MARUDHAR KESARI JAINCOLLEGE FOR WOMEN,VANIYAMBADI

PG DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER APPLICATIONS

CLASS: I BCA A & B

SUBJECT CODE:
SUBJECT NAME: Object Oriented Programming Concepts using C++

SYLLABUS

UNIT III
Operator Overloading: Overloading unary, binary operators –Overloading Friend functions –type
conversion – Inheritance: Types of Inheritance – Single, Multilevel, Multiple,
Hierarchal, Hybrid, Multi path inheritance – Virtual base Classes – Abstract Classes.
Operator Overloading
C++ has the ability to provide the operators with a special meaning for a data type, this ability
is known as operator overloading. Operator overloading is a compile-time polymorphism. For
example, we can overload an operator ‘+’ in a class like String so that we can concatenate two
strings by just using +. Other example classes where arithmetic operators may be overloaded
are Complex Numbers, Fractional Numbers, Big integers, etc.

What is a Unary Operator in C++?

To conduct mathematical and logical operations on numerical quantities, C++ includes a wide
variety of operators. The unary operators are one such extensively used operator. Unary
Operators work on the operations carried out on just one operand. Unary operators do not utilize
two operands to calculate the result as binary operators do.

A single operand/variable is used with the unary operator to determine the new value of that
variable. Unary operators are used with the operand in either the prefix or postfix position. Unar y
operators come in various forms and have right-to-left associativity and equal precedence.

These are some examples of, unary operators:

1. Increment operator (++),

2. Decrement operator (--),
3. Unary minus operator (-),
4. Logical not operator (!),
5. Address of (&), etc.

Overloading Unary Operators for User-Defined Classes:

Defining a Complex user-defined class in a C++ Program:

C++ Program:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Complex {
private:
int real, img;

public: Complex() {
real = 0;
img = 0;
}

Complex(int r, int i) {
real = r;
img = i;
}
}

There are two ways for unary operation overloading in C++, i.e.,

1. By adding the operator function as a class member function.

2. By using the global friend function created for the operator function.

Let's see both methods below using the Complex class defined above.
B. Overload Unary Minus (-) Operator using class Member function

C++ Program:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Complex {
private: int real,
img;

public: Complex() {
real = 0;
img = 0;
}

Complex(int r, int i) {
real = r;
img = i;
}

// Printing the complex number in the output.

void print() {
int newImg = img < 0 ? -img : img;
cout << real << (img < 0 ? " - " : " + ") << "i" << newImg << endl;
}

// Overloading unary Minus (-) operator.

Complex operator - () {
return Complex(-(this -> real), -(this -> img));
}
};

int main() {
// Instantiating a Complex object c1 with values.
Complex c1(-3, 4);

// Printing the c1 complex object in the output.

cout << "c1 = ";
c1.print();

// Invoking the overloaded unary minus (-) on c1 object and

// storing the returned object in a new c2 Complex object.
Complex c2 = -c1;

// Printing the c2 complex object in the output.

cout << "c2 = ";
c2.print();

return 0;
}

Try it yourself

Output:

c1 = -3 + i4
c2 = 3 - i4

Explanation:
 In the above C++ program, we have overloaded a minus (-) unary operator to work with
the Complex class objects.
 We can't simply use the minus (-) operator with the Complex class object. It will give a
compilation error until we have defined the minus (-) operator w.r.t to the Complex class
objects.
 We have provided a minus (-) operator overloaded definition in the Complex class. It is
invoked when we have used the unary minus(-) operator in the main() function with
the c2 object.

BINARY

 An operator is a symbol that operates on a value to perform specific mathematical or

logical computations. They form the foundation of any programming language. In
C++, we have built-in operators to provide the required functionality.
 An operator operates the operands. For example,
 int c = a + b;

 Here, ‘+’ is the addition operator. ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the operands that are being ‘added’.

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Ternary or Conditional Operators
1) Arithmetic Operators

These operators are used to perform arithmetic or mathematical operations on the operands. For
example, ‘+’ is used for addition, ‘-‘ is used for subtraction ‘*’ is used for multiplication, etc.

Arithmetic Operators can be classified into 2 Types:

A) Unary Operators: These operators operate or work with a single operand. For example:
Increment(++) and Decrement(–) Operators.

Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 5;
Increment Increases the integer value of the variable
++ a++; // returns
Operator by one
6
Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 5;
Decrement Decreases the integer value of the variable
— a–; // returns
Operator by one
4

Example:
the description

Output

a++ is 10

++a is 12

b-- is 15

--b is 13

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)
Note: ++a and a++, both are increment operators, however, both are slightly different.
In ++a, the value of the variable is incremented first and then It is used in the program. In a++,
the value of the variable is assigned first and then It is incremented. Similarly happens for the
decrement operator.
B) Binary Operators: These operators operate or work with two operands. For example:
Addition(+), Subtraction(-), etc.

Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 3, b = 6;
Addition + Adds two operands
int c = a+b; // c =
 Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 9, b = 6;
Subtraction – Subtracts second operand from the first int c = a-b; // c =
3

int a = 3, b = 6;
Multiplication * Multiplies two operands int c = a*b; // c =
18

Divides first operand by the second int a = 12, b = 6;

Division /
operand int c = a/b; // c = 2

int a = 8, b = 6;
Modulo Returns the remainder an integer
% int c = a%b; // c =
Operation division
2

Note: The Modulo operator(%) operator should only be used with integers.
Example:

 C++

// CPP Program to demonstrate the Binary Operators

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a = 8, b = 3;

// Addition operator

cout << "a + b = " << (a + b) << endl;

// Subtraction operator

cout << "a - b = " << (a - b) << endl;

// Multiplication operator

cout << "a * b = " << (a * b) << endl;

 // Division operator

cout << "a / b = " << (a / b) << endl;

// Modulo operator

cout << "a % b = " << (a % b) << endl;

return 0;

Output

a + b = 11

a-b=5

a * b = 24

a/b=2

a%b=2

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)
2) Relational Operators

These operators are used for the comparison of the values of two operands. For example, ‘>’
checks if one operand is greater than the other operand or not, etc. The result returns a Boolean
value, i.e., true or false.

Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 3, b
= 6;

Is Equal To == Checks if both operands are equal a==b;

// returns
false

int a = 3, b
= 6;
Checks if first operand is greater than the
Greater Than > a>b;
second operand
// returns
false

int a = 3, b
= 6;
Greater Than or Checks if first operand is greater than or
>= a>=b;
Equal To equal to the second operand
// returns
false
 Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 3, b
= 6;
Checks if first operand is lesser than the
Less Than < a<b;
second operand
// returns
true

int a = 3, b
= 6;
Less Than or Checks if first operand is lesser than or equal
<= a<=b;
Equal To to the second operand
// returns
true

int a = 3, b
= 6;

Not Equal To != Checks if both operands are not equal a!=b;

// returns
true

Example:

 C++

// CPP Program to demonstrate the Relational Operators

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a = 6, b = 4;

// Equal to operator

cout << "a == b is " << (a == b) << endl;

// Greater than operator

cout << "a > b is " << (a > b) << endl;

// Greater than or Equal to operator

cout << "a >= b is " << (a >= b) << endl;

 // Lesser than operator

cout << "a < b is " << (a < b) << endl;

// Lesser than or Equal to operator

cout << "a <= b is " << (a <= b) << endl;

// true

cout << "a != b is " << (a != b) << endl;

return 0;

Output

a == b is 0

a > b is 1

a >= b is 1

a < b is 0
a <= b is 0

a != b is 1

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)
Here, 0 denotes false and 1 denotes true. To read more about this, please refer to the article –
Relational Operators.

3) Logical Operators

These operators are used to combine two or more conditions or constraints or to complement the
evaluation of the original condition in consideration. The result returns a Boolean value,
i.e., true or false.

Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 3, b =
6;
Logical Returns true only if all the operands are true or
&&
AND non-zero a&&b;

// returns true

int a = 3, b =
6;
Returns true if either of the operands is true or
Logical OR ||
non-zero a||b;

// returns true

Logical int a = 3;
! Returns true if the operand is false or zero
NOT !a;
 Name Symbol Description Example

// returns
false

Example:

 C++

// CPP Program to demonstrate the Logical Operators

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a = 6, b = 4;

// Logical AND operator

cout << "a && b is " << (a && b) << endl;

 // Logical OR operator

cout << "a ! b is " << (a > b) << endl;

// Logical NOT operator

cout << "!b is " << (!b) << endl;

return 0;

Output

a && b is 1

a ! b is 1

!b is 0

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)
Here, 0 denotes false and 1 denotes true. To read more about this, please refer to the article –
Logical Operators.
4) Bitwise Operators
These operators are used to perform bit-level operations on the operands. The operators are first
converted to bit-level and then the calculation is performed on the operands. Mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. can be performed at the bit level for
faster processing.

Name Symbol Description Example

int a = 2, b =
Copies a bit to the evaluated result if it exists 3;
Binary AND &
in both operands (a & b);
//returns 2

int a = 2, b =
Copies a bit to the evaluated result if it exists 3;
Binary OR |
in any of the operand (a | b);
//returns 3

int a = 2, b =
Copies the bit to the evaluated result if it is 3;
Binary XOR ^
present in either of the operands but not both (a ^ b);
//returns 1

int a = 2, b =
Shifts the value to left by the number of bits 3;
Left Shift <<
specified by the right operand. (a << 1);
//returns 4

Right Shift >> Shifts the value to right by the number of bits int a = 2, b =
 Name Symbol Description Example

specified by the right operand. 3;

(a >> 1);
//returns 1

int b = 3;
One’s
~ Changes binary digits 1 to 0 and 0 to 1 (~b);
Complement
//returns -4

Note: Only char and int data types can be used with Bitwise Operators.
Example:

 C++

// CPP Program to demonstrate the Bitwise Operators

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a = 6, b = 4;
// Binary AND operator

cout << "a & b is " << (a & b) << endl;

// Binary OR operator

cout << "a | b is " << (a | b) << endl;

// Binary XOR operator

cout << "a ^ b is " << (a ^ b) << endl;

// Left Shift operator

cout << "a<<1 is " << (a << 1) << endl;

// Right Shift operator

cout << "a>>1 is " << (a >> 1) << endl;

 // One’s Complement operator

cout << "~(a) is " << ~(a) << endl;

return 0;

Output

a & b is 4

a | b is 6

a ^ b is 2

a<<1 is 12

a>>1 is 3

~(a) is -7

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)
To read more about this, please refer to the article – Bitwise Operators.

5) Assignment Operators

These operators are used to assign value to a variable. The left side operand of the assignment
operator is a variable and the right side operand of the assignment operator is a value. The value
on the right side must be of the same data type as the variable on the left side otherwise the
compiler will raise an error.

Namemultiply Symbol Description Example

int a =
Assignment Assigns the value on the right to the variable
= 2;
Operator on the left
// a = 2

int a = 2,
Add and First adds the current value of the variable on
b = 4;
Assignment += left to the value on the right and then assigns
Operator the result to the variable on the left a+=b; //
a=6

int a = 2,
Subtract and First subtracts the value on the right from the
-= b = 4;
Assignment current value of the variable on left and then
Operator assign the result to the variable on the left a-=b; //
a = -2

int a = 2,
Multiply and First multiplies the current value of the
b = 4;
Assignment *= variable on left to the value on the right and
Operator then assign the result to the variable on the left a*=b; //
a=8

int a = 4,
Divide and First divides the current value of the variable
/= b = 2;
Assignment on left by the value on the right and then
a /=b; //
 Namemultiply Symbol Description Example

Operator assign the result to the variable on the left a=2

Example:

 C++

// CPP Program to demonstrate the Assignment Operators

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a = 6, b = 4;

// Assignment Operator

cout << "a = " << a << endl;

 // Add and Assignment Operator

cout << "a += b is " << (a += b) << endl;

// Subtract and Assignment Operator

cout << "a -= b is " << (a -= b) << endl;

// Multiply and Assignment Operator

cout << "a *= b is " << (a *= b) << endl;

// Divide and Assignment Operator

cout << "a /= b is " << (a /= b) << endl;

return 0;

Output

a=6
 a += b is 10

a -= b is 6

a *= b is 24

a /= b is 6

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)

6) Ternary or Conditional Operators(?:)

This operator returns the value based on the condition.

Expression1? Expression2: Expression3

The ternary operator ? determines the answer on the basis of the evaluation of Expression1. If it
is true, then Expression2 gets evaluated and is used as the answer for the expression.
If Expression1 is false, then Expression3 gets evaluated and is used as the answer for the
expression.
This operator takes three operands, therefore it is known as a Ternary Operator.
Example:

 C++

// CPP Program to demonstrate the Conditional Operators

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a = 3, b = 4;

// Conditional Operator

int result = (a < b) ? b : a;

cout << "The greatest number is " << result << endl;

return 0;

Output

The greatest number is 4

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)
7) There are some other common operators available in C++ besides the operators discussed
above. Following is a list of these operators discussed in detail:
A) sizeof Operator: This unary operator is used to compute the size of its operand or variable.
sizeof(char); // returns 1
 B) Comma Operator(,): This binary operator (represented by the token) is used to evaluate its
first operand and discards the result, it then evaluates the second operand and returns this value
(and type). It is used to combine various expressions together.
int a = 6;

int b = (a+1, a-2, a+5); // b = 11

C) -> Operator: This operator is used to access the variables of classes or structures.
cout<<emp->first_name;

D) Cast Operator: This unary operator is used to convert one data type into another.
float a = 11.567;

int c = (int) a; // returns 11

E) Dot Operator(.): This operator is used to access members of structure variables or class
objects in C++.
cout<<emp.first_name;

F) & Operator: This is a pointer operator and is used to represent the memory address of an
operand.
G) * Operator: This is an Indirection Operator

 C++

// CPP Program to demonstrate the & and * Operators

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()

int a = 6;

int* b;

int c;

// & Operator

b = &a;

// * Operator

c = *b;

cout << " a = " << a << endl;

cout << " b = " << b << endl;

cout << " c = " << c << endl;

return 0;
}

Output

a=6

b = 0x7ffe8e8681bc

c=6

H) << Operator: It is called the insertion operator. It is used with cout to print the output.
I) >> Operator: It is called the extraction operator. It is used with cin to get the input.
int a;

cin>>a;

cout<<a;

Time Complexity: O(1)

Auxiliary Space : O(1)

Operator Precedence Chart

Precedence Operator Description Associativity

() Parentheses (function call) left-to-right

1. [] Brackets (array subscript)

. Member selection via object name

Precedence Operator Description Associativity

-> Member selection via a pointer

++/– Postfix increment/decrement

++/– Prefix increment/decrement right-to-left

+/- Unary plus/minus

!~ Logical negation/bitwise complement

2. (type) Cast (convert value to temporary value of type)

* Dereference

& Address (of operand)

sizeof Determine size in bytes on this implementation

3. *,/,% Multiplication/division/modulus left-to-right

4. +/- Addition/subtraction left-to-right

Precedence Operator Description Associativity

5. << , >> Bitwise shift left, Bitwise shift right left-to-right

< , <= Relational less than/less than or equal to left-to-right

6.

> , >= Relational greater than/greater than or equal to left-to-right

7. == , != Relational is equal to/is not equal to left-to-right

8. & Bitwise AND left-to-right

9. ^ Bitwise exclusive OR left-to-right

10. | Bitwise inclusive OR left-to-right

11. && Logical AND left-to-right

12. || Logical OR left-to-right

13. ?: Ternary conditional right-to-left

14. = Assignment right-to-left

Precedence Operator Description Associativity

+= , -= Addition/subtraction assignment

*= , /= Multiplication/division assignment

%= , &= Modulus/bitwise AND assignment

^= , |= Bitwise exclusive/inclusive OR assignment

<>= Bitwise shift left/right assignment

15. , expression separator left-to-right

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Operator Overloading using Friend Function in C++ with Examples:
In this article, I am going to discuss Operator Overloading using Friend Function in
C++ with Examples. Please read our previous article where we discussed Operator
Overloading in C++ with Examples. C++ Programming Language provides a special
mechanism to change the current functionality of some operators within its class which is often
called operator overloading. Operator Overloading is the method by which we can change the
function of some specific operators to do some different tasks.

Friend Function Operator Overloading in C++:

In our previous article, we have already seen how to overlord unary (++, –) and binary (+)
operators in C++ with Examples. There is one more method for overloading an operator in C++
that is using the friend function. Let us learn it through the same example that is using the same
Complex class. The following is the sample code that we have created in our previous article.
class Complex

private:

int real;

int img;

public:

Complex (int r = 0, int i = 0)

real = r;

img = i;

Complex add (Complex x)

{

Complex temp;

temp.real = real + x.real;

temp.img = img + x.img;

return temp;

void Display()

cout << real << "+i" << img <<endl;

};

int main()

Complex C1 (3, 7);

C1.Display();

Complex C2 (5, 2);

C2.Display();

Complex C3;

C3 = C1.add (C2); // C2.add(C1);

C3.Display();

}
Suppose we want to add two complex numbers i.e. C1 and C2,
C3 = C1 + C2;

Type Conversion in C++

A type cast is basically a conversion from one type to another. There are two types of type
conversion:

1. Implicit Type Conversion Also known as ‘automatic type conversion’.

 Done by the compiler on its own, without any external trigger from the user.
 Generally takes place when in an expression more than one data type is present. In
such condition type conversion (type promotion) takes place to avoid lose of data.
 All the data types of the variables are upgraded to the data type of the variable with
largest data type.
 bool -> char -> short int -> int ->

 unsigned int -> long -> unsigned ->

 long long -> float -> double -> long double

 It is possible for implicit conversions to lose information, signs can be lost (when
signed is implicitly converted to unsigned), and overflow can occur (when long long is
implicitly converted to float).
Explicit Type Conversion: This process is also called type casting and it is user-defined.
Here the user can typecast the result to make it of a particular data type.
In C++, it can be done by two ways:

 Converting by assignment: This is done by explicitly defining the required type in front
of the expression in parenthesis. This can be also considered as forceful casting.
Conversion using Cast operator: A Cast operator is an unary operator which forces one
data type to be converted into another data type.
C++ supports four types of casting:
1. Static Cast
2. Dynamic Cast
3. Const Cast
4. Reinterpret Cast
Advantages of Type Conversion:
5. This is done to take advantage of certain features of type hierarchies or type
representations.
6. It helps to compute expressions containing variables of different data types.

Inheritance in C++
Inheritance is a feature or a process in which, new classes are created from the existing
classes. The new class created is called “derived class” or “child class” and the existing class
is known as the “base class” or “parent class”. The derived class now is said to be inherited
from the base class.

When we say derived class inherits the base class, it means, the derived class inherits all the
properties of the base class, without changing the properties of base class and may add new
features to its own. These new features in the derived class will not affect the base class. The
derived class is the specialized class for the base class.

 Sub Class: The class that inherits properties from another class is called Subclass or
Derived Class.
 Super Class: The class whose properties are inherited by a subclass is called Base Class
or Superclass.
Why and when to use inheritance?
Consider a group of vehicles. You need to create classes for Bus, Car, and Truck. The
methods fuelAmount(), capacity(), applyBrakes() will be the same for all three classes. If we
create these classes avoiding inheritance then we have to write all of these functions in each
of the three classes as shown below figure:
You can clearly see that the above process results in duplication of the same code 3 times.
This increases the chances of error and data redundancy. To avoid this type of situation,
inheritance is used. If we create a class Vehicle and write these three functions in it and
inherit the rest of the classes from the vehicle class, then we can simply avoid the duplication
of data and increase re-usability. Look at the below diagram in which the three classes are
inherited from vehicle class:

Using inheritance, we have to write the functions only one time instead of three times as we
have inherited the rest of the three classes from the base class (Vehicle).
Implementing inheritance in C++: For creating a sub-class that is inherited from the base
class we have to follow the below syntax.

Derived Classes: A Derived class is defined as the class derived from the base class.

Syntax:
class <derived_class_name> : <access-specifier> <base_class_name>

{
 //body

Example:
1. class ABC : private XYZ //private derivation
{ }
2. class ABC : public XYZ //public derivation
{ }
3. class ABC : protected XYZ //protected derivation
{ }
4. class ABC: XYZ //private derivation by default
{ }

Types Of Inheritance:-
1. Single inheritance
2. Multilevel inheritance
3. Multiple inheritance
4. Hierarchical inheritance
5. Hybrid inheritance

Types of Inheritance in C++

1. Single Inheritance: In single inheritance, a class is allowed to inherit from only one class.
i.e. one subclass is inherited by one base class only.
Syntax:
class subclass_name : access_mode base_class

// body of subclass

};

OR

class A

... .. ...

};

class B: public A

... .. ...

};

Multiple Inheritance: Multiple Inheritance is a feature of C++ where a class can inherit
from more than one class. i.e one subclass is inherited from more than one base class.
3. Multilevel Inheritance: In this type of inheritance, a derived class is created from another
derived class.

Syntax:-

class C

... .. ...

};

class B:public C

... .. ...

};

class A: public B

... ... ...

};
4. Hierarchical Inheritance: In this type of inheritance, more than one subclass is inherited
from a single base class. i.e. more than one derived class is created from a single base class.

Syntax:-

class A

// body of the class A.

class B : public A

// body of class B.

class C : public A

// body of class C.

class D : public A
{

// body of class D.

5. Hybrid (Virtual) Inheritance: Hybrid Inheritance is implemented by combining more than

one type of inheritance. For example: Combining Hierarchical inheritance and Multiple
Inheritance.
Below image shows the combination of hierarchical and multiple inheritances:

6. A special case of hybrid inheritance: Multipath inheritance:

A derived class with two base classes and these two base classes have one common
base class is called multipath inheritance. Ambiguity can arise in this type of
inheritance.

Virtual base class in C++

Virtual base classes are used in virtual inheritance in a way of preventing multiple “instances”
of a given class appearing in an inheritance hierarchy when using multiple inheritances.

Need for Virtual Base Classes: Consider the situation where we have one class A . This
class A is inherited by two other classes B and C. Both these class are inherited into another
in a new class D as shown in figure below.
As we can see from the figure that data members/function of class A are inherited twice to
class D. One through class B and second through class C. When any data / function member
of class A is accessed by an object of class D, ambiguity arises as to which data/function
member would be called? One inherited through B or the other inherited through C. This
confuses compiler and it displays error.

Abstract classes
An abstract class is a class that is designed to be specifically used as a base class. An
abstract class contains at least one pure virtual function. You declare a pure virtual
function by using a pure specifier (= 0) in the declaration of a virtual member function in
the class declaration.