Nuclear reaction

In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, a nuclear reaction is a process in which two nuclei,
or a nucleus and an external subatomic particle, collide to produce one or more new nuclides.
Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another. If a
nucleus interacts with another nucleus or particle and they then separate without changing
the nature of any nuclide, the process is simply referred to as a type of nuclear scattering,
rather than a nuclear reaction.

In this symbolic representing of a nuclear reaction,

lithium-6 (63Li) and deuterium (21H) react to form the
highly excited intermediate nucleus 84Be which then
decays immediately into two alpha particles of
helium-4 (42He). Protons are symbolically
represented by red spheres, and neutrons by blue
spheres.
In principle, a reaction can involve more than two particles colliding, but because the
probability of three or more nuclei to meet at the same time at the same place is much less
than for two nuclei, such an event is exceptionally rare (see triple alpha process for an
example very close to a three-body nuclear reaction). The term "nuclear reaction" may refer
either to a change in a nuclide induced by collision with another particle or to a spontaneous
change of a nuclide without collision.

Natural nuclear reactions occur in the interaction between cosmic rays and matter, and
nuclear reactions can be employed artificially to obtain nuclear energy, at an adjustable rate,
on-demand. Nuclear chain reactions in fissionable materials produce induced nuclear fission.
Various nuclear fusion reactions of light elements power the energy production of the Sun
and stars.

History
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford was able to accomplish transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen at
the University of Manchester, using alpha particles directed at nitrogen 14N + α → 17O + p.
This was the first observation of an induced nuclear reaction, that is, a reaction in which
particles from one decay are used to transform another atomic nucleus. Eventually, in 1932 at
Cambridge University, a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear transmutation was
achieved by Rutherford's colleagues John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, who used artificially
accelerated protons against lithium-7, to split the nucleus into two alpha particles. The feat
was popularly known as "splitting the atom", although it was not the modern nuclear fission
reaction later (in 1938) discovered in heavy elements by the German scientists Otto Hahn,
Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann.[1]

Nuclear reaction equations

Nuclear reactions may be shown in a form similar to chemical equations, for which invariant
mass must balance for each side of the equation, and in which transformations of particles
must follow certain conservation laws, such as conservation of charge and baryon number
(total atomic mass number). An example of this notation follows:
 6
3Li + 21H → 42He + ?.
To balance the equation above for mass, charge and mass number, the second nucleus to the
right must have atomic number 2 and mass number 4; it is therefore also helium-4. The
complete equation therefore reads:

6 2 4 4
3Li + 1H → 2He + 2He.
or more simply:

6
3Li + 21H → 2 42He.
Instead of using the full equations in the style above, in many situations a compact notation
is used to describe nuclear reactions. This style of the form A(b,c)D is equivalent to A + b
producing c + D. Common light particles are often abbreviated in this shorthand, typically p
for proton, n for neutron, d for deuteron, α representing an alpha particle or helium-4, β for
beta particle or electron, γ for gamma photon, etc. The reaction above would be written as
6
Li(d,α)α.[2][3]

Energy conservation
Kinetic energy may be released during the course of a reaction (exothermic reaction) or
kinetic energy may have to be supplied for the reaction to take place (endothermic reaction).
This can be calculated by reference to a table of very accurate particle rest masses,[4] as
follows: according to the reference tables, the 63Li nucleus has a standard atomic weight of
6.015 atomic mass units (abbreviated u), the deuterium has 2.014 u, and the helium-4
nucleus has 4.0026 u. Thus:

the sum of the rest mass of the

individual nuclei = 6.015 + 2.014 =
8.029 u;
 the total rest mass on the two helium-
nuclei = 2 × 4.0026 = 8.0052 u;
missing rest mass = 8.029 – 8.0052 =
0.0238 atomic mass units.
In a nuclear reaction, the total (relativistic) energy is conserved. The "missing" rest mass
must therefore reappear as kinetic energy released in the reaction; its source is the nuclear
binding energy. Using Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc2, the amount of
energy released can be determined. We first need the energy equivalent of one atomic mass
unit:

1 u c2 = (1.66054 × 10−27 kg) × (2.

99792 × 108 m/s)2
= 1.49242 × 10−10 kg (m/s)2
= 1.49242 × 10−10 J
= 931.49 MeV
(1 MeV = 1.602176634×10−
13 J),
so 1 u c2 = 931.49 MeV.
Hence, the energy released is 0.0238 × 931 MeV = 22.2 MeV.

Expressed differently: the mass is reduced by 0.3%, corresponding to 0.3% of 90 PJ/kg is

270 TJ/kg.
This is a large amount of energy for a nuclear reaction; the amount is so high because the
binding energy per nucleon of the helium-4 nucleus is unusually high because the He-4
nucleus is "doubly magic". (The He-4 nucleus is unusually stable and tightly bound for the
same reason that the helium atom is inert: each pair of protons and neutrons in He-4
occupies a filled 1s nuclear orbital in the same way that the pair of electrons in the helium
atom occupy a filled 1s electron orbital). Consequently, alpha particles appear frequently on
the right-hand side of nuclear reactions.

The energy released in a nuclear reaction can appear mainly in one of three ways:

kinetic energy of the product particles

(fraction of the kinetic energy of the
charged nuclear reaction products can
be directly converted into electrostatic
energy);[5]
emission of very high energy photons,
called gamma rays;
some energy may remain in the
nucleus, as a metastable energy level.
When the product nucleus is metastable, this is indicated by placing an asterisk ("*") next to
its atomic number. This energy is eventually released through nuclear decay.

A small amount of energy may also emerge in the form of X-rays. Generally, the product
nucleus has a different atomic number, and thus the configuration of its electron shells is
wrong. As the electrons rearrange themselves and drop to lower energy levels, internal
transition X-rays (X-rays with precisely defined emission lines) may be emitted.
Q-value and energy balance
In writing down the reaction equation, in a way analogous to a chemical equation, one may, in
addition, give the reaction energy on the right side:

Target nucleus + projectile → Final

nucleus + ejectile + Q.
For the particular case discussed above, the reaction energy has already been calculated as
Q = 22.2 MeV. Hence:

6
3Li + 21H → 2 42He + 22.2 MeV.
The reaction energy (the "Q-value") is positive for exothermal reactions and negative for
endothermal reactions, opposite to the similar expression in chemistry. On the one hand, it is
the difference between the sums of kinetic energies on the final side and on the initial side.
But on the other hand, it is also the difference between the nuclear rest masses on the initial
side and on the final side (in this way, we have calculated the Q-value above).

Reaction rates
If the reaction equation is balanced, that does not mean that the reaction really occurs. The
rate at which reactions occur depends on the energy and the flux of the incident particles,
and the reaction cross section. An example of a large repository of reaction rates is the
REACLIB database, as maintained by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics.
Charged vs. uncharged
particles
In the initial collision which begins the reaction, the particles must approach closely enough
so that the short-range strong force can affect them. As most common nuclear particles are
positively charged, this means they must overcome considerable electrostatic repulsion
before the reaction can begin. Even if the target nucleus is part of a neutral atom, the other
particle must penetrate well beyond the electron cloud and closely approach the nucleus,
which is positively charged. Thus, such particles must be first accelerated to high energy, for
example by:

particle accelerators;
nuclear decay (alpha particles are the
main type of interest here since beta
and gamma rays are rarely involved in
nuclear reactions);
very high temperatures, on the order of
millions of degrees, producing
thermonuclear reactions;
cosmic rays.
Also, since the force of repulsion is proportional to the product of the two charges, reactions
between heavy nuclei are rarer, and require higher initiating energy, than those between a
heavy and light nucleus; while reactions between two light nuclei are the most common ones.

Neutrons, on the other hand, have no electric charge to cause repulsion, and are able to
initiate a nuclear reaction at very low energies. In fact, at extremely low particle energies
(corresponding, say, to thermal equilibrium at room temperature), the neutron's de Broglie
wavelength is greatly increased, possibly greatly increasing its capture cross-section, at
energies close to resonances of the nuclei involved. Thus low-energy neutrons may be even
more reactive than high-energy neutrons.

Notable types
While the number of possible nuclear reactions is immense, there are several types that are
more common, or otherwise notable. Some examples include:

Fusion reactions – two light nuclei join

to form a heavier one, with additional
particles (usually protons or neutrons)
emitted subsequently.
Spallation – a nucleus is hit by a
particle with sufficient energy and
momentum to knock out several small
fragments or smash it into many
fragments.
 Induced gamma emission belongs to a
class in which only photons were
involved in creating and destroying
states of nuclear excitation.
Fission reactions – a very heavy
nucleus, after absorbing additional
light particles (usually neutrons), splits
into two or sometimes three pieces.
This is an induced nuclear reaction.
Spontaneous fission, which occurs
without assistance of a neutron, is
usually not considered a nuclear
reaction. At most, it is not an induced
nuclear reaction.

Direct reactions
An intermediate energy projectile transfers energy or picks up or loses nucleons to the
nucleus in a single quick (10−21 second) event. Energy and momentum transfer are relatively
small. These are particularly useful in experimental nuclear physics, because the reaction
mechanisms are often simple enough to calculate with sufficient accuracy to probe the
structure of the target nucleus.

Inelastic scattering
Only energy and momentum are transferred.

(p,p') tests differences between

nuclear states.
(α,α') measures nuclear surface
shapes and sizes. Since α particles
that hit the nucleus react more
violently, elastic and shallow inelastic α
scattering are sensitive to the shapes
and sizes of the targets, like light
scattered from a small black object.
(e,e') is useful for probing the interior
structure. Since electrons interact less
strongly than do protons and neutrons,
they reach to the centers of the targets
 and their wave functions are less
distorted by passing through the
nucleus.

Charge-exchange reactions
Energy and charge are transferred between projectile and target. Some examples of this kind
of reactions are:

(p,n)
(3He,t)

Nucleon transfer reactions

Usually at moderately low energy, one or more nucleons are transferred between the
projectile and target. These are useful in studying outer shell structure of nuclei. Transfer
reactions can occur, from the projectile to the target; stripping reactions, or from the target to
the projectile; pick-up reactions.

(α,n) and (α,p) reactions. Some of the

earliest nuclear reactions studied
involved an alpha particle produced by
alpha decay, knocking a nucleon from
a target nucleus.
(d,n) and (d,p) reactions. A deuteron
beam impinges on a target; the target
nuclei absorb either the neutron or
proton from the deuteron. The
deuteron is so loosely bound that this
is almost the same as proton or
neutron capture. A compound nucleus
may be formed, leading to additional
neutrons being emitted more slowly.
(d,n) reactions are used to generate
energetic neutrons.
The strangeness exchange reaction (K,
π) has been used to study hypernuclei.
The reaction 14N(α,p)17O performed by
Rutherford in 1917 (reported 1919), is
 generally regarded as the first nuclear
transmutation experiment.

Reactions with neutrons

→T → 7Li → 14C
6 10
Li + n → T + B + n → 7Li + 17
O + n → 14C + 21
Ne + n → 18O + 37
Ar + n → 34S +
(n,α)
α α α α α
3 7
He + n → T + Be + n → 7Li + 14
N + n → 14C + 22
Na + n → 22Ne +
(n,p)
p p p p
13
2
C + n → 14C +
(n,γ) H + n → T + γ
γ

Reactions with neutrons are important in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. While the
best-known neutron reactions are neutron scattering, neutron capture, and nuclear fission, for
some light nuclei (especially odd-odd nuclei) the most probable reaction with a thermal
neutron is a transfer reaction:

Some reactions are only possible with fast neutrons:

(n,2n) reactions produce small

amounts of protactinium-231 and
uranium-232 in the thorium cycle
which is otherwise relatively free of
highly radioactive actinide products.
 9Be + n → 2α + 2n can contribute some
additional neutrons in the beryllium
neutron reflector of a nuclear weapon.
7Li + n → T + α + n unexpectedly
contributed additional yield in the
Bravo, Romeo and Yankee shots of
Operation Castle, the three highest-
yield nuclear tests conducted by the
U.S.

Compound nuclear reactions

Either a low-energy projectile is absorbed or a higher energy particle transfers energy to the
nucleus, leaving it with too much energy to be fully bound together. On a time scale of about
10−19 seconds, particles, usually neutrons, are "boiled" off. That is, it remains together until
enough energy happens to be concentrated in one neutron to escape the mutual attraction.
The excited quasi-bound nucleus is called a compound nucleus.

Low energy (e, e' xn), (γ, xn) (the xn

indicating one or more neutrons),
where the gamma or virtual gamma
 energy is near the giant dipole
resonance. These increase the need
for radiation shielding around electron
accelerators.

See also

Look up nuclear reaction in

Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Acoplanarity
Atomic mass
Atomic nucleus
Atomic number
CNO cycle
Nuclear chain reaction
Oppenheimer–Phillips process
 Nuclear Power

References

1. Cockcroft and Walton split lithium with

high energy protons April 1932. (http://w
ww-outreach.phy.cam.ac.uk/camphy/co
ckcroftwalton/cockcroftwalton9_1.htm)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0120902195556/http://www-outreach.p
hy.cam.ac.uk/camphy/cockcroftwalton/
cockcroftwalton9_1.htm) 2012-09-02 at
the Wayback Machine
2. The Astrophysics Spectator: Hydrogen
Fusion Rates in Stars (http://www.astrop
hysicsspectator.com/topics/stars/Fusio
nHydrogenRate.html)
3. Tilley, R. J. D. (2004). Understanding
Solids: The Science of Materials (https://
books.google.com/books?id=ZVgOLCX
NoMoC&pg=PA495) . John Wiley and
Sons. p. 495. ISBN 0-470-85275-5.
4. Suplee, Curt (23 August 2009). "Atomic
Weights and Isotopic Compositions with
Relative Atomic Masses" (https://www.ni
st.gov/pml/atomic-weights-and-isotopic-
compositions-relative-atomic-masses) .
NIST.
5. Shinn, E.; Et., al. (2013). "Nuclear energy
conversion with stacks of graphene
nanocapacitors". Complexity. 18 (3): 24–
27. Bibcode:2013Cmplx..18c..24S (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Cmp
lx..18c..24S) . doi:10.1002/cplx.21427 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcplx.21427) .
Sources

Schmitz, Taylor (1973). Nuclear

Physics (https://archive.org/details/nu
clearphysics0000bowl) . Pergamon
Press. ISBN 0-08-016983-X.
Bertulani, Carlos (2007). Nuclear
Physics in a Nutshell. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-
12505-3.

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