8 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Communication Ritushree is a regional sales manager with Titan in Chennai. She reads about an upcom-
Snapshot 1.1 ing B2B international trade conference in Mumbai. She is interested in attending it and
immediately writes to the national sales manager, Sumit Chakraborti, at the head office in
An Instance of Unclear Bangalore, describing the conference and its relevance to their work. Her note is given in
Communication Exhibit 1.1.

Exhibit 1.1
Sumit Chakraborti
Ritushree’s Note
National Sales Manager
Titan India Limited
Bangalore 560001
Dear Mr Chakraborti,
An international conference on B2B trade, which would be of great importance for us, is being
held in Mumbai. The enclosed brochure shows that the business information to be shared at
the conference would be of great value in expanding our corporate sales business. The registra-
tion fee is only Rs. 5,000, and the cost of travel and stay is about Rs. 8,000. Hence, Rs. 13,000 will
be required per person. I am informing you about the conference now so that you can take a
decision in time for me to make the necessary arrangements for train/flight bookings and hotel
accommodations.
Ritushree

The national sales manager was thrilled to receive the memo and wrote back immediately to
Ritushree. His response is given in Exhibit 1.2.

Exhibit 1.2
Dear Ritushree,
The Response to Thanks for informing me about the B2B conference in Mumbai. I will certainly attend it. Please
Ritushree’s Note make all the necessary arrangements for me as suggested in your memo.
Sumit Chakraborti

This response left Ritushree feeling quite frustrated. She was perplexed about her supervisor’s
decision to exclude her and instead attend the conference himself. Unfortunately, she did not
realize that her message to him was not precise and clear. It was ambiguously worded, using
phrases such as “importance for us” and “expanding our business”. She was looking for permis-
sion to attend the conference herself, but she had failed to clearly say so in her memo. She
started her communication by praising the conference, but instead, she should have begun by
directly asking for permission to attend the conference.

DEFINING COMMUNICATION
The word communication is derived from the Latin communis, which means “common”. It
refers to a natural activity of all humans, which is to convey opinions, feelings, informa-
The word communica- tion, and ideas to others through words (written or spoken), body language, or signs. George
tion is derived from the Vardman defines effective communication as “purposive symbolic interchange resulting in
Latin communis, meaning workable understanding and agreement between the sender and the receiver”. 1This inter-
“common”. It refers to change of information, ideas, and thoughts may occur via different modes: words (oral and
a natural activity of all written), signs, and gestures.
humans, which is to
Emphasizing the processes of telling, listening, and understanding involved in the act of
convey opinions, feelings,
information, and ideas
communicating with other people, Keith Davis2 says that communication is “the transfer of
to others through words information and understanding from one person to another person. It is a way of reaching
(written or spoken), body others with facts, ideas, thoughts and values. It is a bridge of meaning among people so that
language, or signs. they can share what they feel and know. By using this bridge, a person can cross safely the
river of misunderstanding that sometimes separates people.”
 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION 9

CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
One way to classify communication is according to the number of persons who receive the message.
1
Know the prin-
Intrapersonal communication is talking to oneself in one’s own mind. Examples are solil- cipal concepts of
oquies or asides in dramatic works. communication.
Interpersonal communication is the exchange of messages between two people. Examples
are conversations, dialogues, or interviews in which two persons interact (others may
also be present as audience). An author communicates interpersonally with his or her
reader, who is always present as a silent audience in the author’s mind while writing. A
letter is also an example of interpersonal communication between the writer and the
person to whom it is addressed.
Group communication can be among small or large groups, such as an organization, club,
or classroom, in which all individuals retain their individual identities. Any communication
Mass communication is when a message is sent to large groups of people, for example by that involves the use
newspaper, radio, or television. In this process, each receiver is a faceless individual with of words—whether it
almost no opportunity for response or feedback. consists of speaking,
listening, writing, read-
Communication can also be classified on the basis of the medium employed. ing, or thinking—can
be classified as verbal
Verbal communication means communicating with words, written or spoken. Verbal
communication.
communication consists of speaking, listening, writing, reading, and thinking.
Non-verbal communication includes the use of pictures, signs, gestures, and facial expres-
sions for exchanging information between persons. It is done through sign language,
action language, or object language. Non-verbal communica-
Non-verbal communication accompanies the acts of speaking and writing. It is a word- tion includes the use of
less message conveyed through gestures (signs), movements (action language), and pic- sign language, action lan-
guage, or object language.
tures/clothes (object language). Further, non-verbal communication is characterized by
It is present in all acts of
personal space (proxemics), body language (kinesics), touch (haptics), eyes (oculesics), speaking and writing.
sense of smell (olfactics), and time (chronemics).
All these aspects of non-verbal communication need to be understood as they affect and,
at times, contradict verbal communication. We shall discuss them in detail in Chapter 7.
Meta-communication is when the speaker’s choice of words unintentionally communi-
cates something more than what the words themselves state. For example, the remark,
“I’ve never seen you so smartly dressed” could be a compliment, but could also mean
that the regular attire of the listener needs improvement.

THE PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION

Broadly speaking, in business, we communicate to: (a) inform and (b) persuade. These two
goals are usually present in the mind of the person initiating the communication, as is seen
in sales letters and advertisements. However, he or she may at times seek only to inform—as
scientific writings do. Conversely, the person initiating the communication may aim more to
persuade the reader, as journalistic writings and opinion editorials do.
Communication to Inform
Communication to inform (expository communication) is directed by the desire to expose,
develop, and explain the subject. Its focus is the subject of the communication. For example,
consider these short, expository pieces of writing:
1. Farming provides most of the food we eat. Our chief food crops are cereals or
grains. Cereals include maize, rice, and wheat. We also grow barley and gram.
2. Flies are our deadly enemies because they feed on dirt and rubbish. When
they crawl over meat, sweetmeats, and cakes with their dirty legs, they leave
all kinds of germs behind and, thus, poison our food.
 10 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Exhibit 1.3 Clearly, in these two passages, the focus is on the

The HDFC Advertisement subjects “our food” and “flies, our deadly enemy”. The
logical presentation of facts informs us about the top-
ics being discussed, and the danger associated with
flies in the second passage is clearly conveyed.

Communication to Persuade
A communicator may seek primarily to persuade the
reader ore receiver of the message. In such a form of
communication, the focus is on the receiver. Essen-
tially, all communication is a deliberate and inten-
tional act of persuasion. A persuasive communicator
wants the reader to understand the message and to be
influenced by it.
Consider HDFC’s “Savings/Current Account” adver-
tisement in Exhibit 1.3, which says: “Now opening a
Savings/Current Account with HDFC Bank is extremely
rewarding.” This handbill is reader-centric. The purpose
of the message is not just to inform readers about a new

Exhibit 1.4
A Persuasive Business Journal of Indian Literature
Letter Established in 1954
Editorial Office: Centre for Language and Learning
University of Delhi
Delhi 110007
Uses style and typical
format of formal
letter: no date, no Dear JIL contributor:
personal salutation Opens with a
(by name) Attached is a set of reprints of your contribution to the most statement of
recent issue of JIL. the main point
Expresses
gratitude and We are grateful to you for your contribution and look forward to Persuades for the
appreciation more such submissions from you. next contribution

Urges to If you need additional reprints or information regarding the full

subscribe to issue in which your contribution appeared, or subscription prices,
JIL please contact Ms Agatha Luiz, Managing Editor, at the editorial Includes contact
office, whose address is given above. details for action
Closes on a
personal Again, let me reiterate my thanks to you for your contribution.
note of
appreciation Best wishes,

SChatterjee
Somnath Chatterjee
Editor

Exhibit 1.4
 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION 11

savings and current account, but to persuade them to open such an account with HDFC Bank.
Essentially, all commu-
Note how different adverbs and adjectives are chosen to draw the reader’s attention. The adverb
nication is a deliberate
“now” is placed at the head (beginning) of the advertisement. This is the most important posi- and intentional act of
tion in the structure of the sentence or paragraph. In the subject position, the adverb “now” seeks persuasion. A persuasive
to persuade readers that until now no bank offered the convenience, benefit, and satisfaction communicator wants the
of HDFC Bank’s savings/current account. Similarly, the phrase, “extremely rewarding” aims at reader or receiver to un-
impressing the reader with the extraordinary operational convenience, monetary benefit, and derstand the message and
personal satisfaction HDFC Bank offered its savings and current account holders. to be influenced by it.
As one can gather from the HDFC advertisement, business communication often needs to
be persuasive. Exhibit 1.4 analyses an example of a persuasive business letter.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

The process of communication begins with a person’s desire to share or exchange an idea,
thought, or feeling with another person or persons. It basically involves a sender, a message,
a medium, and a receiver.

The Linear Concept of Communication

The earliest conceptualization of communication by Harold Lasswell involved the following
five basic questions:
1. Who?
2. Says what?
3. To whom?
Communication was
4. In which channel? considered a one-way
5. With what effect? process marked by the
flow of information from
Early ideas of communication considered it a one-way (linear) process marked by the flow a sender to a receiver.
of information from a sender to a receiver (see Exhibit 1.5).

Sender Message Media Message Receiver Action Exhibit 1.5

The Linear Model of
Exhibitpassively
According to this linear view, the receiver 1.5 receives the message and acts as Communication
directed or desired by the sender. Communication is intended to control/manipulate the
receiver. It is assumed that the message, while passing through the medium chosen by the
sender, reaches the receiver without any distortion or change.

The Shannon–Weaver Model

C. E. Shannon and W. Weaver3 were the first to point out that in actual practice, messages can be
changed or blocked. Shannon’s model of communication was first published in the Bell System
2
Understand the com-
Technical Journal. It was based on the mathematical or mechanistic view of the communication munication process
process, in which the basic problem is that the message received is not the same as the mes- and its elements.
sage sent. He attributed the loss to noise. The Shannon model, co-authored with Weaver, was
brought out later in The Mathematical Theory of Communication in 1949. Weaver introduced
the idea of feedback as a corrective counter to noise. However, in the Shannon–Weaver model,
feedback was not considered to be an integral component because the model conceived the
communication process as a linear act and feedback as a new act of communication. This is why
in the Shannon–Weaver model shown in Exhibit 1.6, feedback is represented by dotted lines. Exhibit 1.6
A Diagram Based on the
Noise
Shannon–Weaver Model
Source: Based on C. Shannon
Information Encoding Decoding
Channel Destination and W. Weaver, The Mathemati-
source process process cal Theory of Communication
(Urbana, IL: University of Illinois
Feedback Press, 1949), 5.

Exhibit 1.6
 12 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

1. Source creates messages 2. Selects channel 3. Sends message

Feedback Noise

5. Filters—
6. Interprets message 4. Receiver gets message

Exhibit 1.7
How Communication Exhibit 1.7
The model is based on the idea that communication occurs only when the message has
Takes Place been received and that it should be received unchanged, as far as possible. This is, of course,
a theoretical concept of perfect communication. In real life, filters in the minds of both the
sender and the receiver affect the content of the message. To an extent, feedback corrects the
distortions and helps complete the cycle of communication (see Exhibit 1.7).
The Shannon–Weaver model comprises the following basic elements:
Information source (ideation): The communication process begins with the informa-
tion source. The sender has some raw information in the form of outside experience.
His or her intent changes that information into a message to be communicated.
The source of a message, therefore, is the information source of the communication
process.
Encoding (transmitter): After having thought about the message, the sender puts it into
words (verbal symbols or any other symbolic form of expression). This process is called
encoding.
Channel (transmission): An appropriate medium—oral, written, or electronic, in code,
or a signalling system—chosen to send the message is known as the channel.
Receiver (decoding): The receiver gets the message through decoding—by receiving,
understanding, and interpreting the message.
Acting: The communication process ends with the receiver putting the interpreted mes-
The communication sage into action, as intended by the sender.
process begins with the We see that communication completes a full circle, bringing together the sender and
information source. the receiver to become two aspects of a single purpose. It is this unifying process and
role of communication that has made modern management organizations consider
communication as an essential skill for successful managers. According to Davis4, “The
A group of people are
involved in completing only way that management can be achieved in an organization is through the process of
the cycle of commu- communication.”
nication, in which the Noise: The process of communication is, however, open to “noise”, which prevents or
receiver also acts as the
distorts communication. Noise may be described as any distortion or hindrance that
sender of the feedback to
prevents the transmission of the message from the (mind of) the sender to the (mind
the transmitter (sender).
of) the receiver.
For some communication theorists, noise basically refers to any external disturbance
in the physical environment surrounding the act of communication, or noise in the
machine used for communicating the message, such as telephone disturbances, poor
print, or bad handwriting.
Communication distortions caused by subjective factors, such as the mindset of the
sender or the receiver, are attributed to filters.
Filters: Filters are mental in nature. They include attitudes, beliefs, experiences, con-
sciousness of personal status, and the ability to think clearly. Misunderstandings and
different problems may arise as the message is transmitted through the filters of both
parties, such as low interest or involvement in the message or distraction and fatigue
causing loss of concentration.
 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION 13

Exhibit 1.8
Message Transmitter
Two-way Flow of
Communication

Receiver

Communication Communication
channel symbols

The Two-way Communication Process

More recent conceptualizations of the communication process look at communication as a
two-way process. A group of people are involved in completing the cycle of communication,
in which the receiver also acts as the sender of feedback to the original transmitter (sender).
Thus, both the sender and receiver play reciprocal and reversible roles, as in telemarketing
or call-centre communications. Consider the two-way flow of communication illustrated in
Exhibit 1.8.
The two-way concept of communication is more contemporary. It considers communica-
The two-way concept
tion essentially to be a reciprocal process and a mutual exchange of messages. It makes no
of communication is
sharp distinction between the roles of the sender (source) and the receiver, because the same more contemporary. It
person plays both roles, often simultaneously. considers communica-
The earlier linear view treated the sender as the determiner of the message and its mean- tion essentially to be a
ing. The two-way concept involves the receiver as an active agent in constructing the mean- reciprocal process and
ing of the message. The meaning of the message is perceived in the context of the receiver’s a mutual exchange of
experiences, beliefs, and feelings. The intended and received meanings may result in com- messages.
mon interpretations of situations, ideas, schemes, and events to the extent that people live
and work together and develop common attitudes and viewpoints with regards to their
organization or society. The two-way communication process is also known as transactional The two-way commu-
nication process is also
communication, which has been explained in Exhibit 1.9.
known as transactional
Communication is purposive in nature. It achieves success by manipulating the target communication.
audience through information and persuasion to effect the intended action.

THE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION The most important

characteristic of a
The various elements of communication are briefly described to explain the process of message as an element
communication. of communication is
that it is organized,
Message: The message is the information, written or spoken, which is to be sent from one structured, shaped, and
person to another. Here, the word person represents the two ends of a system and may selective—a product of
represent an individual, a group of individuals, or even electronic machines. the pre-writing or
pre-speaking stage.

Communication source An organization’s news bulletin containing a policy to be Exhibit 1.9

circulated among all employees Transactional
Communication
Encoder The editor/person who writes the policy
Message The content (policy details) and the words/pictures used to
convey the policy to employees
Channel The medium—in this case the news bulletin
Decoder/receiver The audience of the message—those for whom the policy is
intended and who read the bulletin
Feedback Impact/effectiveness of the communication in achieving its
objectives
 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION 15

Noise, outside disturbance: To receive the message correctly, the receiver needs to remain
attentive without being disturbed by any kind of physical, environmental, or psychologi-
cal disturbance.
Variations in listening skills: The ability to listen with comprehension is not equally devel-
oped in all persons. Some individuals, therefore, respond to communication by missing
parts of the complete message.
Cultural differences: The word culture refers to the entire system of an individual’s beliefs,
social customs, and personal values. It includes the individual’s educational background
and family nurturing. The problem of proper understanding arises in situations of inter-
cultural communication because of the differences in cultures across the world.
Complexity of subject matter/message: A difficult and involved message acts as a barrier
to a smooth understanding of the message.
Time restraints, real or perceived: Both the sender and receiver lose organized exposition
and reception of the message if they are pressured by a lack of time.
Personal biases or hostility: Prejudice and resentment towards the speaker condition the
understanding of the message.
Difficult questions: Questions regarding personal behaviour and management poli-
cies and practices may not be easy to answer. They are to be responded to with care-
fully considered honesty and frankness if the questioner is to be satisfied with the
answer.
Sensitive issues: A situation or subject that involves the other person’s feelings and prob-
lems needs to be dealt with sensitively and carefully, because the matter may upset peo-
ple. However, it may sometimes be difficult to avoid such sensitive issues entirely.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNCATION
In communication, a psycho-semantic process, the word barrier implies, mainly, something
In communication, a
non-physical that keeps people apart or prevents activity, movement, and so on; examples are
psycho-semantic process,
social, ethnic, and language barriers or lack of confidence. These negative forces may affect the word barrier implies,
the effectiveness of communication by acting upon any or all of the basic elements of the mainly, something
communication process and the sender/receiver/channel. The more commonly experienced non-physical that keeps
communication barriers are lack of planning, incorrect assumptions, semantic difficulties, people apart or prevents
and cultural differences. Some other barriers of communication are: activity, movement, and
so on.
Socio-psychological barriers
Emotions
Selective perception
Information overload
Loss by transmission
Poor retention
Goal conflicts
Offensive style
Abstracting
Slanting
Inferring
Broadly speaking, some of these barriers can be attributed to the sender and some to the
receiver. Barriers attributable to the sender are:
Lack of planning
Vagueness about the purpose of communication and objectives to be achieved
16 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Poor choice of words, resulting in a badly encoded message

A common barrier
for the sender and the Unshared or incorrect assumptions
receiver can be created Different perceptions of reality
by the absence of a com-
Wrong choice of channel
mon frame of reference
affecting the smooth Barriers attributable to the receiver are:
interpretation of
thoughts, feelings, and Poor listening skills
attitudes from the sender Inattention
to the receiver in a
specific social situation.
Mistrust
Lack of interest
Premature evaluation
Semantic difficulties
Bias
Different perceptions of reality
Lack of trust
Attitudinal clash with the sender
Unfit physical state
A common barrier for the sender and the receiver can be created by the absence of a common
frame of reference affecting the smooth interpretation of thoughts, feelings, and attitudes
from the sender to the receiver in a specific social situation.
Identification of a well-defined social context in which communication takes place helps
The most important
both the sender and the receiver perceive the content of the communication in a similar way,
aspect of human commu-
nication is the fact that it
with similar implications and meaning.
takes place in the world of The physical noise and other faults in the surroundings and the instruments of transmis-
reality that surrounds us. sion of the message relate mainly to the channel, but they may not necessarily distort the
overall meaning of the total message.
Many of the barriers listed here are easy to understand. But a few of them may still need
further explanation.
Incorrect Assumptions
All communications from one person to another are made under some assumptions, which
are not necessarily communicated to the other party. They may turn out to be incorrect and
thus result in communication failure. For instance, we often assume that others:
see the situation as we do.
should feel about the situation as we do.
think about the matter as we do.
understand the message as we understand it.
All such assumptions may be incorrect; therefore, one should try to verify them whenever
possible. That would help the communication to be more effective.

Psychosocial Barriers
There can be many types of psychosocial barriers to communication. The key barriers are
Consciousness of one’s discussed here.
status affects the two-way Status
flow of communication. Consciousness of one’s status affects the two-way flow of communication. It gives rise to personal
It gives rise to personal barriers caused by the superior–subordinate relationship. A two-way vertical channel is present
barriers caused by the
in most organizations, yet few subordinates choose to communicate with their superiors.
superior–subordinate
Similarly, superiors may be unwilling to directly listen or write to their subordinates and
relationship.
seldom accept hearing that they are wrong. Though organizations are culturally changing
 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION 17

and adopting flat structures, the psychological distance between superiors and subordinates
persists.
Perception and Reality
3
Know why communi-
The most important aspect of human communication is the fact that it takes place in the cation succeeds
world of reality that surrounds us. This world acts as our sensory environment. While we are or fails.
engaged in the process of communicating, our sense organs remain stimulated by the differ-
ent sensations of smell, taste, sound, forms and colours around us. All these sense percep-
tions received by our brain through our senses recreate within each one of us the world that
The objects that excite
exists within our mind as its content. Thus, there are two aspects of the same reality—one that
our five sense organs/
actually surrounds the communicator from outside and another that is its mental representa- perceptions—eyes, ears,
tion (in his or her mind) as he or she sees it. nose, tongue (taste), flesh
The objects that excite our five sense organs/perceptions—eyes, ears, nose, tongue (taste), (touch)—are called signs.
flesh (touch)—are called signs. Our senses respond to these signs and we receive sensations
that pass into the brain through a network of sensory nerves. Our perceptions—the mental
images of the external world—are stored in our brains and form our viewpoints, experi-
ences, knowledge, feelings, and emotions. They constitute what we really are, how we think
of something, or how we feel or respond to something. These stored perceptions colour and
modify whatever our brain receives from any signs, data, thoughts, or messages. That is why
these conditioning perceptions existing in the brain are called filters. The mind filters the
message received from the signs and gives it meaning, according to individual perception.
It is obvious that each individual’s filter would be unique. No two individuals have the
same or similar experiences, emotional make-up, knowledge, or ways of thinking. Because
filters differ, different individuals respond to signs with different understandings. The sign
may be a word, gesture, or any other object of nature; each individual will respond to it in his
or her own way and assign the total meaning to that sign according to his or her filter.
The presence of a unique filter in each sender and receiver of a communication causes a
communication gap (distortion) in the message.
In face-to-face communication, this gap can be more easily removed. In most cases, the
speaker does realize that he or she has not been correctly understood through the listener’s
facial expressions, gestures, or other forms of body language. Alternatively, the listener might
say, “Sorry, I didn’t get you”. Of course, much depends on how formally/informally the two
are related to each other in the office, workplace, or life. Our perceptions—the
But in situations in which the audience is invisible, as in written communications— mental images of the
letters, memos, notices, proposals, reports, and so on—the semantic gap between the external world—are
intended meaning and the interpreted meaning remains unknown to the communicator stored in our brains and
form our viewpoints,
and also to the unsuspecting receiver who misses the total meaning in terms of the tone,
experiences, knowledge,
feelings, and seriousness of purpose of the sender. The feedback does help the sender, but
feelings, and emotions.
it may be too late.

CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION

Essentially, to communicate is to share information in its widest sense with others, in an
No two individuals have
intelligible, participative form through the medium of words (spoken or written), gestures,
the same or similar
or other signs. experiences, emotional
Two basic things stand out here. One, the message is to be both “known” and “under- make-up, or ways of
stood” by others. Two, communication is a symbolic act, whether it is verbal or non-verbal. thinking.
These two aspects—the purpose and nature of communication—act as the two determining
influences in the practice of communication in all contexts of speaking or writing.
Herein lies the crucial difference between effective and ineffective communication. If
something is communicated and is not fully understood by the receiver, then communica-
tion has been ineffective, not fully serving the condition of being understood. If the message
has been understood, the response of the receiver—the feedback—indicates this.
Keith Davis5 lays down the Rule of Five to guide the receiver to be an effective element
of the communication process. “In the communication process, the role of the receiver is,
 18 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Exhibit 1.10
Sender Message Receiver
Successful Communication

Feedback

Exhibit 1.10
I believe, as important as that of the sender. There are five receiver steps in the process of
communication—receive, understand, accept, use, and give feedback. Without these steps
being followed by the receiver, no communication process would be complete and successful.”
Thus, communication can be considered successful when:
the message is properly understood.
the purpose of the sender is fulfilled.
the sender and the receiver of the message remain linked through feedback (see Exhibit 1.10).

4 THE SEVEN C’S OF COMMUNICATION

Francis J. Bergin6 advocates that there are seven C’s to remember in verbal communication.
Recognize the tech-
These are also applicable to written communication. They are:
niques that help in
communicating a mes- 1. Candidness: In all business transactions, one’s view of a matter should be honest and
sage accurately. sincere and should reject prejudice or bias. The guiding principle should be fairness
to self and to others involved in the situation. Phrases that qualify observations with
the words “my honest opinion” or “frankly speaking” indicate an attempt to be candid,
open-hearted, and sincere. Honesty implies consideration of the other person’s (listen-
er’s) interest and his or her (the listener’s) need to know objective facts. Thus, sharing of
thoughts should be characterized by the “you” attitude.
Candid talk also exhibits the speaker’s self-confidence. In oral communication, confi-
dence is a key element in creating an impact. When something is said without hesitation,
it expresses a confident manner.
In everyday life and in business, we may see persons in power doing things such as
appointing relatives to important positions, neglecting merit in assigning jobs/func-
tions, or becoming inappropriately close to an individual or a group of individuals. Such
actions are bound to emotionally alienate others from that person. Out of consideration
and concern for that person’s long-term image and relationships in the organization, it is
important to communicate one’s view of such administrative unfairness in an unbiased
manner.
2. Clarity: The principle of clarity is most important in all communications, especially in
It is not always easy to face-to-face interactions. It is not always easy to verbalize ideas accurately on the spot
verbalize ideas accurately during conversations, presentations, or other oral forms of interaction.
on the spot during con-
versations, presentations, Clarity requires the use of accurate and familiar words with proper intonation,
or other oral forms of stresses, and pauses. Spoken language should consist of simple words and short sen-
interaction. tences. Thoughts should be clear and well-organized. The speaker should know what to
say and why. It is a clear mind that can talk clearly and effectively.
However, in case of doubt or uncertainty due to lack of clarity of thought or expres-
sion, the listener can, in a one-to-one oral communication, seek immediate clarification
from the speaker.
 THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION 19

Superfluous Statements Concise Statements Exhibit 1.11

Examples of Superfluous
At this point of time . . . Now . . . , or at present . . .
and Concise Statements
As regards the fact that… Considering . . .
Because of the fact that… As . . ., or because . . .
Are in need of . . . Need . . .
In due course of time . . . Soon…
Not very far from here . . . Nearby . . . , or close by . . .

3. Completeness: Clarity is ensured also by completeness of message. In conversations or

oral presentations, one can easily miss some parts of the communication. It is, therefore,
essential that oral presentations, discussions, or dialogues should be, as far as possible,
planned and structured. Therefore, when the speaker begins the presentation, dialogue,
or address, he or she should ensure that all the necessary information that listeners need
or expect has been provided.
The principle of completeness requires that speakers communicate whatever is
necessary, provide answers to all possible questions that could be raised, and add addi-
tional information, if necessary, as footnotes. For example, in an interview, if an inter-
viewee fails to answer a question completely, it could imply that he or she is deliberately
sidestepping a particular issue. It could also raise doubts in the audience that there is
something to hide regarding that matter. In a situation where the interviewee has no
information or answer or is unwilling to discuss a particular question, he or she should
frankly express their inability to answer.
4. Conciseness: In business and professional communication, brevity is important. One
should avoid being repetitive. It is a common but erroneous assumption that repeating
whatever has been said in multiple ways adds emphasis to the message.
The examples in Exhibit 1.11 are show that spoken language tends to become wordy.
Fewer words should not mean less meaning. Rather, it is possible to achieve intensity and
concentration without sacrificing essential meaning.
5. Concreteness: Concreteness means being specific and definite in describing events and
In a situation where
things. Avoid using vague words that don’t mean much. In oral communication, one
the interviewee has no
cannot draw figures, tables, or diagrams to illustrate one’s point. But one can choose information or answer or
precise words and speak with proper modulation and force to make sounds reflect the is unwilling to discuss a
meaning. For example, in oral communication passive voice is avoided because active particular question, they
voice reflects force and action. It also sounds more natural and direct. For example, no should frankly express
one says, “you are requested by me to visit us”. A more vivid way to express the same their inability to answer.
sentiment is, “I request you to visit us”.
6. Correctness: In the spoken form of communication, grammatical errors are not uncom-
mon. The speaker can forget the number and person of the subject of the verb if the
sentence is too long. Sometimes even the sequence of tenses is incorrect. And most fre-
quently, the use of the pronoun is incorrect, especially in indirect narration or reported
speech (see Exhibit 1.12).
7. Courtesy: In conversational situations, meetings, and group discussions, an effective Courtesy demands not
using words that are
speaker maintains the proper decorum of speaking. One should say things assertively,
insulting or hurtful to the
but without being rude. Courtesy demands not using words that are insulting or hurtful
listener.
to the listener.
In business discussions, it is necessary to respect the other person by listening to him or her
patiently and without interruption.
The speaker’s tone should reflect respect for their listener or audience. The pitch and tone
should be level and measured rather than aggressive; they should not suggest that the speaker
is talking at the listener.
 20 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Exhibit 1.12 Incorrect Statement Correct Statement

The Necessity of
He said to me that I will surely go there. He told me that he would surely go there.
Grammatical Accuracy
for Effective Kindly explain to me this poem of Keats. Kindly explain this poem of Keats to me.
Communication I consider her as my sister. I consider her my sister.
She shut the TV and then opened the taps for She turned off the TV and then turned on the
her bath. taps for her bath.
The stars walk as if the whole world belongs The stars walk as if the whole world belonged
to them. to them.
Shahzad has also claimed that a Bihar-based Shahzad has also claimed that a Bihar-based
former junior minister and prominent Mum- former junior minister and a prominent Mumbai
bai politician helped him evade arrest. politician helped him evade arrest.
The dealer agreed to either exchange the shirt The dealer agreed either to exchange the shirt
or to refund the money. or to refund the money.
How long has it been since you had your last How long is it since you had your last promo-
promotion? tion?
The crowd cheered him making double century. The crowd cheered his making a double century.
Being an experienced manager, we are sure As you are an experienced manager, we are
you can resolve the conflict. sure you can resolve the conflict.
Sohan and her are equally brilliant. Sohan and she are equally brilliant.
His wife is taller than him. His wife is taller than he (is tall).
She is looking for who? Whom is she looking for?

5 UNIVERSAL ELEMENTS IN COMMUNICATION

There are some universal elements in all human communication:
Understand the
universal elements in The communication environment: All communicators act within the sensory environ-
communication. ment around them, from which their senses receive competing stimuli impinging upon
the content of communication.
Use of symbols: All communicators use verbal symbols and signs such as words, body
movements, facial expressions, and so on, to encode (and to decode) messages.
The mental filter: All communicators/receivers of a message have to register, organize,
transmit, receive, and interpret through their uniquely structured minds that have vary-
ing “filters”, which consist of their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.
To understand communication better, we should know the following basic facts regard-
ing its process:
Perfect communication is impossible: Human communication is essentially imperfect. All
our communication encoding and decoding acts are conditioned by the fact that a com-
mon mental filter is not possible. Meanings differ because filters differ. Therefore, no two
persons involved in an interaction will perceive the exact same meaning from a message.
What they tend to have is a “workable understanding”, as Vardman puts it in his defini-
tion of communication discussed earlier.
Besides the filters, the fact that the symbols used for communicating are imprecise in their
associative meanings further contributes to the imperfection of communication. Choosing
correct symbols to encode an idea, thought, or feeling is not an easy task. We tend to often
pick up imprecise symbols for encoding. This tendency increases the chances of misinter-
pretation or miscommunication between the sender and the receiver (see Exhibit 1.13).
Even the same symbols put in a different order or sequence may change the overall
meaning of the message (see Communication Snapshot 1.2). Therefore, both parties,
the sender and the receiver, should possess the same ability to interpret the meaning of
symbols (words) and their structure (the order in which they are used).
32 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

In an organization, com-
COMMUNICATION TRAINING FOR MANAGERS
munication counts. It In an organization, communication counts. It provides the network of sustenance essential
provides the network of for the growth and smooth functioning of the organization. But how should it be imple-
sustenance essential for
mented? What are the strategies of communicating effectively? How can one learn them? Can
the growth and smooth
functioning of the
communication be taught?
organization. Today, communication has become a buzzword. Accordingly, a great deal of emphasis is
being given to training aimed at developing the skills of writing letters, memos, and reports,
participating in seminars and group discussions, interviewing, making presentations, and
so on. In the world of business, managerial success depends largely on the ability to present
one’s ideas before others. In fact, verbal (written/oral) and non-verbal (body language) com-
municative competence is an important aspect of one’s personality. In fact, many advanced
institutions have incorporated communication in specialized personality development pro-
grammes as an additional input for management graduates at all levels of undergraduate and
postgraduate education. There are formal courses in business communication, human com-
munication, or organizational communication almost in all universities. In addition, there
are training courses and workshops specially designed for executives and bureaucrats at all
levels.
These communication courses and training programmes are offered because it is possible
to learn and develop interpersonal skills. Of course, there are individuals who are “born
communicators”, able to think clearly and express themselves effectively with little training.
However, others can become successful communicators by learning and practising the strate-
gies of effective communication. All communications courses and programmes are based on
simulating real situations in the workplace as well as social situations. Their basic objectives
include written and oral/verbal competence and understanding of non-verbal communica-
tion/body language. At the end of these courses, students can effectively write letters, memos,
reports, proposals, and so on, deliver oral presentations and seminars, and participate in
meetings, group discussions, and negotiations.
In business, it is crucial to create and maintain relationships. Effective communicators
weigh relationships and develop desirable, long-term ones. One’s communication skills help
nurture cherished relationships within the organization and outside it.

4 COMMUNICATION STRUCTURES IN ORGANIZATIONS

In business organizations, the effectiveness of a communication system depends upon the
Understand the ele- extent to which the necessary information (required for decision-making) reaches the con-
ments that form the cerned person (the person who needs that information) at the right time (when the infor-
structure of an organi- mation is needed). The network of information should support the overall functioning of
zation’s communica- management by integrating and coordinating the workforce for achieving organizational
tion network. objectives.
Hence, every organization creates a network (channel) for information to pass through
different levels of authority and functional heads and units. The flow of communication fol-
lows the structure of the organization. In actual practice, the information passes through the
organizational pyramid such as the one shown in Exhibit 2.3.

Vertical Communication
In organizations, there are well-defined lines or routes for passing on communication. Policy
decisions are taken at the boardroom level. From there, information is sent downwards to
senior managers or a group of senior managers. They ensure that the policy decisions are
easily understood, implemented, sustained, monitored, reviewed, and reported. Feedback
(performance data or employee experiences or suggestions) is, in turn, sent upwards.
In this system of communication, the key links are the managers and supervisors. They
transmit information both upwards and downwards. They are also responsible for following
up on ideas and instructions. In all large organizations, the human resource or personnel
department manages the circulation of information among employees. Personnel managers
 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 33

Board of directors Exhibit 2.3

Organizational Pyramid

Managing
director

Senior management

Middle-level management

Senior supervisors

First-line supervisors

Employees/shop-floor employees

Exhibit 2.3

are in constant touch with all employees. They are able to identify needs, provide guidance on
policy matters, and supervise infrastructural rearrangements.
However, when an organization has too many levels of hierarchy, managers may find
When an organization
it difficult to reach ground-level and shop-floor employees. In such situations, com-
has too many levels of
munication tends to be slow in reaching and delayed in being absorbed and acted upon. hierarchy, managers may
The cost of this delay, caused by the sheer size of the organization, may sometimes be find it difficult to reach
too high. ground-level and shop-
Hence, as Peter Drucker4 holds, large organizations have more recently moved towards a floor employees.
“flatter structure” of information-based management and executives “walk down” the jobs.
This is obviously to facilitate information flow downwards and to prevent employees from
getting frustrated by their sense of isolation.

Horizontal Communication
Also known as peer communication, horizontal communication is usually needed within the
organization due to:
The geographical location of divisions
The functional basis of division

Geographical Organization
In a large setup, divisions may be based on geographical areas. Such divisions may be known
just by numbers or single letters. For example, at Tata Steel (Jamshedpur), the “G” blast fur-
nace has its own division with a full-fledged hierarchy of employees and executives. There
are other furnaces known by numbers, with their own divisions. They are all located on the
vast Tata Steel site. There are also other divisions such as research and development, total
quality control, and so on. Each of these divisions maintains close contact with the oth-
ers through seminars, presentations, and executive meetings. These divisions communicate
among themselves to share information and help each other as equal members of the same
organization. Thus, communication helps sustain a sense of unity among the various divi-
sions in the organization.
 34 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Functional Organization
Normally, business and industrial organizations are divided on the basis of different func-
tions such as production, marketing, finance, personnel, and training and development. All
divisions function independently and yet remain linked with each other through peer-group
communication and workflow information. With the growth of technology and the increas-
ing size of organizations, the widespread production of goods and services needs to be coor-
dinated through the channel of horizontal communication. From the stage of selection of raw
material to the finished product, numerous processes are involved in completing the given
task of production. At each stage of the production process, the job of a workgroup depends
upon the timing and form of work received from the preceding workgroup. Any interrup-
tion in the workflow adversely affects performance at successive stages of production. The
workflow in a company can be steadily managed only through horizontal communication
between the sections that are directly linked.

LINE AND STAFF MANAGEMENT

Line and staff management (LSM) is a system of management in large organizations consist-
A network of relation-
ing of line managers and staff managers. Line managers are responsible for the main activities
ships between those in
line (functional) manage-
of the company, such as manufacturing and sales, while staff managers control the support
ment and staff (support) and service areas, such as accounting, distribution, and personnel. A network of relationships
management is created between those in line (functional) management and staff (support) management is created
by means of an effective by means of an effective internal communications system. Without this, an organization can
internal communications neither function properly nor thrive in the business world. As shown in Exhibit 2.4, the inter-
system. nal communication system can be divided into two categories—formal lines of communica-
tion and informal lines of communication.

5
Formal Communication
Formal lines of organizational communication include:

Understand the formal 1. Line relationships

and informal lines of 2. Functional relationships
organizational commu- 3. Staff relationships
nication.
Line Relationships
Line relationships refer to the line of authority that sets down the path of communication
from supervisors to subordinates and vice versa. All official communications, orders, and

Exhibit 2.4 Management

Internal Communication
System in Organizations
Line/Functional Staff Grapevine

Marketing department Finance Across all levels

and departments

Marketing manager Personnel

Product
manager Administration
Sales
manager Market
research Public relations
manager
Area sales manager

Exhibit 2.4
 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 35

instructions move from seniors to subordinates. Similarly, all follow-up actions and compli-
Usually, all organizations
ance and execution information and reports move upwards, from subordinates to supervi-
insist on following the
sors and executives. Usually, all organizations insist on following the normal chain of author- normal chain of author-
ity from one position to the next. If the communication is in the form of a letter, this respect ity from one position to
for the chain of authority is indicated by writing the phrase “through the proper channels” in the next.
the beginning of the letter.
If the communication is oral, the message is conveyed to one’s immediate supervisor.
Functional Relationships
Functional relationships are those between departments within an organization. Communi-
cation that occurs when departments share information regarding work and related organi-
zational matters with each other is a formal line of organizational communication.
Staff Relationships
Staff relationships include the communication that supports line management, marketing,
and production. They do not carry the executive authority of line relationships. Commu-
nications relating to personnel, public relations, administration, or finance are part of staff
relationships.

Informal Communication
Informal communication in an organization usually flows through chat and the grapevine.
Chat
Horizontal or lateral communication is between managers from different departments or
within the same peer group. Managers of the same level enjoy the same level of authority.
Often, informal communication, which is usually in the form of a “chat”, has to be confirmed
in writing before it goes through the official channel.
The Grapevine
Theoretically, the network of formal communication may be adequate to meet the needs of
exchanging information within an organization. But, in real life, this is seldom true. Often,
employees feel inadequately informed in a formal system. They may suspect that the man-
agement uses formal channels to conceal rather than reveal the true message. They may thus
accuse the system of lacking transparency. As a result, employees modify the formal methods
of communication by bringing in an informal communication system, the grapevine.
Information obtained via the grapevine is always attributed to “a reliable source”. “Learnt
through a reliable source”, is a common phrase used by the communicator to make the news
sound authentic.
However, the grapevine may create complications for the information system of organiza-
The grapevine may create
tions.
complications for the
The unofficial version of news, irrespective of its basis, is more easily believed by people. information system of
organizations.
News through the grapevine spreads like wildfire, quickly and uncontrollably.
Usually this version of information is somewhat distorted and exaggerated—a result of
the vast chain of “filters” used in the process.
The grapevine exists in all workplaces. It is an informal adjunct or extension of the formal
The grapevine exists
system of organizational communication. In a way, it is a corrective to the management’s sys-
in all workplaces. It is
tem of information as it is timely and has a wide reach. It poses a challenge to management’s an informal adjunct or
MIS (Management Information System). extension of the formal
The presence of the grapevine shows that the management has missed an opportunity system of organizational
to share information of interest with their employees. The gap in formal communication is communication.
filled by informal gossip circulated among employees, who form relationships on the basis
of their work or common social factors such as neighbourhood, language, culture, state, club
memberships, and so on These relationships are formed on the basis of friendship and not
official status.
Participants in the grapevine are non-official leaders who generally initiate and spread the
gossip across the organization. As with formal communication, there is a sender and a receiver.
36 PART I THEORY OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Normally, the management views the grapevine negatively as it undercuts confidential-

ity, secrecy, and guarded sharing of information with employees. However, sometimes the
management itself may take advantage of the grapevine, for instance to learn in advance the
reaction and response of employees to a proposed scheme or change. In such a situation,
before officially announcing the change, the managers may deliberately feed the leaders of the
grapevine with the concerned message and note employees’ feedback and responses.
This managerial practice is not always on the sly. Some management scholars approve
of this practice of supplementing formal communication with informal communication.
Koontz and O’Donnell5 observe, “The most effective communication results when managers
utilize the informal organization to supplement the communication channels of the formal
organization”.
When using informal channels of communication, managers have to be very careful about
the form of informal communication. For example, it could be very effective to “walk down
the job”—move around the office, chat, and informally discuss formal matters. But, the effec-
tiveness of this depends on the personal relationship between the executive and his or her
subordinate and the image created by the executive by his or her official behaviour and per-
sonal attributes such as frankness, attitude, and sense of fairness. As Leland Brown says, “In
using the grapevine, management must be able to pinpoint the leaders and work through
them. It must feed in factual information, listen to the feedback response, and be discerning
in not overloading the system and using it inappropriately. It is important that management
be sure to follow up the grapevine message with official written messages and statements that
will verify the accuracy of data obtained from the grapevine. This helps in building a mutual
trust based on open communication followed throughout the organization or business.”6
Merits of Informal Communication
The chief advantages of informal communication lines are:
Uniting force: The grapevine brings together employees in matters of common interest.
Speed: Informal channels of communication pass on messages speedily.
Creation of ideas: Informal communication, through sharing of ideas and views or by
spreading unofficial “grapevine”, generates ideas and expectations that often prove of
value to decision-makers and planners.
Good personal relations: Public relations fail in organizations because of the lack of good
Public relations fail in
personal relationships. Informal communication that promotes personal relations is,
organizations because of
the lack of good personal therefore, important for the success of public relations.
relationships. Emphasizing the value of informal communication in management, especially via the
grapevine, Myers and Myers7 assert that field research and laboratory experiments indicate
that “grapevine communication is fast; predictable in its course, directions, and membership;
and also far more accurate than a casual observer might imagine. Grapevine communica-
tion is less heavily loaded with task information—how to do the job—than with information
about people, attitudes, relationships, interpretation, prediction, values, norms, and needs”
Limitations of Informal Communication
The limitations of informal communication channels are:
Rumours: Sometimes informal communication, especially grapevine, can prove very
By exciting hopes or fears
provocative and disastrous for the relationship between employees and management.
in employees, rumour
mongering may result in
By its very nature, grapevine is information that lacks solid evidence. Moreover, there
a negative or misleading is little accountability in spreading it. By exciting hopes or fears in employees, rumour
situation in the workplace. mongering may result in a negative or misleading situation in the workplace. As a conse-
quence, the management may be confronted with a wave of prejudice, emotions, biases,
half-truths, and ambiguity.
Inadequacy: Informal communication can only pertain to certain kinds of organiza-
tional information—that is, non-functional issues and matters. Secondary issues regard-
ing staff and management relations are generally the subject of grapevine.
 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 37

Changing interpretations: When information is allowed to be spread through the grape-

Changes in interpretations
vine, it tends to result in distortion and dilution of the main issue. The key person, the
happen owing to the dif-
individual who starts spreading the news, is sometimes surprised by the final form in ferent perceptions of the
which that news gets back to him or her. Just as in the game of Chinese Whispers, the persons involved in the
distortions are unintentional. Changes in interpretations happen owing to the different whispering chain.
perceptions of the persons involved in the chain. The unlimited circulation of a statement
can make it lose its original meaning and character. Great caution is, therefore, needed
in using informal communication channels as a supplement to formal communication.
Finally, it is the responsibility of the formal communication system to ensure that oppor-
tunities for misinterpretation of information through the grapevine do not occur, by giving
full and necessary information to employees in a timely manner. Therefore, besides interac-
tions at the functional level, people should be able to talk to one another about formal matters
informally on different occasions.

INFORMATION TO BE COMMUNICATED AT THE WORKPLACE

To reduce the chances of misinterpretation or disinformation being spread by the grapevine,
6
an organization should keep all its employees informed about certain facts regarding it. The Know what and how
content of the information is generally a mixture of facts, opinion, attitudes and interpreta- much should be com-
tion. The purpose is to instruct, persuade, and ensure a routine first one-way transmission municated to employ-
of information. ees at the workplace.
Broadly, all business communication can be divided into five types of information:
1. Statutory information: Information regarding terms and conditions of service should be
communicated to all employees as a statutory requirement.
2. Regular work-related information: Information regarding normal work situations has to
be regularly communicated through routine formal briefing sessions or through infor-
mal chat sessions between the manager and group members.
3. Major policy or operational changes: Any major changes in the organization’s policies,
which affect everyone or a large number of employees, have to be communicated to all
by calling special meetings or by issuing notices.
4. Information bulletin: To keep people informed about events and happenings in the
organization, periodic information in the form of a newsletter is disseminated to all
employees. This helps create a sense of involvement in the working of the organization.
5. Communication by expectancy: Information regarding critical changes should be care-
fully and gradually communicated to those who are going to be directly affected by the
decision. Before the decision is implemented, the people concerned must be prepared
for it. This process aims at creating expectancy in the receivers, so that they are prepared
for upcoming changes.

SUMMARY

Effective communication plays a key role in enhancing the Informal communication and “the grapevine” should be
success of management functions in an organization. taken advantage of by the management when there is a free
Communication helps management in planning, direct- and open system of communication in the organization.
ing, coordinating, and controlling employees, materials, and The motivation and involvement of employees increases when
production. they are given the maximum possible information regard-
Effective communication creates a healthy organizational ing the organization. Essential information includes statutory
environment in which all employees feel motivated towards information, work-related information, information on opera-
the fulfilment of organizational goals. tional and major policy changes, periodic bulletins regarding
organizational events, and information that sets expectations
Both formal and informal communication channels exist
regarding future changes.
together in all organizations.
 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION 101

movements act as non-verbal clues. For example, wiping one’s mouth when confronted
by an authority figure communicates nervousness and using the hand gesture to wave
goodbye communicates courtesy and friendship.
Non-verbal cues may be conscious or unconscious. They reveal the speaker’s state of
mind and inner feelings and emotions, which may be real or affected. Trained actors and
orators intentionally use gestures, facial expressions, body movements, and postures to
create the intended impact on their audience. Effective writers use stylistic devices to
convey hidden feelings and attitudes.
However, in real-life, most people betray their inner thoughts and feelings through
unconscious signs. The speaker may not realize that he or she is conveying these feelings.
For example, consider the following statement on bilateral talks between two unfriendly
countries made by the representatives with tense facial expression or without a smile:
“The meeting has made history.”
The interpretation of non-verbal clues differs from person to person. For example, if a
listener maintains continuous eye contact, the speaker may take it as a sign of perfect
attention and full acceptance, but to someone else it could be a sign that the listener feels
helpless or trapped.
The visible is usually more convincing than what is heard as it may support or con-
tradict the verbal message. Non-verbal clues are often taken as indicators of reality. For
example, the pale face of a person in danger contradicts his or her claim of fearlessness. Dress or language
The trembling of a speaker indicates nervousness even though the speaker may say, “I can also reveal the
communicator’s status or
feel encouraged and inspired to stand before such a learned audience.” Dress or language
education.
can also reveal the communicator’s status or education.
The same gestures may also be interpreted differently in different circumstances. For
example, consider two colleagues, A and B, who are good friends. When A pats B on
the back endearingly to congratulate her on a successful project, the pat is taken as a
friendly gesture. Now, suppose A is the chairperson of a promotions committee and B
is a candidate for promotion. To create a misunderstanding between A and B, someone
tells B that A, as chairperson, opposed her promotion. When, on meeting her the next
evening, A congratulates B and as usual pats her on the back, she recoils. This example
shows that the relationship between two people also determines how they interpret each
other’s gestures.

CLASSIFICATION OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION The symbolic meaning

Non-verbal forms of communication include the following modes—paralanguage, meta- associated with different
body movements,
communication, kinesics, grooming, proxemics, and time language. The symbolic meaning
gestures, and expressions
associated with different body movements, gestures, and expressions is only suggestive and
is only suggestive and not
not specific in its import. specific in its import.
Ekman’s Classification of Communicative Movements
Let us consider Ekman’s classification1 of communicative movements into five types:
Emblems: When the movement of body parts represents ideas visually, the communica-
tive act is emblematic, meaning it reflects the meaning non-verbally through a physical
image. For instance, a circle made with the thumb and index finger, with the rest of the
fingers stretched out straight, acts as an emblem for the “okay” sign in America. This sign
is meaningful for those cultures that use the English alphabet. The circle is an image of
the letter “O”. But in a different culture, the same circle “O” can represent a coin, just as it
does in Japan. Another instance is that of the arbitrary gesture of holding up the thumb,
which in Japan refers to a “boss”, and in India, means “perfect.”
Illustrators: Illustrators are movements of hands and arms for representing the size, shape,
frequency, or speed of something. For instance, widely stretched arms show enormity of
102 PART II FORMS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

size. According to Ekman, a speaker uses illustrators when he or she is enthusiastic or

fully involved in the subject being discussed. In such a state, the speaker involuntarily
dramatizes ideas by using the movements of arms to focus on an idea or an event.
Body manipulators: These are acts of touching one’s own body or an object for no reason.
Examples include fidgeting with jewellery or touching one’s buttons. These are uninten-
tional acts. However, some consider them to be clues of nervousness, anxiety, or boredom.
Facial expressions: The most expressive part of our bodies are our faces. Our faces reflect
our thoughts and feelings. Smiling, frowning, blushing, paleness, and so on reveal posi-
tive and negative feelings. These are emotional expressions that show on the face. The
most fundamental emotions of happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, surprise, and fear are
involuntarily marked on our faces.
Regulators—eye movements: Eye movements such as squinting, winking, and staring are
called regulators. Eye contact, a smile, or a frown is a strong message of interest, involve-
ment, acceptance, rejection, or annoyance. Other people notice these and form impres-
sions about the person communicating based on these. While communicating, remem-
ber the popular saying: the face reflects the mind; the eyes reveal the heart. For example,
eye contact shows attentiveness and interest. On the other hand, rolling one’s eyes is
associated with restlessness and contempt. Staring can communicate threat. Wide open
eyes show wonder or shock. A wink following a statement negates the seriousness of the
statement made. Similarly, raised eyebrows or a wrinkled forehead symbolizes objection
and questioning. Avoiding eye contact shows nervousness or evasiveness.
A favourable impact can be created by using eye contact, natural facial expressions and eye
movements, and a smile that reflects a pleasant state of mind.

3 Face Facts
A smile shows that an interaction has been pleasant for the participant in a conversation.
Perhaps, it would not be wrong to say that in most face-to-face communications, the most
Learn positive gestures,
body movements, and positive impression is made by a smiling face. The situation may be an interview, a negotia-
facial expressions. tion, or a one-on-one meeting. Even in telephone conversations, one is able to feel the impact
of a smiling voice. Unlike smiling, frowning is uninviting. It might suggest to other people
that the person wants to be left alone.
By practising positive body language, one can gradually develop positive feelings. Body
language can induce a state of mind that can act as a positive shield against negative feelings.
Most people are not
aware of the non-verbal
One can learn to communicate sincerity and concern in business dealings by using positive
messages they give out body language to support words of greetings, courtesy, and customer care. Avoid negative
to others. Therefore, it leakage. Learn to look confident, assertive, and positive. Avoid appearing nervous, aggres-
is important to develop sive, rude, pompous, indifferent or overbearing, and superior to others.
awareness about various As discussed earlier, most people are not aware of the non-verbal messages they give out
body movements and to others. Therefore, it is important to develop awareness about various body movements
gestures and their possible and gestures and their possible interpretations by others. The associated messages of some
interpretations by others. significant body movements and gestures are discussed in this section.

Positive Gestures
When a person speaks, his or her hands move freely to indicate the meaning of his or her
words. Such gestures are natural. They cannot be avoided. They give strength to the speaker’s
words. But gestures should be seen in terms of whether they have a positive or negative mes-
sage. Although gestures are spontaneous, we can learn to monitor and use positive gestures
and minimize, if not avoid, the negative ones.
Positive gestures are Positive gestures are body signals that make the communicator look relaxed, confident,
body signals that make and polite. Positive listening gestures include leaning a little towards the other person, tilting
the communicator look
the head, making eye contact, and gently nodding as a sign of agreement or understanding.
relaxed, confident, and
polite.
Such gestures encourage the speaker to a great extent. Positive speaking gestures include
keeping the hands open and avoiding clutching or folding them across the chest.
 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION 103

When walking, keep your head upright. Hands should swing freely by the sides. Eyes
should look straight in front. Steps should be well measured and steady. Many people carry
books, files, and documents held against the chest. This makes the person look nervous and
4
Recognize different
defensive. To avoid being perceived as a nervous person, one could carry them on one side. cues and clues given
We can use our gestures to politely communicate what we want when we are unable to speak by facial expressions,
or are interrupting someone. For example, during a serious, formal conversation, if you are gestures, postures,
offered water or tea, you may politely hold up your palm to ask the other person to wait or to body movements, and
decline if you do not want to interrupt the conversation. Similarly, if you are on the phone and eye contact.
someone asks you something, you can politely request him or her to wait a minute by holding
up one finger or some other symbolic gesture. This ensures that you do not ignore the visitor.
Gestures can be adequate substitutes for words. We should develop the skill of using them
effectively. Equally importantly, we should recognize our negative gestures and learn to hide
them.

Negative Gestures
Negative gestures involve certain body movements, postures, gestures, or non-verbal activi-
ties such as shaking, tapping one’s feet, looking at the watch, and so on. Putting one’s hands in
the pockets is also a negative gesture. If you put one hand in your pocket, it usually suggests
arrogance. If you put both, it might show nervousness. However, if you want to look confi-
dent, but not nervous or arrogant, thrust your hands in your pockets, then keep the thumb
out, so that you do not fully insert your hands inside the pockets.
Take note of the clues in Exhibit 7.2.

Lateral Gestures Besides the non-verbal

Besides non-verbal gestures that convey wordless messages through body language and facial gestures that convey
expressions, there are other wordless signs of power, position, taste, and culture such as deco- wordless messages
ration and size of one’s office, dress, grooming, and so on. These are called lateral gestures and through body language
include the following broad categories: (a) physical setting, (b) dress—clothes and shoes, and and facial expressions,
(c) personal space. there are lateral wordless
signs of power, position,
Physical Setting
taste, and culture such
An executive’s position of power may be gauged from the size and furnishings of his or her as decoration and size
office. The quality of furniture adds to the impression created by the setting of the room. of one’s office, dress,
In an office, the executive’s table is usually placed a few steps away from the door. This grooming, and so on.
compels visitors or subordinates to walk up to him or her and feel his or her presence. Space
is one of the factors involved in indicating the proximity of a relationship.
Dress
Clothes can define a person. It is one of the first things people notice. A person’s clothes—
their texture, colour, design, style, and stitching—reveal their taste and aesthetic sense.
In business, it is important to pay attention to one’s clothes, especially at an interview or
presentation. While one should look impressive, it is important not to be overdressed. Instead In business, it is
of highly fashionable and trendy designs and styles of suits, business executives should favour important to pay
elegant, conventional styles. Clothes should not distract from the conversation. attention to one’s
In addition, one’s clothes should be neither too loose nor too tight. It is important to clothes, especially
at an interview or
feel comfortable in one’s clothes, particularly in a high-stress situation such as an interview
presentation. While one
or presentation. Never try a new set of clothes for such occasions. New clothes may not sit
should look impressive,
comfortably, and they may distract the wearer from time to time. So, the first rule to follow it is important not to be
is the principle of comfort. overdressed.
Shoes should also be formal and in keeping with the colour of the clothes. Business bags,
briefcases, handbags, or portfolios also indicate one’s status as a professional. An overstuffed
handbag is not as impressive as a sleek briefcase or a smart handbag.
Personal Space
The personal space between two interacting persons indicates the level of formality, infor-
mality, intimacy, or distance between them. Business executives should observe the personal
territory that each individual wishes to enjoy. Breaking into someone’s personal territory
104 PART II FORMS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Exhibit 7.2
Non-verbal Clues Signs of nervousness include the following:
putting hands in one’s pockets, covering the mouth with the hand while speaking,
scratching, nail biting, sideways glances, finger-drumming, clearing the throat too often,
foot tapping, hand-wringing, crossing arms or legs, a slumped posture, sitting on the
edge of the chair, rocking one’s legs, looking at the ceiling, straightening one’s tie, fixing
one’s hair, speaking too fast or too haltingly
The following are the loudest gestures of nervousness:
adjusting one’s glasses; blinking excessively; fidgeting with jewellery, watches, or cuf-
flinks; clicking a pen; frequently sipping water; playing with a paperweight; smoking
Gestures showing aggression are as follows:
staring, pointing at someone, showing one’s fist, folding both arms, bending over someone
Gestures showing rudeness include the following:
shaking hands too firmly or too limply; standing too close; whispering at a social gather-
ing; talking, checking e-mail, or sending text messages on one’s cell phone or BlackBerry
in meetings or social situations; working while someone is talking; yawning; smirking;
glancing at the clock frequently during a conversation; making “tut-tut” sounds; groom-
ing, specially fixing one’s hair, when listening or speaking; gathering and folding papers
before the meeting is over
Gestures that show self-importance and should be carefully avoided in situations that
demand solutions and negotiated settlements are:
keeping one’s eyes closed while talking, tilting one’s head backwards while talking,
looking at the tip of one’s nose while talking, pursing the mouth, steepling the fingers,
peering over the top of one’s spectacles, waving a glass or key while talking
Gestures showing lack of good sense include:
banging the table instead of laughing at a joke, chewing on the end of a pen, using
air quotes and making a “T” in the air when asking for tea, waving one’s hands around
excessively while talking, wringing one’s hands, opening or closing buttons or fidgeting
with one’s watch strap while talking, wiping one’s hands on the face, touching the nose
time and again
Some authority figures, without saying anything, can make one feel subordinate by
behaving in the following ways, which display a sense of superiority:
not responding to or acknowledging the other’s greeting, staring, shouting orders,
standing too close, leaning or sitting on someone’s desk, standing behind someone’s
seat and watching over his or her shoulder as he or she works, smoking in someone’s
space, attending to one’s cell phone during meetings, making any unwanted or unwar-
ranted physical contact, continuing to work when others address you, having a crushing
Creating a feeling of handshake or holding the other person’s hand for too long, reclining in the chair with
subordination and
hands folded behind the head
hierarchy adversely
affects good working Creating a feeling of subordination and hierarchy adversely affects good working relation-
relationships and makes ships and makes others uncomfortable. Therefore, executives should avoid such power
others uncomfortable. posturing.

is likely to make him or her feel uncomfortable. When placed under such an intrusion, an
Two interacting parties important person is bound to show displeasure and signs of withdrawal from the interaction.
have a zone of invisible Thus it is also important to understand the non-verbal message of displeasure and correct the
space between them, space-relationship to have a fruitful interaction.
which is delineated
Two interacting parties have a zone of invisible space between them, which is delineated
by the nature of their
relationship.
by the nature of their relationship. A public figure for instance, would be used to more space
around him or her, whereas one would maintain a smaller distance with a friend or relative.
 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION 105

According to the nature of relationships, there are four distinct zones: (i) the public zone,
(ii) the social zone, (iii) the friendly zone and (iv) the intimate zone.
The public zone is the widest territory between the speaker and audience. A public speaker
addresses a large gathering of persons. He or she needs to speak from a raised platform at a
distance of 10 to 15 feet from the audience. The distance and elevation of the speaker provide
visibility and a sense of isolation and superiority for the speaker. An example of the public
zone is seen in the armed services, where it is normal practice for army officers to issue com-
mands from a distance of 8 to 10 steps from the troops.
A social zone is the space maintained between people who are known to each other in a
formal way. All business transactions are to be treated as social interactions. An executive
should keep a distance of 4 to 10 feet from his or her audience. This space will ensure the
comfort of the listeners, especially if they happen to be seniors, customers, or clients. At this
distance, one can observe the body language and facial expressions of the other party closely.
The social zone will be applicable for new colleagues at work, new acquaintances, and small
group training situations.
The friendly zone is the distance observed at business parties, seminars, and other infor-
mal business gatherings and get-togethers. In such situations, people remain close to each
other, but not close enough to jostle against each other. The gap maintained is nearly 1½ to
4 feet. At this distance, people can comfortably chat, laugh, and joke with each other without
invading each other’s space.
The intimate zone is the distance between an individual and those he or she loves, such
The intimate zone is the
as close relatives and family members. This zone is not appropriate in a professional envi-
distance between an
ronment. In this zone, people tend to be near enough to whisper, about 6 to 18 inches. This individual and those
nearness signals closeness among those involved in the conversation. However, this close he or she loves, such
distance is possible only when one is sure of the relationship because it is a zone in which one as close relatives and
can touch the other person. In all other zones, including the friendly zone, one should not family members. This
risk touching the other person. Touching can be strongly offensive. zone is not appropriate
Within the intimate zone, there are, according to the level of intimacy, further zones/ in a professional
bands. They are: environment.

Near intimate sphere (up to 6 inches): The zone for lovers, partners, children, family
members
Distant intimate sphere (6 inches to 18 inches): The zone for close friends, close colleagues
and relatives
Both these spheres are sensitive. The difficulty lies in knowing how close is too close.
When our intimate zone is intruded upon, we may feel embarrassed and, at times, threatened
by the unwanted approach. We may have a “flight or fight” response, either confronting the
intruder or removing ourselves from the situation. If our friendly zone is violated, we hide
our discomfort by smiling or raising questions.
There are times when one cannot help having personal and intimate spaces violated, such
as when travelling in a crowded compartment or entering a packed lift. In such situations,
people are not usually resentful of others because body language indicates their helplessness.
Moreover, to avoid discomfort to anyone, it is best to avoid eye contact with others in such
situations and to try to stand straight to avoid physical contact with anyone.

RESPONDING TO POWER POSTURING

Knowledge of non-verbal skills strengthens the communicative competence of profession- Knowledge of non-
als. However, these skills do not give one the power to control others. Understanding others’ verbal skills strengthens
body language does not mean having control over their responses or actions. It only means the communicative
understanding them and their meaning better, which is helpful in fulfilling one’s purpose. competence of
One situation where understanding non-verbal communication can help a business professionals. But these
executive is if he or she encounters power posturing by superiors or colleagues, which may skills do not give one the
power to control others.
lead to a sense of being subordinated or dominated. Consider a situation in which your
106 PART II FORMS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

boss, known for his arrogance and strictness, quietly enters your room from his side office
and stands behind you. He keeps watching what you are working on for a few minutes.
There is silence. You feel deeply nervous and upset. Finally, he says, “So, what’s on?” in a
stern voice. In such a state of nervousness, your body talk should not reveal nervousness.
Nervousness can indicate that you were doing something wrong. Blurting out “Nothing” in
a shaky voice could imply that you were wasting your time. Instead, you should reply with
confidence by standing up and facing him, greeting him, and calmly saying exactly what
you have been doing.
Power posturing makes its victim feel upset and nervous. It is the deliberate use of body
Power posturing makes
language and behaviour to make the target feel inferior. The person responsible for it
its victim feel upset
may shout, bully, not respond, interrupt, or pretend not to notice the target by continu-
and nervous. It is the
deliberate use of body ing to work. Some interviewers choose to make interviewees nervous by using some of
language and behaviour these gestures. For instance, when the interviewee asks permission to enter the room,
to make the target feel they give a loud response, “Come in!” Upon entering, the interviewee stands before the
inferior. interviewer, but he or she continues to work, completely ignoring the interviewee. After
a few minutes, the interviewer asks the interviewee his or her name, but by this time the
interviewee’s confidence is already drained.
When encountering power posturing, it is best to remain calm and not feel hurt. The
power posturer’s goal is to bully the victim into such a state of mind. It is important to
remember that the rude behaviour is not personal, but is directed by the particular pro-
fessional situation at hand. The victim should not begin questioning his or her worth and
should avoid nervous gestures such as wiping the mouth, biting one’s nails, or looking
lost in thought. Instead, the victim should analyse the technique used by the other per-
son. It is difficult but possible to confront power posturing skillfully and allow yourself
to remain comfortable.
If the victim is sitting when confronted by power posturing, he or she should not sit
at the edge of the seat. This will make him or her look nervous and ready to run away.
Instead, for comfort’s sake, he or she could cross his or her legs, but not the arms at the
same time. The “double cross” looks very defensive.
The victim should use comforting gestures, such as touching the earlobes or the back of
the neck or stroking the hair, skillfully. These acts restore confidence. But they should be
done sparingly so that the bully does not take them as signs of nervousness or anxiety.
The victim should maintain a reassuring standing posture. He or she can keep nervous-
ness away by standing in a relaxed manner, with the arms down by his or her sides and
feet apart by 9 to 10 inches. This posture gives a firm, balanced footing.
The victim should be assertive. Most people tend to respond to an adverse situation
by either fighting or fleeing. An alternative way of responding to unpleasant behaviour
or negative situations is by being assertive. Assertiveness should not be taken to mean
Assertiveness should
imposing one’s own will on others. It means understanding others’ points of view while
not be taken to mean
imposing one’s own will putting one’s own point forward objectively. The victim should state what he or she
on others. thinks is right without being influenced by emotional considerations. In both fight and
flight responses, one is affected by emotions. In being assertive, one should express facts
as they are and say what should be said. The ultimate goal is to convince the other person
that the assertion is correct.
To be assertive, one has to learn the skills of discussing and negotiating. However, negotia-
tion is a time-consuming process and requires patience. Impatience makes one react aggres-
sively and fight or run away (flight). Both these reactions—aggression and passivity—have
negative effects. Aggression negatively affects the other party by hurting their feelings and
provoking them to react with similar behaviour (anger). Passivity, on the other hand, is frus-
trating. It results in the feeling of failure and suggests that others take you for granted. Hence,
the proper way to respond is to say what you want to say, with the firm conviction of being
right.
 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION 107

GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING NON-VERBAL

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Most verbal communication is laced with emotional overtones expressed through body
movements, gestures, facial expressions, and modulations of voice. These non-verbal ele-
ments indicate what is intended but not verbalized by the speaker. Those who pay attention
to these non-verbal gestures can find something additional in their understanding of the
message; the ability to do so can be improved.
1. Watch and read non-verbal clues:
Interpret non-verbal clues in relation to the situation and culture accurately.
Be careful about false non-verbal clues deliberately given to deceive you.
Consider the non-verbal message, along with what the speaker’s words say, to know
the total message.
Respond with self-control, but do not react to non-verbal signals.
2. Know your body language:
Develop self-awareness by visualizing yourself as others see you and interpreting
your body movements and gestures.
Try to develop positive gestures and expressions to present yourself as you wish to be
seen by others—as a confident, pleasing, well-meaning team worker.
Do not give conflicting non-verbal cues.
Convey sincerity through your tone of voice and facial expression.
Use symbols, non-verbal cues (gestures, posture, and so on), intonation (volume,
pace of delivery, and enunciation), expressions, and so on to reinforce and clarify the
meaning of the message.
Maintain eye contact with the audience.
Smile genuinely.
Avoid power posturing.
Remember that the first impression is the most important and lasting impression.
Hence, present yourself well to make a positive and lasting impression.
3. Know about culture-specific body language: Though body language is a universal phe-
Culture, like language,
nomenon, its meaning differs across cultures. Culture, like language, lays down rules
lays down rules for
for accepted social behaviour of people sharing a set of knowledge, beliefs, practices,
accepted social behaviour
and ideas. In present day multi-cultural workplaces, communication between persons of of people sharing a set
different nations and backgrounds requires an understanding of non-verbal acts such as of knowledge, beliefs,
eye contact, touch, and the sense of time in different cultures. People attach great signifi- practices, and ideas.
cance to what they learn from non-verbal clues in addition to what they hear through
words. Non-verbal clues are taken as true indicators of the speaker’s subconscious mind.
They are, therefore, considered more reliable than words. Be careful not to use non-
verbal clues that violate the cultural norms of other countries. Persons who travel and
work abroad or in multi-cultural environments must realize that gestures may not mean
the same thing they do in their own country. Some of those gestures might even be
unwelcome or offensive.
4. Know about touching and its context: Touching has limited communicative symbolism. Touching has limited
It primarily conveys intimacy and closeness and also love. But its meaning is very closely communicative
linked to its context. Take the case of a doctor, who can touch a patient of the opposite symbolism. It primarily
sex when medically necessary, without offending the patient. In this context, the doctor’s conveys intimacy and
body movements, touching, and so on are instrumental acts, performing certain tasks. closeness and also love.
But the act of touching
They are not communicative body movements that reflect the doctor’s state of mind,
has its meaning in
emotions, or attitude. The context characterizes the nature of a body movement and relation to its context.
determines whether it is a communicative or instrumental message.