟐 = (𝑽 − 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂)𝟐 + (𝑰𝒂𝑿𝒔)𝟐

Lagging power factor cosΦ:

Suppose that the synchronous motor is taking a lagging current from the supply. V is taken as reference
phasor.For lagging power factor cos Ф, the direction of armature current I, lags behind V by an angle Φ.

OD2 = OM2+MD2=OM2+NF2
= (ON-MN)2+(NA-FA)2
𝑬𝒃𝟐 = (𝑽𝑪𝑶𝑺∅ − 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂)𝟐+(𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ − 𝑰𝒂𝑿𝒔)𝟐
Leading power factor cosΦ:
When the motor is operating at leading power factor cosΦ, the current I, drawn by the motor leads the
supply voltage V by the phase angle Φ.

OL2 =ON2+NL2 = (OK-NK)2+(KB+BM)2

𝑬𝒃𝟐 = (𝑽𝑪𝑶𝑺∅ − 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂)𝟐+(𝑽𝒔𝒊𝒏∅ + 𝑰𝒂𝑿𝒔)𝟐

Determination of 𝑬𝒃, by using complex algebra:

The Back emf is given by

Salient Pole Synchronous Machine:

A multipolar machine with cylindrical rotor has a uniform air-gap, because of which its
reactance remains the same, irrespective of the spatial position of the rotor. However, a
synchronous machine with salient or projecting poles has non-uniform air-gap due to which its
reactance varies with the rotor position.
Consequently, a cylindrical rotor machine possesses one axis of symmetry (pole axis or direct
axis) whereas salient-pole machine possesses two axes of geometric symmetry (i) field poles
axis, called direct axis or d-axis and (ii) axis passing through the centre of the interpolar space,
called the quadrature axis or q-axis.
The axis along the axis of the rotor is called direct (or d-) axis and the axis perpendicular to d-
axis is called the quadrature (or q-) axis. Along the d-axis air gap is small and along the q axis air
gap is large. The magnetic reluctance is low along the poles and high between the poles.
Two mmfs act on a salient-pole synchronous machine i.e. d-axis m.m.f. and q-axis m.m.f. The
above facts form the basis of the two-reaction theory proposed by Blondel,
Two-Reaction Theory (Blondel Theory):
Two-reaction theory proposes to resolve the given armature mmfs (𝑭𝒂) into two mutually
perpendicular components, with one located along the axis of the rotor salient pole. It is known
as the direct-axis (or d-axis) component (𝑭𝒅). The other component is located perpendicular to
the axis of the rotor salient pole. It is known as the quadrature-axis (or q-axis) component (𝑭𝒒).
The component 𝑭𝒅 is either magnetizing or demagnetizing. The Component𝑭𝒒, results in a
cross-magnetising effect.
If Ψ is the angle between the armature current Ia, and the excitation voltage 𝑬𝒇 and 𝑭𝒂 is the
amplitude of the armature mmf, then
𝑭𝒅 = 𝑭𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑇
𝑭𝒒 = 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝑇

Phasor Diagram of a Salient-pole Synchronous Motor:

The equivalent circuit of a salient-pole synchronous Motor is shown in Fig: below. The
component currents I d and Iq provide component voltage drops jIdXd and jIqXq .The armature
current Ia has been resolved into its rectangular components with respect to the axis for
excitation voltage 𝑬𝒃 .The angle 𝑇 between 𝑬𝒃 and Ia is known as the internal power factor
angle. The vector for the armature resistance drop I aRa is drawn parallel to Ia. Vector for the
drop IdXd is drawn perpendicular to Id whereas that for Iq x Xq is drawn perpendicular to Iq. The
angle δ between 𝑬𝒃 and Vis called the torque angle.
The voltage equation for a salient pole synchronous motor is
𝑽 = 𝑬𝒃 + 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂 + 𝒋𝑰𝒅𝑿𝒅 + 𝒋𝑰𝒒𝑿𝒒 [𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝒅 + 𝑰𝒒]
If Ra is neglected then

𝑽 = 𝑬𝒃 + 𝒋𝑰𝒅𝑿𝒅 + 𝒋𝑰𝒒𝑿𝒒

Similarly, The voltage equation for a salient pole synchronous Generator is

𝑬𝟎 = 𝑽 + 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂 + 𝒋𝑰𝒅𝑿𝒅 + 𝒋𝑰𝒒𝑿𝒒

The voltage equation for a salient pole synchronous motor is
𝑽 = 𝑬𝒃 + 𝑰𝒂𝑹𝒂 + 𝒋𝑰𝒅𝑿𝒅 + 𝒋𝑰𝒒𝑿𝒒

a) Lagging power factor cosФ

Fig: Phasor diagram of a salient-pole synchronous motor at lagging pf cosФ

Fig: Phasor diagram of a salient-pole synchronous motor at lagging pf cosФ neglecting the
armature resistance Ra

b) Leading power factor cosФ

Fig: Phasor diagram ofa salient-pole synchronous motor at leading pf cosФ

Fig: Phasor diagram of a salient-pole synchronous motor at leading pf cosФ neglecting the
armature resistance Ra
 c) Unity power factor:

Fig: Phasor diagram of a salient-pole synchronous motor at unity pf cosФ neglecting the
armature resistance Ra

Synchronous Motor Torque:

The following torques are considered in the selection of a synchronous motor for a particular
application:
1. Locked-rotor torque
2. Running torque
3. Pull-in torque
4. Pull-out torque

Locked Rotor Torque

It is the minimum torque at any angular rotor position that is developed with the rotor locked
(i.e., stationary) and rated voltage at rated frequency is applied to the terminals. This torque is
provided by the stator windings.
Running Torque
It is the torque developed by the motor under running conditions. It is determined by the
power rating and speed of the driven machine.
Pull-in torque
A synchronous motor is started as induction motor till it runs 2 to 5 percent below the
synchronous speed. The d.c. excitation is then applied and the rotor pulls into step with the
synchronously rotating stator field. The pull-in torque is the maximum constant torque at rated
voltage and frequency under which a motor will pull a connected load into synchronism when
the d.c. motor excitation is applied.
Pull-out torque
It is the maximum value of torque which a synchronous motor can develop at rated voltage and
frequency without losing synchronism.
If 𝑇𝑔is the gross armature torque developed by the motor,
𝑇𝑔 × 2𝜋𝑁𝑠 = 𝑃𝑚
𝑃𝑚
𝑇𝑔 = (𝑁𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑠)
2𝜋𝑁𝑠
𝑃𝑚
𝑇𝑔 = (𝑁𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑝𝑚)
2𝜋𝑁𝑠⁄
60
60
𝑃 𝑚
𝑇𝑔 = 2𝜋 ×
𝑁𝑠
𝑃𝑚
Gross torque,𝑔 = 9.55 𝑁−𝑚
𝑁𝑠

Where 𝑃𝑚 =Gross motor output in watts = 𝐸𝑏𝐼𝑎𝑐𝑜(𝛿 − ∅)

𝑁𝑠 = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
Shaft torque = 𝑇𝑠ℎ = 9.55 𝑁−𝑚
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑁𝑠
It may be seen that torque is directly proportional to the mechanical power because rotor
speed (i.e., Ns) is fixed.

Mechanical Power Developed by Motor:

Power Developed by a Cylindrical rotor Synchronous Motor:

Except for very small machines, the armature resistance of a synchronous motor is negligible as
compared to its synchronous reactance. The phasor diagram of an under-excited synchronous
motor driving a mechanical load neglecting the armature resistance is shown below.
 𝑋𝑠
Since armature resistance Ra is assumed zero.tanθ = =∞
𝑅𝑎
and hence θ = 90°
Input power/phase = 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Since Ra is assumed zero, stator Cu loss(𝐼𝑎2𝑅𝑎) will be zero. Hence input power is
equal to the mechanical power Pm developed by the motor.
Mechanical power developed/ phase, 𝑃𝑚= 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
From the phasor diagram
AB =𝐸𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ =𝐼𝑎𝑋𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Also AB =𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿

𝐼𝑎𝑋𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝐼𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ =
𝑋𝑠
𝑉𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑋𝑠
3𝑉𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑃𝑚 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑋𝑠
It is clear from the above relation that mechanical power increases with torque angle (in
electrical degrees) and its maximum value is reached when d = 90°(electrical).

𝑉𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋𝑠
Power Developed by a Salient-pole Synchronous Motor:
The expressions for the power developed by a salient-pole synchronous motor is same as a salient-pole
synchronous generator. The phasor diagram at lagging pf for a salient-pole synchronous
generator, neglecting Ra is shown below.
The above equations are applicable to both Salient pole synchronous generator and
synchronous motor. The torque angle δ is positive for the generator and negative for the
motor.
( − )is called saliency. The saliency disappears when 𝑋 = 𝑋
𝟏
𝑑 𝑞
𝑿𝒒 𝑿𝒅
The first term of P1Фis same as that of cylindrical rotor machine and is called the excitation
power and the second term the reluctance power.
Effect of varying load with constant excitation:
A synchronous motor runs at absolutely constant synchronous speed, regardless of the load.
Let us examine the effect of load change on the motor.
Consider a synchronous motor operating initially with a leading power factor. The phasor
diagram for leading power factor neglecting Ra is shown below.

Suppose that the load on the shaft is increased. The rotor slows down momentarily since it
takes some time for the motor to take increased power from the line. In other words, although
still rotating at synchronous speed, the rotor slips back in space result of increased loading. In
this process the torque angle δ becomes larger and therefore the induced torque (𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑑 =
𝑉𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
)increases. The increased torque increases the rotor speed and the motor again picks up
𝜔𝑋𝑠
the synchronous speed but with a larger torque angle δ. Since the excitation voltage(back
emf)𝐸𝑏, is proportional to Φω, it only depends upon the field current and the speed of the
motor. Since the motor is moving with a constant synchronous speed, and since the field the
field current remains constant. Therefore, the magnitude of excitation voltage E remains
constant with the change in load on the shaft.
𝑉𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
We have 𝑃= 𝑋𝑠
= 𝑉𝐼𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠
𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 = 𝑃 = 𝐾𝑃where𝐾 = 𝑃 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑏 𝑉 𝑉
These relations show that the increase in P increases 𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 and 𝐼𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠∅.The locus of 𝐸𝑏, is
shown in Fig. below. It is seen from Fig. that with the increase of the load, the quantity 𝑗𝐼𝑎𝑋𝑠,
goes on increasing so that the relation V=𝐸𝑏 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎𝑋𝑠, is satisfied and therefore the armature
current 𝐼𝑎, also increases. It is also seen from Fig. that the power factor angle ∅ also changes. It
becomes less and less leading and then becomes more and more lagging.
 𝑉𝐸𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 𝑋𝑠
𝑃= , 𝐸𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 =
𝑉
𝑃 = 𝐾𝑃
𝑋𝑠

Thus, when the load on a synchronous motor is increased,

(i) The motor continues to run at synchronous speed
(ii) The torque angle δ increases.
(iii) The excitation voltage remains constant.
(iv) The armature current𝐼𝑎 drawn from the supply increases.
(v) The phase angle Φ increases in the lagging direction.
There is a limit to the mechanical load that can be applied to asynchronous motor. As the load
is increased, the torque angle δ also increases till a stage is reached when the rotor is pulled out
of synchronism and the motor is stopped.

Effect of varying excitation with constant load:

In a d.c. motor, the armature current 𝐼𝑎 is determined by dividing the difference between V and
𝐸𝑏by the armature resistance Ra. Similarly, in a synchronous motor, the stator
current(𝐼𝑎)isdetermined by dividing voltage-phasor resultant (𝐸𝑟) between V and 𝐸𝑏 by the
synchronous impedance 𝑍𝑠.
One of the most important features of a synchronous motor is that by changing the field
excitation, it can be made to operate from lagging to leading power factor.
Suppose a synchronous motor is operating with normal excitation (Eb = V) at unity p.f. with a
given load shown in fig(a). If 𝑅𝑎 is negligible as compared to 𝑋𝑠, then𝐼𝑎 lags 𝐸𝑟 by 90°and is in
phase with V because p.f. is unity. The armature is drawing a power of 𝑉𝐼𝑎 per phase which is
enough to meet the mechanical load on the motor .Now let us discuss the effect of decreasing
or increasing the field excitation when the load applied to the motor remains constant.
a) Excitation Decreased
Suppose due to decrease in excitation, back e.m.f. is reduced to 𝐸𝑏1 at the same load angle 𝛿1
as shown in fig(b). The resultant voltage 𝐸𝑟1 causes a lagging armature current 𝐼𝑎1 to flow. Even
though 𝐼𝑎1 is larger than 𝐼𝑎 in magnitude it is incapable of producing necessary power𝑉𝐼𝑎for
carrying the constant load because 𝐼𝑎1𝑐𝑜𝑠∅1component is less than 𝐼𝑎 so that𝑉𝐼𝑎1𝑐𝑜𝑠∅1 <
𝑉𝐼𝑎.
Hence, it becomes necessary for load angle to increase from 𝛿1𝑡𝑜 𝛿2. It increases back e.m.f.
from 𝐸𝑏1 to𝐸𝑏2 which in turn, increases resultant voltage from 𝐸𝑟1𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑟2.Consequently,
armature current increases to 𝐼𝑎2 whose in-phase component produces enough power
(𝑉𝐼𝑎2𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2) to meet the constant load on the motor.
b) ExcitationIncreased
The effect of increasing field excitation is shown in Fig.(c) where increased 𝐸𝑏1 is shown at the original
load angle 𝛿1. The resultant voltage 𝐸𝑟1causes a leading current 𝐼𝑎1 whose in-phase component is
larger than 𝐼𝑎. Hence, armature develops more power than the load on the motor. Accordingly, load
angle decreases from 𝛿1𝑡𝑜 𝛿2, which decreases resultant voltage from 𝐸𝑟1𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑟2. Consequently,
armature current decreases from 𝐼𝑎1to 𝐼𝑎2 whose in-phase component 𝑉𝐼𝑎2𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2 = 𝐼𝑎. The armature
develops power sufficient to carry the constant load on the motor.
Hence, we find that variations in the excitation of a synchronous motor running with a given load
produce variation in its load angle only.

𝛿1

𝛿2

𝛿1

𝛿2 𝛿1
V- Curves and Inverted V-Curves:
Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field winding of
synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (Ia) against field current
(If) is plotted, then its shape looks like an English alphabet V. If such graphs are obtained at
various load conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are called V-
curves of synchronous motor.
The V-curves of a synchronous motor show how armature current varies with its field current
when motor input is kept constant.

When the level of field excitation of a synchronous motor is changed from under excitation to
over excitation for a constant load, then
i. When the motor is under excited i.e.(𝐸𝑏 < 𝑉) the PF is lagging. In this case the
synchronous motor behaves like an inductive load.
ii. During normal excitation(𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉), the PF is unity. In this case I𝑎 will be minimum and it
is in phase with terminal voltage.
iii. When the motor is over excited i.e.(𝐸𝑏 > 𝑉) the PF is leading. In this case the
synchronous motor behaves like capacitive load.In over excited state the synchronous
motor will deliver load torque and improves the PF of a 3-phase supply.

If the power factor (cos Φ) is plotted against field current 𝐼𝑓, then the shape of the graph looks
like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting p.f. against 𝐼𝑓at various load conditions are
called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor.
Typically, the synchronous machine V-curves are provided by the manufacturer so that the user
can determine the resulting operation under a given set of conditions.
Power angle characteristics of cylindrical rotor motor:
The power output of an alternator is given by:
𝑉𝐸𝑏
Power output/phase, 𝑃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑋𝑠
3𝑉𝐸𝑏
Total power output = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑋𝑠
The power output varies sinusoidally with power angle δ. The synchronous motor delivers
maximum power when δ= 90°. If δbecomes greater than 90°, the machine will lose
synchronism. The dotted portion of the curve refers to unstable operation, i.e., machine loses
synchronism.

Stability of the synchronous motor is determined by the power/power angle characteristic.

Suppose the operating position of the alternator is represented by point P on the curve. If
unsteadiness occurs due to a transient spike of mechanical input, then load angle δincreases
bya small amount. The additional electrical output caused by an increase in δproduces a torque
which is not balanced by the driving torque once the spike has passed. This torque causes
retardation of the rotor and the synchronous motor returns to the operating point P. The
torque causing the return of the synchronous motor to the steady-state position is called the
synchronizing torque and the power associated with it is known as synchronizing power.

Power angle characteristics of Salient pole synchronous motor:

The real power of Salient pole synchronous motor per phase is given by
𝑉2 1 1
𝑃1∅ = 𝑉𝐸 0
𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + [ − ] 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿
𝑑 2 𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑

The Excitation power per phase

𝑉𝐸0
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑋𝑑
Reluctance power per phase
𝑉2 1 1
= [ − ] 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿
2 𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
.
It is clear that reluctance power varies with at twice the rate of the excitation power. The peak
power is seen to be displaced towards δ=0,the amount of displacement depends upon the
excitation. The excitation is such that the excitation term has peak value about 2.5 times that of
the reluctance term. Under steady state conditions, the reluctance term is positive because
𝑋𝑑 > 𝑋 𝑞.

Synchronous Condenser:
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore, behaves as a
capacitor.
An over-excited synchronous motor running on no-load in known as synchronous condenser. It
is also known as synchronous capacitor or synchronous compensator or synchronous phase
modifier.
When such a machine is connected in parallel with induction motors or other devices that
operate at low lagging power factor, the leading kVAR supplied by the synchronous condenser
partly neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the loads. Consequently, the power factor of the
system is improved.
Figure shown below shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method.
The 3 –phase load takes current 𝐼 𝐿 at low lagging power factor𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝐿. The synchronous
condenser takes a current 𝐼 𝑚which leads the voltage by an angle ∅𝑚.The resultant current 𝐼 is
the vector sum of 𝐼 𝑚and 𝐼 𝐿 and lags behind the voltage by an angle ф. It is clear that ф is less
than ∅𝐿 so that 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ is greater than 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝐿.Thus the power factor is increased from 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝐿to
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅. Synchronous condensers are generally used at major bulk supply substations for power
factor improvement.
Advantages

(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor
can be changed by any amount. This helps in achieving step less control of
power factor.
(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.

Disadvantages
(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.
(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 KVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the
same rating.
(v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, then-fore, an auxiliary equipment
has to be provided for this purpose.

Hunting in Synchronous Motor:

Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may sometimes set up oscillations that are
superimposed upon the normal rotation, resulting in periodic variations of a very low frequency
in speed. This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging or surging. If the time period of
these oscillations happens to be equal to the natural time period of the machine,then
mechanical resonance is set up. The amplitude of these oscillations is built up to a large value
and may become so great as to throw the machine out of synchronism.
Causes of hunting:
1. Sudden changes of load
2. Faults occurring in the system which the generator supplies
3. Sudden changes in the field current
4. Cyclic variations of the load torque.

Effects of hunting
1. It can lead to loss of synchronism.
2. It can cause variations of the supply voltage producing undesirable lamp flicker.
3. It increases the possibility of resonance. If the frequency of the torque component
becomes equal to that of the transient oscillations of the synchronous machine,
resonance may take place.
4. Large mechanical stresses may develop in the rotor shaft.
5. The machine losses increase and the temperature of the machine rises.
Of these effects, the first is the most important phenomenon to be avoided.

Reduction of hunting
The following are some of the techniques used to reduce hunting:
1. Damper windings
2. Use of flywheels
The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This increases the inertia
of the prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed constant.
3. By designing synchronous machines with suitable synchronizing power coefficients.

Damper winding:
The damper windings consist of short-circuited Cu bars embedded in the faces of the field poles
of the motor. The ends of the damper bars are short circuited at the ends by short circuiting
rings similar to end rings as in the case of squirrel cage rotors. Under normal running conditions,
the damper winding does not carry any current because rotor runs at synchronous speed.
Whenever any irregularity takes place in the speed of rotation, however, the polar flux moves
from side to side of the pole, this movement causing the flux to move backwards and forwards
across the damper bars. Emfs are induced in the damper bars.

These damper windings are serving the function of providing mechanical balance, reduce the
effect of over voltages and damp out hunting in case of alternators. In case of synchronous
motors, they act as rotor bars and help in self-starting of the motor.
Methods of starting synchronous motor:
A synchronous motor is not self-starting. There are twomethods that are used to start a
synchronous motor:
1. Starting with the help of an external prime mover.
2. Starting with the help of damper windings.

Motor Starting with an External Motor:

In this method an external motor drives the synchronous motor and bring it to synchronous
speed. The synchronous machine is then synchronized with the bus-bar as a synchronous
generator. The prime mover is then disconnected. The synchronous machine will work as a
motor. Now the load can be connected to the synchronous motor. Since load is not connected
to the synchronous motor before synchronizing, the starting motor has to overcome the inertia
of the synchronous motor at no load. Therefore, the rating of the starting motor is much
smaller than the rating of the synchronous motor.
Generally, most of the large synchronous motors are provided with brushless excitation systems
mounted on their shafts. These exciters are used as the starting motors.

Motor Starting by using damper (Amortisseur) Winding:

The most widely used method of starting a. synchronous motor is to use damper windings. Most of the
large synchronous motors are provided with damper windings, in order to nullify the oscillations of the
rotor whenever the synchronous machine is subjected to a periodically varying load. A damper winding
consists of heavy copper bars inserted in slots of the pole faces of the rotor. These bars are short
circuited by end rings at both ends of the rotor similar to the squirrel cage rotor bars.
When the stator of a synchronous motor is connected to the 3-Phase AC supply, the motor
starts as a 3-Phase induction machine due to the presence of the damper bars, just like a
squirrel cage induction motor. Once the motor picks up to a speed near about its synchronous
speed, the DC supply to its field winding is connected and the synchronous motor pulls into step
i.e. it continues to operate as a Synchronous motor running at its synchronous speed.

Applications of Synchronous Motors:

Synchronous motors find extensive application for the following classes of service:

1. Power factor correction

2. Constant-speed, constant-load drives
3. Voltage regulation

Power factor correction

Overexcited synchronous motors having leading power factor are widely used for improving
power factor of those power systems which employ a large number of induction motors and other
devices having lagging p.f. such as welders and fluorescent lights etc.

Constant-speed applications
Because of their high efficiency and high-speed, synchronous motors (above 600 r.p.m.) are well-
suited for loads where constant speed is required such as centrifugal pumps, belt-driven reciprocating
compressors, blowers, line shafts, rubber and paper mills etc.

Low-speed synchronous motors (below 600 r.p.m.) are used for drives such as centrifugal and
screw-type pumps, ball and tube mills, vacuum pumps, cliippers and metal rolling mills etc.
Voltage regulation
The voltage at the end of a long transmission line varies greatly especially when large inductive
loads are present. When an inductive load is disconnected suddenly, voltage tends to rise considerably
above its normal value because of the line capacitance. By installing a synchronous motor with a
field regulator (for varying its excitation), this voltage rise can be controlled.

When line voltage decreases due to inductive load, motor excitation is increased, thereby raising
its p.f. which compensates for the line drop. If line voltage rises due to line
capacitive effect, motor excitation is decreased, thereby making its p.f. lagging which helps to maintain
the line voltage at its normal value.
 Chapter-3
THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

An Induction machines is basically Asynchronous machines. If the Induction Machine

converts Mechanical energy to Electrical energy, then it is called Induction Generator. If the
Induction Machine converts Electrical energy to Mechanical energy, then it is called
Induction Motor.

The induction motor may be considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary and it
can, therefore, be described as a “transformer type” a.c. machine in which electrical energy
is converted into mechanical energy.

Production of rotating magnetic field:

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
produced. This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but
go on shifting their positions around the stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating Field.

Consider a 2-pole,3-phase winding placed 120° space apart. The three phases X, Y and Z are
energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these phases are indicated as
𝐼𝑥, 𝐼𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑧.The fluxes due to these these currents are ∅ , ∅𝑦 and ∅𝑧.
∅𝑥 = ∅𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
∅𝑦 = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 120°)
∅𝑧 = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 240°)
Here ∅𝑚 is the maximum flux due to any phase. The phasor diagram of the three fluxes is
shown in Fig:(i) below.

Fig: (i) Fig: (ii)

i. At instant 1, From Fig: (ii), the current in phase X is zero and currents in phases Y and
Z are equal and opposite. The currents are flowing outward in the top conductors
and inward in the bottom conductors. This establishes a resultant flux towards right.
The magnitude of the resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 ∅𝑚.
 At instant 1, 𝜔𝑡 = 0°.
𝐼𝑥=0 i.e. ∅𝑥=∅𝑚𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡) = 0
−√3
∅𝑦 = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 120°)=∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(−120°) = ∅ 𝑚
2
𝑠𝑖(−240°) = √3∅
∅𝑧 = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 240°)=∅𝑚 𝑚
2
The phasor sum of−∅𝑦 and∅ 3 𝑧 is the resultant flux ∅𝑟.
Resultant flux, ∅ = 2 × √ 60°) = 1.5 ∅

𝑟 2
∅𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝑚

ii. At instant 2, the current is maximum (negative) in ∅𝑦 phase Y and 0.5 maximum
(positive) in phases X and Y.

At instant 2, 𝜔𝑡 = 30°.
∅
∅𝑥 =∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(30°) = 2𝑚
∅𝑦 = ∅𝑚𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 120°)=∅𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(−90°) =−∅𝑚
∅𝑚
∅𝑧 = ∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 240°)=∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(−210°) =
2
The phasor sum of ∅𝑥, ∅𝑦 and∅𝑧 is the resultant flux ∅𝑟
The phasor sum of x and z, ∅′ = 2 × ∅𝑚 120° ∅𝑚
)=
𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (
′ ∅𝑚 2 2 2
The phasor sum of ∅ and−∅ , ∅ = + ∅ =1.5 ∅
𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 2 𝑚 𝑚
The resultant flux is displaced 30° clockwise from position 1.
iii. At instant 3, current in phase Z is zero and the currents in phases X and Y are equal
and opposite (currents in phases X and Y are 0.866 × max. value).
At instant 3, 𝜔𝑡 = 60°.
∅ =∅ 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡) = ∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(60°) =√3 ∅
𝑥 𝑚 𝑚 2 𝑚
3
∅ = ∅ 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 120°)=∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−60°) =− √ ∅
𝑦 𝑚 𝑚 2 𝑚
∅𝑧 = ∅𝑚𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 240°)=∅𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(−180°) = 0
The resultant flux ∅𝑟 is the3 phasor sum of−∅𝑦 and∅𝑥
Resultant flux, ∅ = 2 × √ 60°) = 1.5 ∅

𝑟 2
∅𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝑚
The resultant flux is displaced 60° clockwise from position 1.

iv. At instant 4, the current in phase X is maximum (positive) and the currents in phases
Y and Z are equal and negative (currents in phases Y and Z are 0.5 ×max. value). This
establishes a resultant flux downward.

At instant 4, 𝜔𝑡 = 90°.
∅𝑥=∅𝑚𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡) = ∅𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(90°) =∅𝑚
∅𝑚
∅𝑦 = ∅𝑚𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 120°)=∅𝑚 𝑠𝑖(−30°)= - 2
∅
∅ = ∅ 𝑠𝑖(𝜔𝑡 − 240°)=∅ 𝑠𝑖(−150°) = − 𝑚
𝑧 𝑚 𝑚 2
The phasor sum of ∅𝑥, ∅𝑦 and ∅𝑧 is the resultant
∅ flux ∅𝑟
The phasor sum of −∅ and−∅ , ∅′ = 2 × 𝑚 120° ∅𝑚
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )=
𝑦 𝑧 ∅ 𝑟 2 2 2
The phasor sum of ∅′ and∅ , ∅ = 𝑚 + ∅ =1.5 ∅
𝑟 𝑥 𝑟 2 𝑚 𝑚
The resultant flux is displaced 90° clockwise from position 1 which is in the downward
direction.

Thus a 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant value (=1.5 ∅𝑚, where ∅𝑚is the
maximum flux due to any phase).

Speed of rotating magnetic field:

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is called the synchronous speed
(Ns).
120𝑓
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃
Where 𝑓= frequency in HZ
𝑃= number of poles
Direction of rotating magnetic field:
The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the stator winding is X-Y-Z. If this
sequence is changed to X-Z-Y, it is observed that direction of rotation of the field is reversed
i.e., the field rotates counterclockwise rather than clockwise.
However, the number of poles and the speed at which the magnetic field rotates remain
unchanged. Thus it is necessary only to change the phase sequence in order to change the
direction of rotation of the magnetic field. For a three-phase supply, this can be done by
interchanging any two of the three lines. The rotor in a 3-phase induction motor runs in the
same direction as the rotating magnetic field. Therefore, the direction of rotation of a 3-
phase induction motor can be reversed by interchanging any two of the three motor supply
lines.

Construction:
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii) rotor. The rotor is separated
from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the
power of the motor.
Stator:
 Stator consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of
thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce eddy current losses. A number of evenly
spaced slots is provided on the inner periphery of the laminations.
 Stator carries 3-phase winding and is fed from a 3-phase supply. The 3-phase stator
winding is wound for a definite number of poles as per requirement of speed.
Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and vice-versa.
 When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of
constant magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces currents in the rotor by
electromagnetic induction.

Rotor

The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer
periphery. The winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the
following two types:
(i) Squirrel cage type (ii) Wound type

Squirrel-cage rotor:
 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer
periphery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are
joined at each end by metal rings called end rings .This forms a permanently
short-circuited winding which is indestructible.
 The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply but has current induced in it
by transformer action from the stator.
 Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel
cage induction motors.
 Most of 3-phase induction motors use squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably
simple and robust construction enabling it to operate in the most adverse
circumstances.
 It suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the rotor bars
are permanently short-circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance
to the rotor circuit to have a large starting torque.

The rotor slots are usually not quite parallel to the shaft but are purposely given a slight
skew. This is useful in two ways:
 i. It helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
ii. It helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of the rotor
teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between
the two.

Wound rotor.
 It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase winding, similar
to the one on the stator.
 The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually star-
connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to
three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting on
each slip ring.
 The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat. This makes
possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the
starting period for increasing the starting torque of the motor.
 At starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large
starting torque. These resistances are gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs
up to speed.
 The external resistances are used during starting period only. When the motor
attains normal speed, the three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound rotor
runs like a squirrel cage rotor.
Principle of Operation:
(i) When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating
magnetic field is set up which rotates round the stator at synchronous speed
Ns (= 120 f/P).
(ii) The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors,
which are stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the
stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor
circuit is short-circuited, currents start flowing in the rotor conductors.
(iii) The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced
by the stator. Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The
sum of the mechanical forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque
which tends to move the rotor in the same direction as the rotating field.
(iv) According to Lenz’s law law, the direction of rotor currents will be such that they
tend to oppose the cause producing them. The cause producing the rotor
currents is the relative speed between the rotating field and the stationary rotor
conductors. Hence to reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the
same direction as that of stator field and tries to catch it.
Speed and Slip:
The rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction of rotating field. However the rotor can never
reach the speed of stator flux. If rotor is rotating at synchronous speed ,then there would
be no relative speed between the stator field and rotor conductors,no cutting of flux by the
rotor conductors and there would be no generated voltages,no induced rotor currents and,
therefore, no torque to drive the rotor. The friction and windage would immediately cause
the rotor to slow down. Hence, the rotor speed (𝑁𝑟) is always less than the suitor field
speed (𝑁𝑠). This difference in speed depends upon load on the motor.

The difference between the synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠 of the rotating stator field and the actual
rotor speed (𝑁𝑟) is called slip.
It is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed i.e.,
𝑁 −𝑁
% 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 𝑠 = 𝑠 𝑟 × 100
𝑁𝑠
𝑁𝑟= 𝑁(1 − 𝑠)

i. The quantity 𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟 is sometimes called slip speed.

ii. When the rotor is stationary (i.e., 𝑁𝑟 = 0), slip, s = 1 or 100 %.
iii. In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-load is hardly 0.1% to
3% so that it is essentially a constant-speed motor.

Frequency of Rotor Current and Voltage:

The frequency of a voltage or current induced due to the relative speed between
a vending and a magnetic field is given by
𝑷𝑵
𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒇 =
𝟏𝟐𝟎

where N = Relative speed between magnetic field and the winding

P = Number of poles
For a rotor speed 𝑁𝑟, the relative speed between the rotating flux and the rotor is
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟. Consequently, the rotor current frequency
(𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟)𝑃
𝑓𝑟 =
120
𝑠𝑁𝑠𝑃
=
120
𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓
Rotor current frequency = slip x Supply frequency
i. When the rotor is at standstill or stationary (i.e., s = 1), the frequency of rotor
current is the same as that of supply frequency ((𝑓𝑟 = 𝑠𝑓 = 1 × 𝑓 = 𝑓)
ii. As the rotor picks up speed, the relative speed between the rotating flux and the
rotor decreases. Consequently, the slip s and hence rotor current frequency
decreases.
 Rotor EMF and Reactance:
Let E2 = standstill rotor induced e.m.f./phase
X2 = standstill rotor reactance/phase.
f = rotor current frequency at standstill
When rotor is stationary i.e. s= 1. the frequency of rotor e.m.f. is the same as that of the
stator supply frequency. The value of e.m.f. induced in the rotor at standstill is maximum
because the relative speed between the rotor and the revolving stator flux is maximum. In
fact, the motor is equivalent to a 3-phase transformer with a short-circuited rotating
secondary.
When rotor starts running, the relative speed between rotor and the rotating stator flux is
decreased. Hence, the rotor induced e.m.f. which is directly proportional to this relative
speed, is also decreased. Hence, for a slip s the rotor induced e.m.f. will be s times the
induced e.m.f. at standstill.
Therefore, under running conditions Er = sE2.
The frequency of the induced e.m.f. will f r= sf
Due to decrease in frequency of the rotor e.m.f.. the rotor reactance will also decrease.
Xr = sX2 where Er and Xr are rotor e.m.f. and reactance under running conditions

Thus at any slip s,

Rotor e.m.f./phase = sE2
Rotor reactance/phase = sX2
Rotor frequency = sf
where E2, X2 and f are the corresponding values at standstill.

Rotor Current:
Consider a 3-phase induction motor at any slip s. The rotor is assumed to be of wound type
and star connected. Rotor e.m.f./phase and rotor reactance/phase are sE2 and sX2
respectively. The rotor resistance/phase is R2 and is independent of frequency and,
therefore, does not depend upon slip. Similarly stator winding values R1 and X1 do not
depend upon slip.
At standstill: One phase of the rotor circuit at standstill is shown in Fig: (i)

When running at slip s: Fig: (ii)) shows one phase of the rotor circuit when the motor is
running at slip s.

Rotor Torque:
The torque T developed by the rotor is directly proportional to:
i. rotor current
ii. Rotor e.m.f.
iii. power factor of the rotor circuit
Starting Torque (𝑻𝒔𝒕):
The torque developed by the motor at the instant of starting is called starting torque.
Let E2 = rotor e.m.f. per phase at standstill;
R2 = rotor resistance phase
X2 = rotor reactance phase at standstill

The magnitude of starting torque would depend upon the relative values of R2 and X2 i.e.,
rotor resistance/phase and standstill rotor reactance/phase.
Starting Torque of a Squirrel-cage Motor:
 The resistance of a squirrel-cage motor is fixed and small as compared to its
reactance which is very large especially at the start because at standstill, the
frequency of the rotor currents equals the supply frequency. Hence, the starting
current I2 of the rotor, though very large in magnitude, lags by a very large angle
behind E2 with the result that the starting torque per ampere is very poor. 
 It is 1.5 times the full-load torque, although the starting current is 5 to 7 times the
full-load current. Hence, such motors are not useful where the motor has to start
against heavy loads.
Starting Torque of a Slip-ring Motor:
 The starting torque of slip ring motor is increased by improving its power factor by adding
external resistance in the rotor circuit from the star-connected rheostat, the rheostat
resistance being progressively cut out as the motor gathers speed.
 Addition of external resistance, however, increases the rotor impedance and so reduces the
rotor current. At first, the effect of improved power factor predominates the current-
decreasing effect of impedance. Hence, starting torque is increased. But after a certain
point, the effect of increased impedance predominates the effect of improved power factor
and so the torque starts decreasing.
Condition for Maximum Starting Torque:
The starting torque will be maximum when rotor resistance/phase is equal to standstill rotor
reactance/phase.

Differentiating above equation w.r.t. R2 and equating the result to zero, we get

Hence starting torque will be maximum when:

Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor reactance/phase
Under the condition of maximum starting torque, φ= 45° and rotor power factor is 0.707
lagging.

As the rotor resistance is increased from a low value, the starting torque increases until it
becomes maximum when R2 = X2. If the rotor resistance is increased beyond this optimum
value, the starting torque will decrease.

Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Torque:

Since E2 𝖺 Supply voltage V

where K3 is another constant.

Therefore, the starting torque is very sensitive to changes in the value of supply voltage. For
example, a drop of 10% in supply voltage will decrease the starting torque by about 20%.
Torque Under Running Conditions:
Let the rotor at standstill have per phase induced e.m.f. E2, reactance X2 and resistance R2.

3
Where k1 is another constant. Its value is equal to
2𝜋𝑁𝑠

At standstill when s=1,

It may be seen that running torque is:

i. Directly proportional to slip i.e., if slip increases (i.e., motor speed decreases), the
torque will increase and vice-versa.
ii. Directly proportional to square of supply voltage (𝐸2 𝖺 𝑉)

Maximum Torque under Running Conditions:

The torque of a rotor under running conditions is

The condition for maximum torque may be obtained by differentiating the above expression with
respect to slip s and then putting it equal to zero.
Thus for maximum torque (Tm) under running conditions:
Rotor resistance/phase = Fractional slip ×Standstill rotor reactance/phase

Slip corresponding to maximum torque is s = R2/X2

Putting R2 = sX2 and Substituting value of s = R2/X2 in the torque equation

From the above, it is found that

i. The maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance.
ii. However, the speed or slip at which maximum torque occurs is determined by the
rotor resistance. torque becomes maximum when rotor reactance equals its
resistance. Hence, by varying rotor resistance (possible only with slip-ring motors)
maximum torque can be made to occur at any desired slip (or motor speed),
iii. Maximum torque varies inversely as standstill reactance. Hence, it should be kept as
small as possible.
iv. Maximum torque varies directly as the square of the applied voltage.
v. For obtaining maximum torque at starting (s =1), rotor resistance must be equal to
rotor reactance.

Torque-Slip Characteristics:

The graph drawn between the torque and slip for a particular value of rotor resistance 𝑹𝟐,
is called torque-slip characteristic. A family of torque-slip characteristics for a slip-range
from s = 0 to s = 1 for various values of rotor resistance is shown below.

The motor torque under running conditions is given by

𝒔𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝖺
𝑹𝟐𝟐+𝒔𝟐𝑿𝟐𝟐
 (i) At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip curve starts from the origin.
(ii) At normal speed, slip is small so that 𝑠 𝑋2 is negligible as compared to 𝑹𝟐.
𝒔
𝑻𝖺
𝑹𝟐
𝖺 𝒔 ... as 𝑹𝟐 is constant
Hence torque slip curve is a straight line from zero slip to a slip that corresponds to full-load.
(iii) As slip increases beyond full-load slip, the torque increases and becomes
𝑅
maximum at = 2 . This maximum torque in an induction motor is called pull-out
𝑋2
torque or break-down torque. Its value is at least twice the full-load value when
the motor is operated at rated voltage and frequency.
(iv) When slip increases beyond that corresponding to maximum torque, the term
𝒔𝟐𝑿𝟐𝟐 increases very rapidly so that 𝑹𝟐𝟐 may be neglected as compared to
𝒔𝟐𝑿𝟐𝟐.

𝑠
𝑇𝖺
𝒔𝟐𝑿𝟐𝟐

𝟏
𝖺 …. as 𝑿𝟐 is constant
𝒔

Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence torque-slip curve is a
rectangular hyperbola.
(v) The maximum torque remains the same and is independent of the value of rotor
resistance. Therefore, the addition of resistance to the rotor circuit does not
change the value of maximum torque but it only changes the value of slip at
which maximum torque occurs.
Full-Load and Maximum Torque:
Let 𝑠𝑓 be the slip corresponding to full-load Torque

Dividing the numerator and denominator on R.H.S. by 𝑿𝟐 , we get,

𝑅2 Rotor resistance/phase
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = =
𝑋2 Standstill rotor reactance/phase
Starting Torque Maximum Torque:

Dividing the numerator and denominator on R.H.S. by 𝑿𝟐 , we get,

𝑅2 Rotor resistance/phase
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = =
𝑋2 Standstill rotor reactance/phase

Power Stages in an Induction Motor:

The input electric power fed to the stator of the motor is converted into mechanical power
at the shaft of the motor. The various losses during the energy conversion are:
1. Fixed losses
(i) Stator iron loss
(ii) Friction and windage loss
The rotor iron loss is negligible because the frequency of rotor currents under normal
running condition is small.
2. Variable losses
(i) Stator copper loss
(ii) Rotor copper loss
Fig. shown below shows electric power fed to the stator of an induction motor suffers losses
and finally converted into mechanical power.
From the figure the following points may be noted:
(i) Stator input, 𝑃𝑖 = Stator output + Stator losses
= Stator output + Stator Iron loss + Stator Cu loss
(ii) Rotor input,𝑃𝑟 = Stator output
It is because stator output is entirely transferred to the rotor through air-gap by
electromagnetic induction.
(iii) Mechanical power available, 𝑃𝑚= 𝑃𝑟− Rotor Cu loss
This mechanical power available is the gross rotor output and will produce a gross
torque 𝑇𝑔.
(iv) Mechanical power at shaft, 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑚− Friction and windage loss
Mechanical power available at the shaft produces a shaft torque 𝑇𝑠ℎ.
Clearly, 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Friction and windage loss

Induction Motor Torque:

The mechanical power P available from any electric motor can be expressed as:
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝑃= watts
60
Where N= speed of the motor in r.p.m.
T= torque developed in N-m
If the gross output of the rotor of an induction motor is Pm and its speed is N r.p.m., then
gross torque 𝑇𝑔 developed is given by:
𝑃𝑚
𝑇𝑔 = 9.55 𝑁 − 𝑚
𝑁
Similarly
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑇𝑠ℎ = 9.55 𝑁−𝑚
𝑁

Rotor Output:
If 𝑇𝑔newton-metre is the gross torque developed and N r.p.m. is the speed of the rotor,
then,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑔
Gross rotor output = 𝑃 = watts
60
If there were no copper losses in the rotor, the output would equal rotor input and the rotor
would run at synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠.
It is clear that if the input power to rotor is 𝑃𝑟 then 𝑠𝑃𝑟 is lost as rotor Cu loss and the
remaining (1 -s)𝑟 is converted into mechanical power. Consequently, induction motor
operating at high slip has poor efficiency.

Note: Rotor input: Rotor Cu loss: Gross rotor output = 1: s: (1-s)

𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢(𝑃𝑚) 𝑁
=1−𝑠 =
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑃𝑟) 𝑁𝑠

Starting of Three Phase Induction Motor:

When the supply is connected to the stator of a three-phase induction motor, a rotating
magnetic field is produced and the rotor starts rotating. Thus a three phase Induction motor
is self-starting.

The induction motor is fundamentally a transformer in which the stator is the primary and the
rotor is short-circuited secondary. At starting, the voltage induced in the induction motor
rotor is maximum (s = 1). Since the rotor impedance is low, the rotor current is very large.
This large rotor current is reflected in the stator because of transformer action. This results
in high starting current (4 to 10 times the full-load current) in the stator at low power factor
and consequently the value of starting torque is low. Because of the short duration, this
value of large current does not harm the motor if the motor accelerates normally.

However, this large starting current will produce large line-voltage drop. This will affect the
operation of other electrical equipment connected to the same lines. Therefore, it is
desirable and necessary to reduce the magnitude of stator current at starting. Thus the
purpose of a starter is not to start the motor but to limit the heavy starting current of the
motor at the time of starting.
Methods of Starting Three Phase Induction Motors:

The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor depends upon the size of the
motor and the type of the motor. The methods used to start induction motors are:

(i) Direct-on-line starting

(ii) Stator resistance starting
(iii) Autotransformer starting
(iv) Star-delta starting
(v) Rotor resistance starting
Methods (i) to (iv) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and slip ring motors. However,
method (v) is applicable only to slip ring motors.
Except direct-on-line starting, all other methods of starting squirrel-cage motors
employ reduced voltage across motor terminals at starting.

Direct-on-line starting:
In this method of starting the motor is started by connecting it directly to 3-phase supply.
The impedance of the motor at standstill is relatively low and when it is directly connected
to the supply system, the starting current will be high (4 to 10 times the full- load current)
and at a low power factor. Consequently, this method of starting is suitable for relatively
small (up to 7.5 kW) machines.

D.O.L starter consists of a coil-operated contactor C controlled by start and stop push
buttons which may be installed at convenient places remote from the starter. On pressing
the START push button S1, (which is normally held open by a spring) the contactor coil C is
energised from two line conductors L1 and L2. The three main contacts M and the auxiliary
contact A close and the terminals a and b are short-circuited. The motor is thus connected
to the supply. When the pressure on S1 is released, it moves back under spring action.Even
then the coil C remains energised through ab. Thus, the main contacts M remain closed and
the motor continues to get supply. For this reason, contact A is called hold-on-contact.

When the STOP push button S2 (which is normally held closed by spring) is pressed, the
supply through the contactor coil Cis disconnected. Since the coil C is de energised, the main
contacts M and auxiliary contact A are opened. The supply to motor is disconnected and the
motor stops.

 When the voltage falls below a certain value, or in the event of failure of supply
during motor operation, the col C is de-energised. The motor is then disconnected
from the supply.
 In case of an overload on the motor, one or all the overload coils (O.LC) are
energised. The normally closed contact D is opened and the contactor coil C is de-
energised to disconnect the supply to the motor.

Fuses are provided in the circuit for short-circuit protection.

Direct-on-line starting is a simple and cheap method. The starting current be as large as 10
times the full load current and the starting torque is equal to full-load torque. Such a large
starting current produces excessive voltage droop in the line supplying the motor. Small
motors up to 5kW rating may be started by D.O.L. starters to avoid supply voltage
fluctuations.
Note that starting current is as large as five times the full-load current but starting torque is
just equal to the full-load torque. Therefore, starting current is very high and the starting
torque is comparatively low. If this large starting current flows for a long time, it may
overheat the motor and damage the insulation.

Stator resistance starting:

In this method, external resistances are connected in series with each phase of stator
winding during starting. This causes voltage drop across the resistances so that voltage
available across motor terminals is reduced and hence the starting current. The starting
resistances are gradually cut out in steps (two or more steps) from the stator circuit as the
motor picks up speed. When the motor attains rated speed, the resistances are completely
cut out and full line voltage is applied to the rotor.
Drawback:
 First, the reduced voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the
starting torque and hence increases the accelerating time.
 Secondly, a lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances.

Relation between starting and F.L. torques.

Let V be the rated voltage/phase. If the voltage is reduced by a fraction x by the insertion of
resistors in the line, then voltage applied to the motor per phase will be xV.

So,

Thus while the starting current reduces by a fraction x of the rated-voltage starting current
(Isc), the starting torque is reduced by a fraction x 2 of that obtained by direct switching. The
reduced voltage applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the starting current
but at the same time increases the accelerating time because of the reduced value of the
starting torque. Therefore, this method is used for starting small motors only.
Autotransformer starting:
This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a reduced supply at starting and
then connecting it to the full voltage as the motor picks up sufficient speed. The tapping on
the autotransformer is so set that when it is in the circuit, 65% to 80% of line voltage is
applied to the motor.
At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to “start” position. This puts the
autotransformer in the circuit and thus reduced voltage is applied to the circuit.
Consequently, starting current is limited to safe value. When the motor attains about 80% of
normal speed, the changeover switch is thrown to “run” position. This takes out the
autotransformer from the circuit and puts the motor to full line voltage.
Advantages of Autotransformer starting:
(i) low power loss,
(ii) low starting current and
(iii) less radiated heat.
For large machines (over 25 H.P.), this method of starting is often used. This method can be
used for both star and delta connected motors.

The current taken from the supply or by autotransformer is I1 = KI2 = K2Isc.

The motor current is K times, the supply line current is K2 times and the starting torque
is K2 times the value it would have been on direct-on-line starting.
Star-delta starting:
The stator winding of the motor is designed for delta operation and is connected in star
during the starting period. When the machine is up to speed, the connections are changed
to delta.
The six leads of the stator windings are connected to the changeover switch as shown in
figure below. At the instant of starting, the changeover switch is thrown to “Start” position
which connects the stator windings in star. Therefore, each stator phase gets V/√3 volts
where V is the line voltage. This reduces the starting current. When the motor picks up
speed, the changeover switch is thrown to “Run” position which connects the stator
windings in delta. Now each stator phase gets full line voltage V.

Disadvantages of this method are:

a) With star-connection during starting, stator phase voltage is 1⁄ times the line
√3
2
voltage. Consequently, starting torque is (1⁄ ) or 1⁄ times the value it would
√3 3
have with Delta- connection. This is a large reduction in starting torque.
b) The reduction in voltage is fixed.
This method of starting is used for medium-size machines (up to about 25 H.P)
In star-delta starting, the starting line current is reduced to one-third as compared to
starting with the winding delta connected. Further, starting torque is reduced to one-
third of that obtainable by direct delta starting. This method is cheap but limited to
applications where high starting torque is not necessary e.g., machine tools, pumps
etc.

Rotor resistance starting:

Slip-ring motors are invariably started by rotor resistance starting. In this method, a variable
star- connected rheostat is connected in the rotor circuit through slip rings and full voltage
is applied to the stator winding as shown in Fig.

i. At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so that maximum
resistance is placed in each phase of the rotor circuit. This reduces the starting
current and at the same time starting torque is increased.
ii. As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is gradually moved in clockwise
direction and cuts out the external resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit.
When the motor attains normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON position
and the whole external resistance is cut out from the rotor circuit.
Speed Control of Induction Motors:

The slip of an induction motor is very small (< 3%) so that it is essentially a "constant-speed
motor. Therefore, it is suitable for use in essentially constant-speed drive systems. The
speed of an induction motor can be changed by the following methods:

1. By changing the number of stator poles (P).

2. By changing the line frequency
3. By changing the applied voltage.
4. By changing resistance in the rotor circuit.

Speed Control by changing number of stator poles:

120𝑓
We know that synchronous speed of induction motor 𝑁𝑠 = . Therefore, by changing the
𝑃
number of stator poles (P), the synchronous speed and hence the rotor speed (N) can be
changed. This method is easily applicable to squirrel cage motors but is not practicable for
wound rotor motors. Squirrel cage motors designed for pole-changing control are
commonly called multispeed motors.

Speed Control by changing Line frequency:

120𝑓
We know that synchronous speed of an induction motor is given by 𝑁𝑠 = . Therefore, by
𝑃
changing the line frequency f, the synchronous speed (𝑁𝑠) of the motor and hence the
running speed (N) can be changed.

When employing line-frequency control, the applied line voltage should be changed in
direct proportion to the frequency i.e. if frequency is increased, the supply voltage must also
be increased and if the frequency is decreased, the supply voltage must also be decreased
proportionately. This is necessary to maintain an approximately constant flux in the air-gap
of the machine, otherwise the motor performance will not be satisfactory. Under these
conditions, the maximum developed torque will remain approximately constant and the
output power will vary approximately in direct proportion to the speed of the motor.
Disadvantages:
It involves the use of 3-phase variable frequency power supply. The auxiliary equipment
required for this purpose results in a high first cost, increased maintenance and lowering of
the overall efficiency.

Speed Control by changing applied Voltage:

We know that torque developed (T) by an induction motor is directly proportional to the
square of applied voltage (V) i.e 𝑇 𝖺 𝑉2. Therefore, by changing the applied voltage, the
torque and hence speed (or slip) of the motor can be changed. Fig. shown below shows the
arrangement to control the speed of induction motor (squirrel cage or wound rotor motor)
by changing the applied voltage.

The motor is supplied from 3-phase Supply through a 3-phase autotransformer. The motor
drives fan load. The voltage applied to the motor can be changed by the autotransformer
and hence desired motor speed can be obtained. when we change the applied voltage, the
slip (s) of the motor is changed i.e. motor speed changes.

Limitations: The stator voltage control method is the cheapest and the easiest method of
speed control of induction motors. However, it is rarely used because of the following
drawbacks

i. A large change in voltage is required for a relatively small change in speed.

ii. The large change in voltage results in large change in the flux density. This affects the
magnetic conditions and hence performance of the motor.

Speed Control by changing Rotor circuit Resistance

This method of speed control is suitable only for slip- ring motors. The speed of the motor
can be decreased by adding external resistance to the rotor. Under normal running
condition, the relation between torque (T) and slip (s) of an induction motor is given by:
𝑠
𝑇𝖺
𝑅2
where R, is the rotor resistance/phase.
From the above relation, for a given torque, 𝑠 𝖺 𝑅2.Therefore slip can be increased (i.e.
motor speed can be decreased) by increasing the rotor resistance.
Drawbacks:
i. There is an increase in the rotor Cu losses due to the increased rotor circuit
resistance.
ii. Due to increased rotor Cu losses, the efficiency of the motor is decreased.
iii. There is an increase in the temperature of the motor.
Because of the above drawbacks, this method is used where speed changes are required for
short periods only.

Plugging of an Induction motor:

 To bring the running Induction motor to a rapid stop, the two stator leads can be
simply interchanged. This process is called plugging.
 When we interchange two stator leads, the revolving field suddenly turns in the opposite
direction to the rotor. During the plugging period, the motor acts as a brake. It absorbs
kinetic energy from the still-revolving field, causing its speed to fall.
 The mechanical power associated with the rotor is entirely dissipated as heat in the rotor. At
the same time rotor also continues to receive power from the stator which is also dissipated
as heat. Consequently, plugging produces 𝐼2𝑅 losses in the rotor which even exceed those
when the rotor is locked.
 Motors should not be plugged too frequently because high rotor temperatures may melt the
rotor bars or overheat the stator winding. When very high inertia loads have to be brought
to a stop, wound-rotor motors are recommended because most of the thermal energy
absorbed by the rotor is dissipated by the external resistors. Furthermore, we can maintain a
consistently high torque by gradually varying the rotor resistance during deceleration period.

Induction Generator:
If an induction motor whose stator windings are connected to a 3-phase line is driven by a
mover prime- at a speed higher than synchronous speed, it acts as a generator. It converts
the mechanical energy it receives from the prime-mover into electrical energy and this
electrical energy is supplied to the mains. Such a machine is called an induction generator or
asynchronous generator.
When of speed the induction motor exceeds the synchronous speed, the slip (s) becomes
negative. Therefore, the relative motion between rotor conductors and the rotating flux is
reversed and as a result, the directions of rotor e.m.f. and the rotor currents will also be
reversed. However, as soon as this takes place, the motor develops a counter torque which
opposes the increase in speed. Thus generator operation occurs and mechanical energy of
the prime-mover is converted into electrical energy which is supplied to the mains.

Figure shown below shows an induction generator connected to a 3-phase line. The petrol
engine is the prime-mover. As the engine speed exceeds the synchronous speed, the motor
becomes a generator, delivering active power P (kW) to the electrical systems (i.e. 3-phase
which line in this case) to it is connected. However, to create its magnetic field, the motor
has to absorb reactive power Q (kVAR). This power can only come from the supply lines.
Consequently, the reactive power Q flows in the opposite direction to the active power P.

The active power P (kW) delivered is directly proportional to the slip above synchronous
speed. Thus, a higher engine speed produces a greater output. However, the rated output is
reached at small slip, generally less than 3%.

An Induction generator will deliver power only if it is supplied with proper reactive power to
create its magnetic field. For this reason, an induction generator is generally connected to a
3-phase line. The reactive power may be supplied by a group of capacitors connected to the
terminals of the motor.

The terminal voltage increases with the capacitance, but its magnitude is limited by
saturation in the iron. If the capacitance is insufficient, the generator voltage will not build
up. The capacitor bank must be large enough to supply the reactive power the machine
normally absorbs when operating as a motor.
 Torque-speed curve of induction machine showing braking, motoring and generating regions.

Applications of Induction Generators:

The induction generator is not a self-excited generator. It is necessary to excite the stator
with an external polyphase source at its rated voltage and frequency. It will generate only
when it is connected to a source of fixed voltage and frequency and if it is then driven at a
speed above the synchronous speed.
Thus the induction or asynchronous generator has limited applications. The most important
use of the principle of the Induction generator lies in automatic dynamic braking. For
example, in a lift or crane driven by an induction motor, when the laden cage or hook is
descending, the load torque on the motor acts in the direction of rotation. As a result, the
motor speed exceeds the synchronous speed and the machine automatically becomes an
induction generator and produces a braking torque, returning the energy of the descending
load to the supply.

Cogging in 3-phase Induction Motor:

A squirrel-cage rotor may show a peculiar behaviour in starting for certain relationship between the
number of stator slots (S1) and rotor slots (S2). If S1, is equal to or an integral multiple of S2, the
motor may refuse to start. This phenomenon is known as cogging and is due to the magnetic locking
between the stator and rotor teeth.
The reluctance of the magnetic path depends upon the positions of rotor teeth w.r.t. stator teeth.
The reluctance of the magnetic path is minimum when the rotor and stator teeth face each other. In
such positions of minimum reluctance, there exists a strong alignment force between the stator and
the rotor at standstill. The alignment force at the instant of start may become stronger than the
starting torque. Consequently, the motor fails to start. To avoid cogging, the number of stator and
rotor slots are never made to be equal or have an integral ratio.

Crawling in 3-phase induction Motor:

Induction motors, particularly the squirrel-cage type, sometimes show a tendency to run at speeds
as low as one-seventh (1/7th) of their synchronous speed Ns. This peculiar behaviour of the cage
motor at starting is known as crawling of an induction motor. This happens due to harmonic
induction torques.

Crawling signifies running of motor at almost one seventh of the rated speed due to interference of
seventh harmonics, crawling usually occurs when the motor is started with a coupled mechanical
load. This action is due to the fact that flux wave produced by a stator winding is not purely sine
wave instead it is a complex wave consisting a fundamental wave and odd harmonics like 3rd, 5th,
7th etc.

COMPARISON BETWEEN INDUCTION MOTOR AND TRANSFORMER:

An induction motor may be considered to be a transformer with a rotating short-circuited

secondary The stator winding corresponds to transformer primary and rotor winding to
transformer secondary. The differences between the two are:

(i) Unlike a transformer, the magnetic circuit of a 3-phase induction motor has an air
gap. Therefore, the magnetizing current in a 3-phase induction motor is much larger
than that of the transformer. For example, in an induction motor, it may be as high
as 30-50% of rated current whereas it is only 1 - 5% of rated current in a transformer.
(ii) In an induction motor, there is an air gap and the stator and rotor windings are
distributed along the periphery of the air gap rather than concentrated on a core as
in a transformer. Therefore, the leakage reactances of stator and rotor windings are
quite large compared to that of a transformer.
(iii) In an induction motor, the inputs to the stator and rotor are electrical but the output
from the rotor is mechanical. However, in a transformer, input as well as output is
electrical.
(iv) The main difference between the induction motor and transformer lies in the fact
that the rotor voltage and its frequency are both proportional to slip s. If 𝑓 is the
stator frequency,𝐸2 is the per phase rotor e.m.f. at standstill and 𝑋2 is the standstill
rotor reactance/phase, then at any slip s, these values are:
Rotor e.m.f./phase, 𝐸2′ = 𝑠𝐸2,
Rotor reactance/phase, 𝑋2′ = 𝑠𝑋2
Rotor frequency, 𝑓′ = 𝑠𝑓
Comparison between Squirrel Cage and Slipring Induction Motors:

Sl. Characteristics Squirrel-cage motor Slip-ring motor

No.
1. Speed Almost constant but decreases Speed decrease more rapidly than
slight with increased load in cage motor
2. Torque Starting torque is less but Starting torque is about three
running torque is good. times the full load torque.
3. Current Starting current is about 5-6 Stating current is about two times
times the full load current the full load current.
4. Speed control Done by changing poles. Done by changing resistance of
rotor circuit.
5. Power factor Low (about 0.7 to 0.8) High (about 0.8 to 0.9)
6. Cost of Low Higher
fabrication
7. Maintenance Very low High (due to presence of brushes,
cost brush gears, extra resistance etc.)
8. Brushes Absence of brushes reduces the More chances of sparking
risk of sparking
9. Efficiency Higher efficiency Less efficiency
10. Applications Lathe, drills, printing machines, Lifts, cranes, etc. where high
blowers etc. starting torque is needed.
 CHAPTER-4
SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Single phase Induction motor is a popular type of a.c. electrical motor which is used widely in
many areas. Single phase Induction motors perform a great variety of useful services in
domestic, commercial as well as industrial purposes such as fans, refrigerators, washing
machines, vacuum cleaner, kitchen equipment and farming appliance etc.
Single phase motors are generally manufactured in fractional HP ratings below 1 HP for
economic reasons. Hence, those motors are generally referred to as fractional horsepower
motors with a rating of less than 1 HP.
The characteristics of single phase induction motors are identical to 3-phase induction motors
except that single phase induction motor has no inherent starting torque and some special
arrangements have to be made for making itself starting.

Construction:
 The construction of a single phase induction motor is a similar to that a 3-phase
induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical in shape and always in squirrel cage while the
stator carries a single phase winding.
 The stator winding placed in slots around the inner periphery of a laminated ring. In
addition the stator also carries an auxiliary winding for providing the starting torque,
so that motor becomes self starting. 
 The slots of rotor are not made parallel to each other but skewed to prevent magnetic
locking of stator and rotor teeth. 
 The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminium bars. These aluminium bars are called
rotor conductors and are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. 
 The rotor conductors are permanently shorted by the aluminium rings. It is not
possible to add external resistance as the bars are permanently shorted. The absence
of the sliprings and brushes make the construction of single phase induction motor
very simple and robust.
 Construction of single phase induction motor

Working:
 When single phase a.c. supply is given to stator winding of single phase induction
motor, the alternating current produces an alternating flux called main flux.
 This magnetic field is pulsating in nature which means that field builds up in one
direction falls to zero and again builds up in another direction.
 This pulsating current is incapable of producing a rotating torque in stationary rotor.
But if the rotor is rotate by some external mechanical force in either direction rotor
start to rotate in that direction continuously.
 So single phase induction motor is not self starting. In order to obtain a rotating field,
that stator is provided with two windings the main winding and a starting winding.
Starting winding is also called auxiliary winding.
 The phase difference of 90° between two windings is obtained by spliting the phase.
 So there are two fluxes one is main flux and another is called rotor flux. These two
fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by the motor to rotate.
 When motor pick up 75% of rated speed, starting Winding is generally disconnected
from supply and motor continuously run.
Double revolving field Theory:
Statement: The double field revolving theory states that any alternating quantity can be
resolved into two components having magnitude half of the maximum magnitude of the
alternating quantity and both these components rotating in opposite direction.
Theory:

In double field revolving theory an alternating sinusoidal flux (∅ = ∅𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡) can be

represented by two revolving fluxes, each equal to one-half of the maximum value of
∅𝑚⁄ 120𝑓
alternating flux (i.e., ) and each rotating at synchronous speed (𝑁 𝑠 = , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓) in
2 𝑃
opposite directions.
∅
Consider two rotating magnetic fluxes ∅1and ∅2 each of magnitude 𝑚⁄2 and rotating in
opposite directions with angular velocity 𝜔. The two fluxes start rotating from OX axis at t =
0. After time t seconds, the angle through which the flux vectors have rotated is 𝜔𝑡. By
resolving the flux vectors along-X-axis and Y-axis,
∅𝑚 ∅𝑚
Total X-component = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = ∅ 𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
2 2
∅𝑚 ∅𝑚
Total Y-component = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 0
2 2

Resultant flux, ∅ =√(∅𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡2 + 02) =∅𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

Thus the resultant flux vector is ∅ = ∅𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 along X-axis. Therefore, an alternating field
can be replaced by two relating fields of half its amplitude rotating in opposite directions at
synchronous speed.
When the rotating flux vectors are in phase, the resultant vector is ∅ = ∅𝑚,when out of phase
by 180°, the resultant vector ∅ = 0.

Rotor at standstill
Consider the rotor is stationary and the stator winding is connected to a single-phase supply.
The alternating flux produced by the stator winding can be presented as the sum of two
rotating fluxes ∅1and ∅2, each equal to one half of the maximum value of alternating flux and
120𝑓
each rotating at synchronous speed 𝑁𝑠 = 𝑃 in opposite directions. Let the flux ∅1 rotate in
anti clockwise direction and flux ∅2, in clockwise direction. The flux ∅1 will result in the
production of torque T1 in the anti clockwise direction and flux ∅2 will result in the production
of torque T2 In the clockwise direction. At standstill, these two torques are equal and opposite
and the net torque developed is zero. Therefore, single-phase induction motor is not self-
starting.
Rotor running:

The flux rotating in the clockwise direction is the forward rotating flux (∅𝑓) and that in the
other direction is the backward rotating flux (∅𝑏).
The slip w.r.t. the forward flux will be
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁
𝑠𝑓 = =𝑠
𝑁𝑠
Where 𝑁𝑠=synchronous speed
𝑁 = speed of rotor in the direction of forward flux
The slip w.r.t. the backward flux will be
𝑁𝑠 − (−𝑁)
𝑆𝑏 = =2−𝑠
𝑁𝑠
𝑠𝑏 = 2 − 𝑠
Thus for forward rotating flux, slip is s (less than unity) and for backward rotating flux, the slip
is 2 - s (greater than unity).

Cross-Field Theory:
As soon as the rotor begins to tum a speed an emf E is induced in the rotor conductors, as
they cut the stator flux. Thus voltage increases as the rotor speed increases. It causes current
𝐼𝑅 to flow in the rotor bars facing the stator poles.
This currents produce an ac flux ∅𝑅 which act at right angle to the stator flux ∅ .∅𝑅 lags
almost 90° behind ∅𝑠 owing to the inductance of the rotor. The combined action of ∅𝑠 and
∅𝑅 produces a revolving magnetic field, similar to that in three-phase motor. The value of ∅𝑅
increases with increasing speed, becoming almost equal to ∅𝑠 at synchronous speed and
nearly perfect revolving field is produced.

Rotor at standstill
The stator winding in excited by the single phase a.c. supply. The supply produces an
alternating flux ∅𝑠 which acts along the axis of stator winding. Due to this flux, emf gets
induced in the rotor conductors due to transformer action. This emf circulates current
through the rotor conductors. The direction of rotor current is so as to opposed the cause
producing it, which is stator flux ∅𝑠.Now the rotor conductors experience force whose
direction is found by Fleming’s left hand rule shown in figure below. Thus overall, the force
experienced by the rotor is zero. Hence no torque exists on the rotor and rotor cannot start
rotating.
Rotor running:
Assume now that an initial push is given to the rotor in anticlockwise direction. Due to the
rotation, the rotor physically cuts the stator flux and emf gets induced in the rotor. This is
called rotational emf or speed emf and this emf is in phase with the stator flux ∅𝑠 donated
as 𝐸2. This emf circulates current through rotor which is 𝐼2.This current produces its own flux
called rotor flux ∅𝑟. The axis of ∅, is at 90°. The axis of stator flux hence the rotor flux is called
cross field.
Thus ∅, is in quadrature with ∅𝑠, in space and lags, ∅𝑠 by 90° in time phase. Such two fluxes
produce the rolating magnetic field. The directíon of this rotating magnetic field will be same
as the direction of intial push given. Thus rotor experience a torque in the same direction as
that of rotating magnetic field i.e., the direction of initial push.
Why Single-phase Induction Motor is not self starting?
According to double field revolving theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two
components, each component have magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude
of the alternating quantity and both these components rotate in opposite direction to each
other.
When a single phase ac supply is given to the stator winding of single phase induction motor,
it produces its flux of magnitude∅ . According to the double field revolving theory, this
∅𝑚
alternating flux, ∅𝑚 , is divided into two components of magnitude . Each of these
2
components will rotate in opposite direction, with the synchronous speed, Ns.
Let these two components of flux are forward component of flux, ∅𝑓 and backward
component of flux∅𝑏.The resultant of these two components of flux at any instant of time,
gives the value of instantaneous stator flux at that particular instant.
i.e. ∅ = ∅𝑚 + ∅𝑚 or ∅ = ∅ + ∅
𝑟 2 2 𝑟 𝑓 𝑏

At starting, both the forward and backward components of flux are exactly opposite to each
other Also both of these components of flux are equal in magnitude. So, they cancel each
other and hence the net torque experienced by the rotor at starting is zero. So, the single
phase induction motors are not self starting motors.

Torque-speed characteristics:

Torque-speed characteristic
At start N=0 and at that point resultant torque is zero. So single phase induction motors are
not self starting. However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the resultant
average torque increase in the direction in which the rotor initially rotated and motor starts
rotating in that direction .
Making Single-Phase Induction Motor Self-Starting:
The single-phase induction motor is not self starting. However if the rotor is rotate by some
external mechanical force in either direction rotor start to rotate in that direction
continuously, but in practice it is not possible to give initial torque to rotor externally. Hence
some modifications are done in the construction of single phase induction motor to make
them self starting.
To make a single-phase induction motor self-starting, a revolving stator magnetic field is
produced. This may be achieved by providing an auxiliary winding (starting winding) in
addition to the main winding for producing the starting torque, so that motor becomes self
starting. When the motor attains sufficient speed, the starting means (i.e., additional winding)
may be removed depending upon the type of the motor.

Types of Single Phase Induction Motors:

Single-phase induction motors are classified and named according to the method employed
to make them self-starting.

1. Split-phase motors-started by two phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary
or starting winding.
2. Capacitor motors-started by two-phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary
winding and a capacitor.
3. Shaded-pole motors-started by the motion of the magnetic field produced by means
of a shading coil around a portion of the pole structure.

Split-Phase Induction Motor:

 The stator of a split-phase induction motor is provided with an auxiliary or starting
winding S in addition to the main or running winding M.
 The starting winding is located 90° electrical from the main winding and operates only
during the period when the motor starts up.
 The two windings are so designed that the starting winding S has a high resistance and
relatively small reactance while the main winding M has relatively low resistance and
large reactance. Consequently, the currents flowing in the two windings have
reasonable phase difference α (25° to 30°).
Main Parts of Split Phase Induction Motor:
1. Stator
2. Stator winding
3. Rotor
4. Centrifugal switch
5. End shield

1. Stator: Stator consists of steel sheet stampings having slots in its inner periphery. It
serves the purpose to carry to stator winding and to cover, support and covering to
other parts of the machine.
2. Stator winding: Split phase induction motor has two stator windings at a phase
displacement of 90°. The running winding is always lower than the starting winding.
The starting winding has more resistance. The split phase motors are usually wound
1 1
to give 𝑡𝑜 horse power.
2 3
3. Rotor: The rotor of a split phase motor is very similar to the squirrel cage rotor of 3-
phase induction motor. The core consists of steel sheet laminations having slots on
the rotor periphery. The slots carry a number of copper, aluminium bars. The ends of
the conductors in slot are connected and permanently short circuited by means of
copper end rings.
4. Centrifugal switch: Centrifugal is a mechanical device which is used in split phase
induction motor to disconnect the winding when starting the motor attains 75-80% of
the synchronous speed. When the rotor of the motor pick up speed about 75% of
synchronous speed, switch opens circuit of the starting winding. The centrifugal switch
also prevents the motor from putting the drawing excessive current from main by
starting winding out of the circuit.
5. End Shield: End shields are the end covers of the motor. It protects the motor from
the dust and moisture etc. The entire weight of the rotor comes on the end bearings
of the motor.

Operation:
(i) When the two stator windings are energized from a single-phase supply, the main
winding carries current 𝐼𝑚while the starting winding carries current 𝐼 .
(ii) Since main winding is made highly inductive while the starting winding highly
resistive, the currents 𝐼𝑚and 𝐼𝑠have a reasonable phase angle 𝛼(25° to 30°) between
them. Consequently, a weak revolving field approximating to that of a 2-phase
machine is produced which starts the motor. The starting torque is given by;
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑘𝐼𝑚𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
where k is a constant whose magnitude depends upon the design of the motor.
(iii) When the motor reaches about 75% of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch
opens the circuit of the starting winding. The motor then operates as a single-phase
induction motor and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed. The
normal speed of the motor is below the synchronous speed and depends upon the
load on the motor.
Performance Characteristics:
(i) The starting torque is 1.5 to 2 times the full-loud torque mid (lie starting current is 6
to 8 times the full-load current.
(ii) Due to their low cost, split-phase induction motors are most popular single phase
motors in the market.
(iii) Since the starting winding is made of fine wire, the current density is high and the
winding heats up quickly. If the starting period exceeds 5 seconds, the winding may
burn out unless the motor is protected by built-in-thermal relay. This motor is,
therefore, suitable where starting periods are not frequent.
(iv) These motors are essentially constant-speed motors. The speed variation is 2-5%
from no-load to full load.
(v) These motors are suitable where a moderate starting torque is required and where
starting periods are infrequent to drive.

Torque-speed characteristics of Split Phase Motor:

The high starting torque is obtained in a split phase induction motor due to high resistance in
the starting winding. Such motors are available in sizes 30 to 200 watts. They gives fairly
constant speed.

Reversal of direction of rotation: The direction of rotation of a 1-phase (split phase) induction
motor can be reversed by reversing (inter-changing) the connections of either starting
winding or running winding.

Applications:
 As starting torque is not so high so this machine is not used where large starting torque
is required. It is used for smaller sizes about 0.25 H.P.
 It is used in washing machines, blowers, wood working tools, grinders and various
other low starting torque applications.
Capacitors Motors:
The stator of the capacitor motors have two windings like split-phase induction motor i.e.,
starting winding and running winding, But in this motor phase angle between the currents of
main and starting winding is obtained by using capacitors. Moreover, the phase splitting is
achieved by using a capacitor is placed in series with the starting winding. The capacitor
induces necessary phase shift.

Advantages of use of capacitor:

1. The starting torque is higher as compared to split phase motor.
2. Power factor of the motors gets improved.
3. Starting current is low.
The capacitor may be connected in series with the starting winding in three different way
therefore capacitor motor may be:
(i) Capacitor start motor
(ii) Capacitor run motor
(iii) Capacitor start and capacitor run motor

Capacitor start motor:

 In these types of motors, the necessary splitting of phase for starting is provided using
capacitor.
 The capacitor generally used of electrolyte type and designed for short duty period.
Electrolyte capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding along with
centrifugal switch S.
 This switch disconnects the capacitor as soon as motor reaches 75% of full speed. The
motor is not operated on running winding only. It is used where high starting is
required.
Performance Characteristics:
(i) The starting characteristics of a capacitor-start motor are better than those of a split-
phase motor, both machines possess the same running characteristics because the
main windings are identical.
(ii) The phase angle between the two currents is about 80° compared to about 25° in a
split-phase motor. Consequently, for the same starting torque, the current in the
starting winding is only about half that in a split-phase motor. Therefore, the starting
winding of a capacitor start motor heats up less quickly
(iii) It is well suited to applications involving either frequent or prolonged starting periods.
(iv) Its full load efficiency is about 65%.
(v) It is a constant speed motor as there is a very small fall in speed with load.

Torque-speed Characteristics of Capacitor Start Motor:

Capacitor Start Motor is having a high starting torque as compared to an ordinary split phase
motor. The power factor is also improved.

The direction of rotation of such motors can be reversed simple by interchanging the leads
of either running or starting winding.

Applications:
 Capacitor-start motors are used where high starting torque is required and where the
starting period may be long to drive.
 Hence these motors find their applications in pumps, compressor, conveyer and
refrigerators etc. Such motors are available between 0.5 H.P to 1 H.P.
Capacitor run motor:
 In these motors, a paper capacitor is permanently connected in the starting winding.
In this case electrolytic capacitor cannot be used since this type of capacitor is
designed only for short time rating and hence cannot be permanently connected in
the winding.
 Both main as well as starting winding is of equal rating and similar.
 No centrifugal switch or other such device has been used for disconnecting the
starting winding. The rotor is squirrel cage.
 In this motor the phase difference between two current is 90° .so starting torque is
high.

Performance Characteristics:
(i) The capacitor remains in circuit so resultant line current is low.
(ii) Power factor is improved may be about unity.
(iii) Its full load efficiency is higher about 75%.

Torque-speed Characteristics:

Applications: This motor finds application in fans, room coolers, portable tools and other
domestic and commercial appliances.
Capacitor start and capacitor run motor:
 In this case, two capacitors are used one for starting purpose and other for running
purpose.
 The capacitors used for starting purpose 𝐶𝑠 is of electrolytic type and is disconnected
from the supply when the motors attain 75% of synchronous speed with the help of
centrifugal switch S.
 Whereas, the other capacitor 𝐶𝑅 which remains in the circuit of starting winding
during operation is a paper capacitor. Starting capacitor 𝐶𝑠 which is of higher value
than the value of running capacitor 𝐶𝑅.

Performance Characteristics:
(i) The starting winding and the capacitor can be designed for perfect 2-phase operation
at any load. The motor then produces a constant torque and not a pulsating torque as
in other single-phase motors.
(ii) It improves the overload capacity of the motor.
(iii) It increases the efficiency of the motor.
(iv) It improves the power factor.
(v) It reduces the noise of the motor.
(vi) This type of motor gives best running and starting operation.
Torque-speed Characteristics:
Such motors operate as two phase motors giving best performance and noiseless operation.
Starting torque is high, starting current is low and gives better efficiency and higher power
factor.

Applications:
Because of constant torque, the motor is vibration free and can be used in: (a) hospitals (b)
studios and (c) other places where silence is important.
Shaded-pole Motors:
A shaded-pole motor may be defined as a single phase induction motor provided with short
circuited auxiliary winding displaced in magnetic position from the main winding. The shaded
pole motor has small output not exceeding 30 watts. Starting torque of shaded pole is very
small. It is suitable in low power domestic appliances.

Construction:
 The stator of shaded pole motors have salient pole and rotor is squirrel cage. Each
stator pole carries a magnetising coil.
 One third portion of each pole of stator is short circuited using copper band or ring
known as Shading band/coil (shaded portion of the pole), because it causes the flux in
that portion of the pole sourrounded by it to lag behind the flux in the rest of the pole.
 Basically, the pole is split in two parts at its face, shaded part and unshaded part.
 The rotor is also made of laminations. Along the circular surface, there are number of
holes in which copper bars are fitted. The ends of these bars are soldered to copper
end plate at each end.
Operation:

i. When single phase ac. supply is given to the stator of shaded pole induction motor an
alternating flux is produced.
ii. This changing flux induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this shaded portion is short
circuited, the current is produced in shaded portion in such a direction to oppose the
main flux.
iii. The flux in shaded pole lags behind the flux in the unshaded pole. The phase difference
between these two fluxes produces resultant rotating flux.
iv. Thus due to this resultant rotating field emf is induced in the rotor, the rotor starts
rotating due to single phase induction motor action additional torque is produced and
rotor rotates continuously with the speed less than synchronous speed.
v. The direction of rotating field(flux) is from unshaded to shaded portion of the pole.

The reversal of direction of rotation in shaded pole motor is not possible.

Torque-speed characteristic:
The starting torque is small typically only 30 to 50 percent of the rated torque.

Torque-speed characteristic curve of a shaded pole motor.

Advantages:
1. It has rugged construction.
2. Small in size.
3. Cheaper in cost.
4. Low maintenance is required.
5. It is more reliable
6. There is no commutator, switch, contacts or brushes to give any trouble during
operation.
Disadvantages:
1. Starting torque is very low about 8 to 15 percentage.
2. Low Power factor.
3. Small power rating.
4. The shaded-pole motors are inefficient because of the losses in the permanently
shorted winding.

Applications:
As starting torque is very low, these motors are mainly used in record players, tape recorders,
slide projectors, photo copying machine, starting of electric clocks, hair dryers, toys,
gramophones.
 CHAPTER-5
COMMUTATOR MOTORS

The commutator motors are so called because the wound rotor of this kind of motor is
equipped with a commutator and brushes. This group consists of the following two classes:
1. Those operating on the principle of the series motor in which the energy is
conductively carried both to the rotor armature and its series-connected single
phase stator field.
2. Those operating on ‘repulsion principle' (repulsion motors) in which energy is
inductively transferred from the single phase stator field winding to the rotor.

A.C. SERIES MOTOR:

The series motor due to its desirable speed-torque characteristics is almost exclusively use
in railway service. It is more convenient and more economical to transmit power and to
transform voltages in A.C. systems than with direct currents has lead to the development of
the A.C. series motor for use on some of the important electrifications.

Construction:
The construction of an a.c. series motor is very similar to a d.c. series motor but some
modifications are necessary in d.c series motor that is to operate satisfactorily on a.c.

Modifications and improvement in design of D.C. series motor to operate on A.C. supply
In order to get satisfactory operation following modifications are to be done
(i) The yoke and the poles should be made from laminations in order to reduce the eddy
currents.
(ii) In order to reduce the effect of armature reaction, motor is provided with additional
compensating winding in series field and armature winding.
(iii) In order to reduce inductive reactance, motor is built with a few turns. This reduces the
voltage drop across the field winding.
(iv) In order to obtain the required torque, armature turns are increased.
(v) There is considerable sparking between the brushes and the commutator when the
motor is used on a.c. supply. This can be eliminated by using high-resistance leads to
connect the coils to the commutator segments.
Working Principle:
The working principle of an A.C. series motor is the same as that of that
D.C. series motor. The armature and field are wound and interconnected in the same manner
as the D.C. series motor.

When the motor is connected to an a.c. supply, the same alternating current flows
through the field and armature windings. The field winding produces an alternating flux that
reacts with the current flowing in the armature to produce a torque. The field flux and
armature current reverse simultaneously every half cycle, but the direction of the torque
remains unchanged. The rotor, therefore, continuously rotate in the same direction.

Torque-speed Characteristic:
The torque speed characteristic of an a.c. series motor is similar to that of a dc. series motor.
The torque varies as square of the current and speed varies inversely as the current. The
efficiency of a.c. series motor is not good as compared to d.c. series motor due to greater
eddy current loss and effect of power factor.

Advantages:
1. It is a constant speed motor.
2. The motor is very useful where constant speed is required such as electric clock etc.
Disadvantages:
To make a.c. series motor from d.c. series motor special structural changes must be
needed to make in the motor to make it a practical and reasonable efficient machine.

Applications:
1. The most important application of a.c. series motor in electric traction.
2. For driving electric clocks and phonographs.

UNIVERSAL MOTOR:
 Fractional-horsepower series motors that are adapted for use on either D.C. or A.C.
circuits of a given voltage are called universal motors.
 These motors are generally series wound (armature and field winding are in series),
and hence produce high starting torque.
 They run at lower speed on AC supply than they run on DC supply of same voltage,
due to the reactance voltage drop which is present in AC and not in DC.
There are two basic types of universal motor: (i) compensated type and (ii) uncompensated
type

Construction of Universal Motor:

The construction of a universal motor is very similar to construction of a d.c. machine.
 It consists of a stator on which field poles are mounted. Field coils are wound on the
field poles.
 However, the whole magnetic path (stator field) circuit and also armature is
laminated. Lamination is necessary to minimize the eddy currents which induce while
operating on AC.
 The rotary armature is of wound type having straight or skewed slots and commutator
with brushes resting on it.
 The commutation on AC is poorer than the for DC, because of the current induced in
the armature coils. For that reason brushes used are having high resistance.
Working of Universal Motor:
A universal motor works on either DC or single phase AC supply. When the universal
motor is fed with a DC supply. it works as a DC series motor. When current flows in field
winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same current also flows from the armature
conductors. When a current carrying conductor is placed in an electromagnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force, or torque, the rotor starts to
rotate. The direction of this force is given by Fleming left hand rule.

When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque. Because, armature
winding and field winding are connected in series, they are in same phase. Hence as polarity
of AC changes periodically, the direction of current in armature and field winding reverses at
the same time. Thus, direction of magnetic field and the direction of armature current
reverses in such a way that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors
remains same. Thus, regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motor works on the same
principle that DC series motor.

Reversal of Direction of Rotation:

The direction of rotation can be changed by interchanging connections to the field with
respect to the armature as in a d.c. series motor.

Speed-Torque Characteristics:
Speed/torque characteristics of a universal motor is similar to that of DC series motor.
(i) The speed of universal motor is low at full load and very high at no load.
(ii) The motor torque is high for large armature current giving high starting torque.
(iii) At Full load, the PF is about 90%
(iv) Most of the universal motors are designed to operate at higher speeds, exceeding
3500 RPM.
(v) Universal motor may be built to operate satisfactorily either 50 Hz a.c. or direct
current, at 115 or 230 volts d.c.
Advantages of Universal Motor:
1. It is small in size.
2. Less expensive.
3. High speed from 3600 rpm to 25000 rpm
4. High torque at low and intermediate speeds.
5. Higher power output.

Disadvantages:
1. Poor commutation on a.c operation.
2. Motor become noisy at high speeds.
3. Requirement for careful balancing to avoid vibrations.

Applications:
Due to the good starting torque, high efficiency and speed, these motors suitable tor
following applications.
1. Universal motors find their use in various home appliances like vacuum cleaners, drink
and food mixtures, domestic sewing machine and hair dryers.
2. The higher rating universal motors used in portable drills, blenders etc.
3. Used in portable toys, hand tools, electric typewriters, cameras and electric shavers
etc.

REPULSION MOTOR:
A repulsion motor is similar to an a.c. series motor except that
(i) Brushes are not connected to supply but are short-circuited. Consequently, currents
are induced in the armature conductors by transformer action.
(ii) The field structure has non-salient pole construction.

By adjusting the position of short-circuited brushes on the commutator, the starting torque
can be developed in the motor.

Construction:
 The field of stator winding is wound like the main winding of a split-phase motor and
is connected directly to a single-phase source.
 The armature or rotor is similar to a d. c. motor armature with drum type winding
connected to a commutator.
 The brushes are not connected to supply but are connected to each other or short-
circuited. Short-circuiting the brushes effectively makes the rotor into a type of
squirrel cage.
 By using a commutator motor with brushes short-circuited, it is possible to vary the
starting torque by changing the brush axis. It has also better power factor than the
conventional single-phase motor.
Principle of operation:
Let us consider a two-pole repulsion motor with its two short-circuited brushes shown in
figure below.
i. In Fig.(i), the brush axis is parallel to the stator field. When the stator winding is
energized from single-phase supply, e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors
(rotor) by induction. By Lenz’s law, the direction of the e.m.f. is such that the magnetic
effect of the resulting armature currents will oppose the increase in flux. With the
brush axis in the position, current will flow from brush B to brush A where it enters
the armature and flows back to brush B through the two paths ACB and ADB. With
brushes set in this position, half of the armature conductors under the N-pole carry
current inward and half carry current outward and similar under S-pole. Therefore, as
much torque is developed in one direction as in the other and the armature remains
stationary. The armature will also remain stationary if the brush axis is perpendicular
to the stator field axis. It is because even then net torque is zero.
ii. If the brush axis is at some angle other than 0° or 90° to the axis of the stator field, a
net torque is developed on the rotor and the rotor accelerates to its final speed shown
in Fig.(ii). The brushes have been shifted clockwise through some angle from the stator
field axis. Now e.m.f. is still induced in the direction and current flows through the two
paths of the armature winding from brush B to brush A. Because of the new brush
positions, the greater part of the conductors under the N pole carry current in one
direction while the greater part of conductors under S-pole carry current in the
opposite direction. With brushes in the position torque is developed in the clockwise
direction and the rotor quickly attains the final speed.
iii. The total armature torque in a repulsion motor can be
𝑇𝑎 𝖺 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼
where 𝛼= angle between brush axis and stator field axis
For maximum torque, 2𝛼= 90° or 𝛼 = 45°

Reversal of Direction of Rotation:

 The direction of rotation of the rotor depends upon the direction in which the brushes
are shifted. If the brushes are shifted in clockwise direction from the stator field axis,
the net torque acts in the clockwise direction and the rotor accelerates in the
clockwise direction.
 If the brushes are shifted in anti-clockwise direction the armature current under the
pole faces is reversed and the net torque is developed in the anti-clockwise direction. 
Thus a repulsion motor may be made to rotate in either direction depending upon the
direction in which the brushes are shifted.

Characteristics:
(i) The repulsion motor has characteristics very similar to those of an a.c. series motor
i.e., it has a high starting torque and a high speed at no load.
(ii) The speed which the repulsion motor develops for any given load will depend upon
the position of the brushes.
(iii) In comparison with other single-phase motors, the repulsion motor has a high starring
torque and relatively low starting current.

REPULSION-START INDUCTION-RUN MOTOR:

The action of a repulsion motor is combined with that of a single phase induction motor
to produce repulsion-start induction-run motor. The machine is started as a repulsion motor
with a corresponding high starting torque but after it reaches 75% of its full speed, a
centrifugal device short-circuits the commutator so that the machine then operates as a
single-phase induction motor.
The repulsion-start induction-run motor has the same general construction of a repulsion
motor. The only difference is that in addition to the basic repulsion motor construction, it is
equipped with a centrifugal device fitted on the armature shaft. When the motor reaches 75%
of its full speed, the centrifugal device forces a short-circuiting ring to come in contact with
the inner surface of the commutator. This short-circuits all the commutator bars. The rotor
then resembles squirrel-cage type and the motor runs as a single-phase induction motor. At
the same time, the centrifugal device raises the brushes from the commutator which reduces
the wear of the brushes and commutator as well as makes the operation quiet.

Characteristics:
(i) The starting torque is 2.5 to 4.5 times the full-load torque and the starting current is
3.75 times the full-load value.
(ii) Due to their high starting torque, repulsion-motors were used to operate devices such
as refrigerators, pumps, compressors, grinding devices,floor-polishing etc.

REPULSION-INDUCTION MOTOR:
The repulsion-induction motor produces a high starting torque entirely due to repulsion
motor action. When running, it functions through a combination of induction-motor and
repulsion motor action.
Construction:
It consists of a stator and a rotor (or armature).
(i) The stator carries a single distributed winding fed from single-phase supply.
(ii) The rotor is provided with two independent windings placed one inside the other. The
inner winding is a squirrel-cage winding with rotor bars permanently short-circuited.
Placed over the squirrel cage winding is a repulsion commutator armature winding.
The repulsion winding is connected to a commutator on which ride short-circuited
brushes. There is no centrifugal device and the repulsion winding functions at all
times.
Operation:
(i) When single-phase supply is given to the stator winding, the repulsion winding (i.e.,
outer winding) is active. Consequently, the motor starts as a repulsion motor with a
corresponding high starting torque.
(ii) As the motor speed increases, the current shifts from the outer to inner winding due
to the decreasing impedance of the inner winding with increasing speed.
Consequently, at running speed, the squirrel cage winding carries the greater part of
rotor current. This shifting of repulsion motor action to induction-motor action is thus
achieved without any switching arrangement.
(iii) Themotor starts as a repulsion motor. When running, it functions through a
combination of principle of induction and repulsion; the former being predominant.

Characteristics:
(i) The no-load speed of a repulsion-induction motor is somewhat above the
synchronous speed because of the effect of repulsion winding. However, the speed at
full-load is slightly less than the synchronous speed as in an induction motor.
(ii) The speed regulation of the motor is about 6%.
(iii) The starting torque is 2.25 to 3 times the full-load torque; the lower value being for
large motors. The starting current is 3 to 4 times the full-load current.

Applications:
This type of motor is used for applications requiring a high starting torque with essentially
a constant running speed. Its field of application includes house-hold refrigerators,
garage air pumps, petrol pumps, compressors, machine tools, mixing machines, lifts and
hoists etc. The common sizes are 0.25 to 5 H.P.
 CHAPTER-6
SPECIAL ELECTRICAL MACHINE

Stepper Motor:
These motors are also called stepping motors or step motors. The name stepper is used
because this motor rotates through a fixed angular step in response to each input current
pulse received by its controller. they can be controlled directly by computers,
microprocessors and programmable controllers.
The stepper motor rotates in discrete step angles. Its output shaft rotates in a series of
discrete angular intervals or steps, one step being taken each time a command pulse is
received. When a definite number of pulses are supplied, the shaft turns through a definite
known angle. This makes the motor well-suited for open-loop position control because no
feedback need be taken from the output shaft.
Stepping motors are ideally suited for situations where either precise positioning or
precise speed control or both are required in automation systems. Such motors develop
torques ranging from 1 𝜇N-m (in a tiny wrist watch motor of 3 mm diameter) up to 40 N-m in
a motor of 15 cm diameter suitable for machine tool applications. Their power output ranges
from about 1 W to a maximum of 2500 W.
The only moving part in a stepping motor is its rotor which has no windings, commutator
or brushes. This makes the motor quite robust and reliable. Absence of brushes and
commutator makes the operation of stepper motor free from noise.

Principle of Operation:
Steeper motors work on the principle of electro-magnetism. A series of electromagnets
arranged in a circle are energised in sequence by the train of pulses. The magneto-motive
force developed in them and interact with the rotor (iron piece) and cause it to turn in
clockwise or anticlockwise direction depending upon the energised electromagnet position.
Advantages:
1. Low cost.
2. Small in size.
3. It is available in wide range of step angles i.e. from 1.8° to 90°.
4. Excellent torque at low speeds.
5. Low maintenance (brushless).
6. The starting current is low.
7. Excellent for precise positioning control.
8. It has low speed without reduction gears.

Disadvantages:
1. Overall efficiency is low
2. Limited size available
3. Torque decreases with speed

Applications of Stepper Motor:

Such motors are used for
1. Operation control in computer peripherals.
2. In textile industry
3. IC fabrications and robotics etc
4. For incremental motion such as typewriter, line printers, tape drives, floppy disk
drivers.
5. For numerical controlled machine tools, process controls system and X-Y plotters.
6. It is also used in commercial, military and medical purpose. In such cases it performs
the function like mixing, cutting, striking etc.
7. They also take part in the manufacture of packed food stuffs etc.
8. As the motor speed is proportional to rate of common pulses, it can be used for speed
control.

Characteristics of Stepper Motor:

 As the stepping rate is increased, the motor can provide less torque because the rotor
has less time to drive the load from one position to the next position.
 The start range is that in which load position follows the pulse without losing steps.
Slew range is that in which the load velocity follows the pulse rate without losing steps
but cannot start or reverse on signal. The maximum torque point is the point at which
the torque is maximum.
 If the stepping rate is increased too quickly, the motor loses synchronism and stops.
If when the motor is slewing, command pulses are suddenly stopped instead of being
progressively slowed.
 When the pulse rate is high, the shaft rotation seems continuous. Operation at high
speeds is called ‘slewing’.
 Torque pulse rate characteristics of stepper motor

Definition related to Stepper Motor:

1. Step Angle:
The angle through which the motor shaft rotates for each command pulse is called the
step angle. Smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution and higher the
resolution or accuracy of positioning obtained. The step angles can be as small as 0.72° or as
large as 90°. But the most common step sizes are 1.8°. 2.5°. 7.5° and 15°. Step angle can be
measured in terms of angular displacement of rotor shaft. It is denoted by 𝛽.
The value of step angle can be expressed either in terms of the rotor and stator poles
(teeth) 𝑁𝑟 and 𝑁𝑠 respectively or in terms of the number of stator phases (m) and the number
of rotor pole (teeth).
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟
𝛽= × 360°
𝑁𝑠𝑁𝑟
360° 360°
Or 𝛽= =
𝑚×𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠×𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

2. Resolution:
Resolution is defined as the number of steps needed to complete one revolution
of the rotor shaft. Higher the resolution, greater the accuracy of positioning of objects
by the motor.
360°
Resolution= Number of steps per revolution =
𝛽

3. Pulse frequency resolution:

If 𝑓 is the stepping frequency (or pulse rate) in pulses per second
(pps) and 𝛽 is the step angle, then motor shaft speed is given by
𝛽×𝑓
𝑛= 𝑟𝑝𝑠 = 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
360°
Types of Stepper Motors:
The stepper motor can be classified depending upon the type of rotor. The following are
main types of stepper motor.
1. Variable Reluctance (VR) stepper motor
2. Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor
3. Hybrid stepper motor.

Variable Reluctance (VR) stepper motor:

Construction: A variable reluctance stepper motor has no permanent magnet on the
rotor. The rotor is made of ferromagnetic materials having teeth (pole) on the outer periphery
to obtain variable reluctance is called variable reluctance motor.

A variable reluctance stepper motor has salient pole on the stator. The stator having slots
in which multiple multiphase winding is placed.
The rotor is made of soft iron material and carries no windings.

Four phase 4/2 pole variable reluctance motor

Working: When the stator windings are excited in a proper sequence from d.c. supply
with the help of switches, a magnetic field is produced. It occupies the position where the
reluctance is minimum. Therefore the rotor axis aligns itself to the stator field axis.
When winding no.1 excited, the rotor aligns with the axis of phase 1. The rotor is stable in
this position, untill phase no.1 is de-energised. Next phase no. 2 excited and no. 1 is
disconnected. The rotor moves through one step 90° in the clockwise direction.
 Further phase 3 is excited and phase 2 is disconnected. The rotor is again moves through
90° in clockwise direction.
Thus on exciting the phases in sequence 1,2,3,4 & 1. The rotor moves through a step of
90° in clockwise direction at each transition. Therefore the rotor completes one revolution in
four steps. The direction of rotation can be reverse by reversing the sequence of switching
i.e., 1,4,3,2,1. The direction of rotation is also independent of direction of current through the
phases.
Summary: Variable stepper motor
1. The rotor is a soft iron cylinder with salient poles.
2. This the most in expensive stepper motor.
3. Large step angle.
4. A lead screw is often mounted to the shaft for linear stepping motion.

Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor:

Construction: In Permanent stepper motor the stator is similar to variable reluctance
motor but the rotor is made of permanent magnet of ferrite having even number of poles.
The stator has projecting poles but rotor is cylindrical and radially magnetized permanent
magnets.
The end connections of the winding are taken out to the terminal box for d.c. excitations.
The rotor is cylindrical consisting of even number of poles made of high retentivity.
The rotor poles align with the stator poles depending on the excitation of the winding.

Two phase 4/2 pole permanent magnet stepper motor

Working: The two coils A-A' are connected in series to form phase A winding the two
coils B-B' connected in series form phase B winding. When winding B is energized by the
exciting current and A does not carry any current the rotor moves by step of 90° in clockwise
direction. Now if winding A is energised and B does not carry any current, the rotor moves
further by step of 90° in clockwise direction. For further movement of 90° the winding A is
energised and so on.
To get rotation in anticlockwise direction the sequence of the stator winding in changed.
Winding, A is energised first and then winding B and so on.
Truth table Phase
Cycle A B Position 𝛼°
+ 1 0 0
0 1 90°
- 1 0 180°
0 1 270°
+ 1 0 360°

Advantages of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:

1. Permanent magnet stepper motor do not require any external exciting current.
2. Power consumption is low.
3. It has high starting torque as compared to variable reluctance stepper motor.
Disadvantages:
1. It has slower acceleration.
2. It is difficult to manufacture small permanent stepper motor with large number of
poles.
3. It has high inertia.
4. Step size of such motors is relatively large ranging from 30° to 90°

Summary of Permanent Stepper Motor

1. The rotor is a permanent magnet, often ferrite magnetized with number of poles.
2. Large to moderate step angle
3. Often used in computer printer to advance paper.

HYBRID STEPPER MOTORS:

A hybrid stepper motor combines the features of variable reluctance motor and
permanent magnet stepper motors. The direction of its torque also depends upon the polarity
of the stator current. The rotor of such type motor consists of a permanent magnet.
Construction: It is the combination of permanent magnet stepper motor and variable
reluctance stepper motor. The rotor consists of a permanent magnet which is magnetized
axially to make N and S pole.
Two end-caps are fitted at both ends of this axial magnet. These end-caps consist of equal
number of teeth which are magnetized with polarities by the axial magnet.
 (a)Cross-section YY’ (b)Axial view (c)Cross-section XX’

Working: Phase A is excited in such a fashion that the top portion of stator pole is a S-
pole so that it attracts the N-pole of the rotor and brings it in line with the A - A' axis. Further
to turn to rotor phase A is de-energized and phase B is excited positively. The rotor will turn
360°
in clockwise (CW) direction by a full step of 18° ((5 − 4) × ).
5×4
Next, phase A and B are energized negatively one after the other to produce further
rotation of 18° each in the same direction.
The hybrid stepping motors are built with more rotor poles than shown in order to give
higher angular resolution.
As compared to variable reluctance motor, hybrid motor requires less excitation to
achieve a given torque.

Advantages of Hybrid Stepper Motors:

The main advantages of hybrid stepper motors as compared with variable reluctance stepper
motors are:
1. It is used where stepping is small (e.g., 1.5°, 2.5°)
2. Higher efficiency at lower speeds.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Stepper Motors:

1. More weight due to the presence of rotor magnet.
2. More costly than variable reluctance stepper motors.

Summary of Hybrid Stepper Motor:

1. The step angle smaller than variable reluctance or permanent magnet steppers
motor.
2. The rotor is permanent magnet with fine teeth.
3. The stator windings are divided into not less than two phases.
Comparison between permanent magnet, variable reluctance and hybrid
stepper motor:
Sl. Characteristic Permanent Variable Hybrid
No. Magnet Reluctance
1. Cost Cheapest Moderate Most expensive

2. Resolution 30° - 3°/step 1.8°/per step 1.8°/per step and

smaller
3. Noise Quiet Noisy Quiet

4. Design Moderately complex Simple Complex

5. Stepping Run in full half and Run in full Run in full half
microstepping step only and microstepping

Due to the manufacturing process for the permanent magnet motor it is cheaper. Hybrid
and variable reluctance motors are more expensive due to the geared rotor.
Permanent magnet rotors are physically limited by the number of pole pairs. Hybrid and
variable reluctance motor have very fine resolution due to the geared construction of the
rotor.
However noise of the motor is also taken into consideration. Variable reluctance motors
are typically noiser than their permanent magnet or hybrid motor.
 CHAPTER -7
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Vector Group of Transformer:
Three phase transformer consists of three sets of primary windings one for each phase
and three sets of secondary winding wound on the same core.
The primary windings are connected in one of several ways. The two most common
configurations are the star, in which all three non-polarities ends are connected together
and delta, in which the polarity end of one winding is connected to the non-polarity end of
the next, The secondary windings are connected similarly. This means that a 3-phase
transformer can have its primary and secondary windings connected the same (star-star or
delta-delta) or differentially (star-delta or delta-star).
 If the secondary voltage waveforms are in phase with the primary waveforms when
the primary and secondary windings are connected the same way. This condition is
called "no phase shift.
 When the primary and secondary winding are connected differentially the secondary
voltage waveforms will differ from the corresponding primary voltage waveforms by
30° electrical degrees. This is called a 30 degree phase shift.
 When two transformers are connected in parallel, then phase shifts must be
identical, if not, a short circuit will occur when the transformers are energized.

The three phase transformer windings can be connected several ways. Based on the
windings connection the "vector group" of the transformer is determined.
The transformer "vector group" is indicated on the name plate of transformer by the
manufacturer. The "vector group" indicates the phase difference between the primary and
secondary sides, introduced due to that particular configuration of transformer windings
connection.
The determination of "vector group" of transformer is most important before
connecting two or more transformers in parallel.

If two transformers of different "Vector Groups" are connected in parallel then phase
difference exist between the secondary of the transformer and large circuiting current flows
between two transformers which is very detrimental.
 Transformer winding connections (a) Yy0 (b) Yy6 (c) Dd0 (d ) Dd6
The phase displacement is indicated by the angle in terms of clock face. The H.V.
vector being at 12'o' clock (zero) and corresponding L.V. vector at hour hand number thus,
Phase displacement 0° = 0
Phase displacement 180° lag = 6
Phase displacement 30° lag = 1
Phase displacement 30° lead =11

Letter Y represents star connected H.V.

Letter y represents star connected L.V.
Letter D represents delta connected H.V.
Letter d represents delta connected LV.
Letter Z represents star connected zig-zag.
Thus the symbol Yy0 represents a star/star winding with 0° displacement.
 The phase difference between high voltage (H.V.) and low-voltage (L.V.) windings for
different types of connections can be represented by comparing it with the hour hand of a
clock.
When the hour hand of the clock is at the 12 o' clock position it is considered zero
displacement. When it is at the 11 o' clock position the displacement is +30° i.e.,
anticlockwise is positive. When the hand is the 1 o’clock position the displacement is - 30
and at the 6 o' clock position it is 180°.

Transformers are classified in 4 vector groups 1, 2, 3, 4 depending upon the phase

displacement.

Group 0 clock Transformer connection

Group I 0 'o' clock, 0° delta/delta, star/star
Group II 6 'o' clock 180° delta/delt, star/star
Group III 1'o' clock -30° star/delta, delta/star
Group IV 11 o' clock + 30° star/delta, delta/star

Minus sign indicates LV lagging HV and plus sign indicates LV leading HV.
Winding Connection Designations
i. First symbol: For High voltage -> Always Capital Letters
D= Delta, Y = Star, Z- Interconnected star, N- Neutral
ii. Second Symbol: For low voltage -> Always small letter
d = delta, y = star, z - Interconnected star, n = neutral
iii. Third symbol: Phase displacement expressed as the clock hour number (1, 6, 11)
Example- Dyn 11.

Types of 3-Phase Transformer Connections:

According to inter-connection of three primary and three secondary windings, three phase
transformers may be classified into following four categories:
The main four connection are:
1. Star-star connection
2. Delta-delta connection
3. Delta-star connection
4. Star-delta connection
Star-Star (Y/Y) Connection:
In this type, the primary and secondary sides both are connected in star fashion. This
connection is most economical for small, high-voltage transformers because the number of
1
turns/phase and the amount of insulation required is minimum (as phase voltage is only
√3
of line voltage).

Star-star connection

Advantages:
1
(i) The phase voltage is times the line voltage, so fewer number of turns are
√3
required. Hence this type of transformer is cheaper.
(ii) Since primary and secondary windings both are connected in star, so there is no
phase shift between primary and secondary winding.
(iii) The windings have higher current, so more cross-section of the winding
conductor and thus it can be as heavy loads.
Disadvantages:
(i) If the primary neutral is not connected to the source unbalanced load causes a
moving neutral.
(ii) Phase voltage on load side changes unless neutral point is earthed on an
unbalanced load.
(iii) Transformer draws magnetising current consisting of third harmonic. If the
neutral of the primary is not connected with the neutral of generator,
magnetising current gets reduced and flux in the core is not sinusoidal leading to
the distorted output emf.

Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ) Connection:

In this type of transformer groups of winding of a 3-phase transformer are connected in
delta on primary side and secondary side. These types of connections are more suitable for
large transformers working on low voltage and high current. It has only disadvantage that
1
no neutral is available. The cross-section of the wire is reduced as the phase current is
√3
times the line current.
 Delta-Delta connection

Advantages:
1
(i) Current in winding is reduced to of line current, therefore, cross-sectional area
√3
of conductor reduces.
(ii) Unbalanced loads do not effect much.
(iii) No phase displacement between the primary and secondary.
(iv) Third harmonic can flow easily in Δ-Δ connections, therefore, sinusoidal voltages
are obtained.

Disadvantages:
(i) In this system neutral point is not available. Therefore, 3-phase 4 wire
connections are not possible secondly because 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑃 hence for higher voltage
heavy insulation has to be provided.
(ii) The absence of star point is a disadvantage.

Delta-Star(Δ-Y) Connection:
In this type of 3-phase transformer primary is connected in delta fashion and secondary as
star.

Delta-star Connection
 The delta-star connection is very popular at sub-station in power system for changing
the volage level. The Δ-Y connection is commonly used for stepping up to a high voltage. In
such cases the star winding supplies 3-phase, 4-wire distributors and delta winding is
connected to the input side i.e. primary. This connection is generally employed at the
beginning of high tension transmission system.

Advantages:
(i) Neutral can be brought out for grounding. This facilitates the use of 3-phase, 4-
wire system of distributions which is economical.
1
(ii) Because in the secondary side voltage per phase is reduced to of the line
√3
voltage, therefore, insulation reduced.

Star- Delta (Y- Δ) Connection:

When the primaries are connected in star and secondaries in delta the transformer is known as star-
delta transformer.
1
On the primary side the line voltage is times the phase voltage, while the line and phase
√3
voltages are equal on secondary side. Generally the H.V. winding is star connected to result in saving
in cost of insulation. Such types of transformers are used for stepping down the voltage at receiving
end sub-stations.

Star-Delta connection

Advantages:
This type of connections is suitable for stepping down a high voltage. Neutral of primary is
earthed.

Disadvantages:
The disadvantage of this connection is that if one of the bank becomes faulty, the feeder or
distributor becomes inoperative. Moreover because phase difference of 30° between the
primary and secondary line voltage, the combination cannot be operated in parallel with
delta-delta or star-star.
Parallel operation of the three phase transformers:
All the conditions for the successful parallel operation of single phase transformers also
apply to the parallel running of 3-phase transformers but with the following additions:
(i) The secondaries of all transformers must have the same phase sequence.
(ii) The phase displacement between primary and secondary line voltages must be the
same for all transformers which are to be operated in parallel. For this, transformers
in the same group should be connected in parallel.
(iii) The secondaries of all transformers must have the same magnitude of line voltage.

The above three conditions must be strictly observed. If these conditions are not
compiled with, the secondaries will simply short-circuit one another and no output will be
possible.

Possible parallel operations

Sl. No. Transformer-l Transformer-II
1 Y/Y Δ/Δ
2 Y/Δ Δ/Y
3 Δ/Y Y/Δ
4 Y/Y Y/Y
5 Δ/Δ Δ/Δ

Tap Changing Transformers:

The change of voltage is affected by changing the numbers of turns of the transformer
provided with taps. For sufficiently close control of voltage, taps are usually provided on the
high voltage windings of the transformer.
Tappings are also provided for one of the following reasons
a) For varying secondary voltage.
b) For maintaining the secondary side constant with a varying primary voltage.
c) For providing a neutral point e.g., for earthing.
d) For providing the required voltage for special purpose, such as lighting.
There are two types of tap-changing transformers
1. No load or Off-load tap changing transformer

2. On-load tap changing transformer

No load or Off-load tap-changing transformer:

The cheapest method of changing the turn ratio of a transformer is the use of no-load or
off load tap changer. Off load tap changing is normally provided in low power, low voltage
transformers.
 In this method, the transformer is disconnected from the main supply when the tap
setting is to be changed. Such adjustments are made for seasonal load variations. Off load
tap-changer operation is manually executed by substation operator. Daily and short- time
voltage control Is not possible by off circuit tap switch.
Precautions: Off load tap changer is never operated on load. If by chance it would be
operated an load, there would be heavy sparking at the stud. When the arm is lifted from
them resulting in damage of transformer winding and the tap changer.

On-load tap changing transformer:

On load tap-changer is that type of tap changer in which the voltage can be regulated
while transformer is delivering normal load. The daily voltage variation due to changing load
and short period voltage variations are controlled by on load tap changer automatically.
In order that the supply may not be interrupted, on-load tap changing transformer is
used. Such a transformer is known as a tap-changing under load transformer.
With the introduction of On-load tap changer, the operating efficiency of the electrical
system gets considerably improved.

While tapping, two essential conditions are to be fulfilled.

• The load circuit should not be broken to avoid arcing and prevent the damage of contacts.
• No parts of the windings should be short–circuited while adjusting the tap.

There is not fixed rule regarding placing the tap-changer on primary and secondary. It
is generally desirable to locate the tap-changer on H.V. winding because of smaller current.

The tap changing employing a centre tapped reactor R show in the figure. Here S is the
diverter switch, and 1, 2, 3 are selector switch. The transformer is in operation with switches
1 and S closed. To change to tap 2, switch S is opened, and 2 is closed. Switch 1 is then
opened, and S closed to complete the tap change. The diverter switch operates on load, and
no current flows in the selector switches during tap changing. On-load tap-changer is
provided with a centre tapped reactor to prevent the short circuiting of the tapped winding
during the tap changing operation.
On-load tap-changing is also useful in industrial applications where variable voltage is
required for certain process.
Precautions:Never open the main circuit during the operation of tap-changer otherwise
dangerous sparking will occur.