1(A)

The Mid-point circle drawing algorithm is used to draw a circle on a discrete grid (such as a computer
screen) by plotting pixels along the circumference of the circle. Here's a detailed explanation of the
algorithm, addressing each of the mentioned points:

i) Determination of the decision parameter 𝑃𝑟Pr:

The decision parameter 𝑃𝑟Pr is used to determine the next pixel position as the circle is being drawn.
It helps in deciding whether to move along the horizontal or vertical direction to find the next pixel
position. The basic idea is to find the closest pixel to the circle's circumference at each step of
drawing.

The decision parameter is typically initialized as 𝑃𝑟=1−𝑟Pr=1−r, where 𝑟r is the radius of the circle.
This parameter is updated at each step of drawing the circle based on the current pixel position and
the decision to move horizontally or vertically.

ii) Determination of whether a particular pixel is on the perimeter:

To determine whether a particular pixel is on the perimeter of the circle, we evaluate the decision
parameter 𝑃𝑟Pr. If 𝑃𝑟Pr is exactly zero, it means the pixel is precisely on the circumference of the
circle.

iii) Determination of whether a particular pixel is outside the perimeter:

If the decision parameter 𝑃𝑟Pr is greater than zero, it indicates that the current pixel is outside the
circle's perimeter. In this case, we move to the next pixel position using a horizontal step.

iv) Determination of whether a particular pixel is inside the perimeter:

If the decision parameter 𝑃𝑟Pr is less than zero, it suggests that the current pixel is inside the circle's
perimeter. In this scenario, we move to the next pixel position using a diagonal step, considering both
horizontal and vertical movements.

Overall, the Mid-point circle drawing algorithm iteratively plots pixels along the circumference of the
circle based on the decision parameter 𝑃𝑟Pr, moving either horizontally or diagonally to approximate
the circle's shape. The algorithm efficiently draws circles without the need for floating-point
arithmetic, making it suitable for implementation in systems with limited computational resources.

(B)

#include <iostream>

#include <cmath>

using namespace std;

void drawLineDDA(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2) {

int dx = x2 - x1;

int dy = y2 - y1;
 // Calculate the number of steps needed

int steps = abs(dx) > abs(dy) ? abs(dx) : abs(dy);

// Calculate the increment in x and y for each step

float xIncrement = float(dx) / float(steps);

float yIncrement = float(dy) / float(steps);

// Initial coordinates

float x = x1;

float y = y1;

// Plot the initial point

cout << "(" << round(x) << ", " << round(y) << ") ";

// Plot the intermediate points

for (int i = 1; i <= steps; i++) {

x += xIncrement;

y += yIncrement;

cout << "(" << round(x) << ", " << round(y) << ") ";

cout << endl;

int main() {

int x1, y1, x2, y2;

cout << "Enter the coordinates of the starting point (x1, y1): ";

cin >> x1 >> y1;

cout << "Enter the coordinates of the ending point (x2, y2): ";

cin >> x2 >> y2;

 cout << "Line drawn using DDA algorithm: " << endl;

drawLineDDA(x1, y1, x2, y2);

return 0;

(2)

The Cohen-Sutherland Polygon Clipping algorithm is a line clipping algorithm used to clip polygons
against a window or viewport. It operates by determining which parts of the polygon lie inside or
outside the clipping window and then discards or modifies the parts lying outside.

Below is a detailed explanation of the Cohen-Sutherland Polygon Clipping algorithm:

i) Data Structures Associated:

Polygon: The polygon to be clipped, represented by a list of vertices.

Clipping Window: The rectangular window or viewport against which the polygon is clipped, defined
by four boundary lines.

Codes: Each vertex of the polygon is assigned a four-bit code representing its position relative to the
clipping window. The bits in the code correspond to the top, bottom, right, and left edges of the
window, respectively.

Outcode Masks: These masks are used to quickly determine if a vertex is inside or outside the
window based on its code.

ii) Clear Appreciation of the Vertices Involved:

The polygon vertices are classified into two categories: inside and outside the clipping window.

Inside Vertices: Vertices that lie completely or partially inside the clipping window.

Outside Vertices: Vertices that lie completely outside the clipping window.

iii) Iterations Involved Navigating Along the Concerned Vertices:

For each line segment defined by consecutive vertices of the polygon, the algorithm determines if it
lies completely inside, outside, or partially inside the clipping window.

The vertices are processed one by one, and the algorithm iterates over each line segment to perform
the clipping.
iv) Relationships Between the Two Main Steps Involved:

Step 1: Compute Outcodes - Assign codes to each vertex based on its position relative to the clipping
window. These codes help in quickly determining if a vertex is inside or outside the window.

Step 2: Clip Segments - Clip the line segments of the polygon against the clipping window based on
the outcodes of their endpoints. This step involves determining the intersection points of the line
segments with the window boundaries and updating the vertices accordingly.

Overall, the Cohen-Sutherland Polygon Clipping algorithm efficiently clips polygons against
rectangular windows by iteratively processing the vertices and line segments, utilizing outcodes to
quickly identify and clip segments lying outside the window.

b)

The birth of the Homogeneous Coordinate System can be attributed to the need for a unified
representation of geometric transformations in computer graphics and computer vision. Before the
introduction of homogeneous coordinates, transformations such as translation, rotation, scaling, and
perspective projection were typically represented using different mathematical formulations, making
it cumbersome to apply multiple transformations sequentially or to combine them into a single
matrix operation.

The primitive operations in 2D and 3D graphics, such as translation, rotation, and scaling, can be
expressed using matrices in the Euclidean Coordinate System. For example, a 2D translation can be
represented by the following matrix:

𝑇=[10𝑡𝑥01𝑡𝑦001]T=⎣⎡100010txty1⎦⎤

Where 𝑡𝑥tx and 𝑡𝑦ty represent the translation distances in the x and y directions, respectively.

Similarly, a 2D rotation about the origin can be represented by the following matrix:

𝑅=[cos⁡(𝜃)−sin⁡(𝜃)0sin⁡(𝜃)cos⁡(𝜃)0001]R=⎣⎡cos(θ)sin(θ)0−sin(θ)cos(θ)0001⎦⎤

Where 𝜃θ represents the angle of rotation.

While these transformations are straightforward to apply individually, combining them into a single
matrix operation involves matrix multiplication, which becomes complicated when dealing with
translation operations. In the Euclidean Coordinate System, translations do not commute with other
transformations, leading to difficulties in expressing complex transformations.

The Homogeneous Coordinate System addresses this limitation by introducing an additional

dimension to represent translation components. In homogeneous coordinates, a 2D point (𝑥,𝑦)(x,y)
is represented as (𝑥ℎ,𝑦ℎ,𝑤)(xh,yh,w), where 𝑤w is a scaling factor.

The translation matrix in homogeneous coordinates becomes:

𝑇=[10𝑡𝑥01𝑡𝑦001]T=⎣⎡100010txty1⎦⎤

And a 2D point represented in homogeneous coordinates can be transformed by multiplying it with

the translation matrix:
[𝑥ℎ′𝑦ℎ′𝑤′]=[10𝑡𝑥01𝑡𝑦001][𝑥ℎ𝑦ℎ𝑤]⎣⎡xh′yh′w′⎦⎤=⎣⎡100010txty1⎦⎤⎣⎡xhyhw⎦⎤

This allows translation to be expressed as a matrix operation, enabling easy concatenation with other
transformations. Additionally, the homogeneous coordinate system allows for the representation of
points at infinity, which is useful for representing parallel lines and performing perspective
transformations.

In summary, the birth of the Homogeneous Coordinate System can be attributed to the need for a
unified representation of geometric transformations, particularly in computer graphics and computer
vision, where efficient and flexible transformation operations are essential.

a.) Cohen-Sutherland Polygon Clipping Algorithm:

The Cohen-Sutherland Polygon Clipping Algorithm is a line-clipping algorithm used to clip polygons
against a rectangular clipping window. It efficiently determines which parts of a polygon lie inside or
outside the clipping window and removes or retains them accordingly. Here's a detailed explanation
of the algorithm:

i) Data Structures:

The algorithm works with two main data structures:

Polygon vertices: The polygon to be clipped is represented by its vertices, stored in an array or list.

Clipping window: The rectangular region defining the boundaries of the clipping area. It is typically
represented by four lines or edges corresponding to the left, right, top, and bottom sides of the
window.

ii) Vertices Involved:

Each vertex of the polygon is considered during the clipping process.

Additionally, the vertices defining the clipping window are also involved in determining the
intersection points between the polygon edges and the clipping window boundaries.

iii) Iterations:

The algorithm iterates through each edge of the polygon, determining whether it lies completely
inside, completely outside, or partially inside the clipping window.

For each edge, it calculates the Cohen-Sutherland region codes for both endpoints to classify their
positions relative to the clipping window.
Based on the region codes and intersection points with the clipping window boundaries, the
algorithm clips the edges accordingly.

iv) Relationships Between Main Steps:

The main steps of the Cohen-Sutherland Polygon Clipping Algorithm are as follows:

Compute region codes: Calculate the Cohen-Sutherland region codes for both endpoints of each
edge of the polygon.

Determine visibility: Determine whether each edge lies completely inside, completely outside, or
partially inside the clipping window based on the region codes.

Clip edges: For edges that are partially inside the window, compute the intersection points with the
clipping window boundaries and clip the edges accordingly.

Remove or retain clipped segments: Update the polygon vertices by removing segments that lie
outside the clipping window and retaining those that lie inside.

In summary, the Cohen-Sutherland Polygon Clipping Algorithm efficiently clips polygons against
rectangular clipping windows by iteratively processing each edge of the polygon and determining its
visibility with respect to the clipping window.

b.) Cause for the Birth of Homogeneous Coordinate System:

The Homogeneous Coordinate System was introduced to address the limitations of the Euclidean
Coordinate System, particularly in representing and manipulating geometric transformations, such as
translation, rotation, scaling, and perspective projection, in a unified manner.

Primitives Leading to the Birth of Homogeneous Coordinates:

Translation: In the Euclidean Coordinate System, translations do not commute with other
transformations, making it challenging to combine multiple transformations into a single matrix
operation. Homogeneous coordinates allow translations to be represented as matrix multiplications,
enabling seamless concatenation with other transformations.

Representation of Points at Infinity: Homogeneous coordinates facilitate the representation of points

at infinity, which is crucial for dealing with parallel lines and performing perspective transformations.
This capability enhances the representation of complex geometric scenes and enables accurate
rendering in computer graphics and computer vision applications.

Flexible Transformation Operations: Homogeneous coordinates provide a unified framework for

expressing various geometric transformations, regardless of their nature or sequence. This flexibility
simplifies the implementation of transformation pipelines and allows for efficient composition and
decomposition of transformations.

Homogeneous Matrices: Homogeneous coordinates enable the use of homogeneous matrices to

represent geometric transformations, making it easier to apply transformations to points and vectors
in a consistent manner. This representation simplifies the computation of transformations and
enhances the efficiency of geometric operations.

In conclusion, the Homogeneous Coordinate System was born out of the necessity to overcome the
limitations of the Euclidean Coordinate System and provide a unified framework for representing and
manipulating geometric transformations in computer graphics, computer vision, and related fields.

3)

To derive the 2x2 rotation matrix from the given function 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝜃)Rotate(θ), we can represent the
transformation using matrix multiplication.

The function 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝜃)Rotate(θ) maps a point (𝑥,𝑦)(x,y) to (𝑥′,𝑦′)(x′,y′) as follows:

(𝑥′,𝑦′)=(𝑥cos⁡(𝜃)+𝑦sin⁡(𝜃),−𝑥sin⁡(𝜃)+𝑦cos⁡(𝜃))(x′,y′)=(xcos(θ)+ysin(θ),−xsin(θ)+ycos(θ))

This transformation can be represented as a matrix-vector multiplication:

(𝑥′𝑦′)=(cos⁡(𝜃)sin⁡(𝜃)−sin⁡(𝜃)cos⁡(𝜃))(𝑥𝑦)(x′y′)=(cos(θ)−sin(θ)sin(θ)cos(θ))(xy)

Now, comparing the result with the function, we can see that the elements of the rotation matrix
are:

cos⁡(𝜃)=cos⁡(0)=1cos(θ)=cos(0)=1 sin⁡(𝜃)=sin⁡(0)=0sin(θ)=sin(0)=0 −sin⁡(𝜃)=−sin⁡(0)=0−sin(θ)=−sin(0)=0

cos⁡(𝜃)=cos⁡(0)=1cos(θ)=cos(0)=1

Therefore, the 2x2 rotation matrix is:

(1001)(1001)

b)

The translation operation described cannot be carried out using a basic 2x2 matrix because it
involves adding a constant value to each coordinate, which is not a linear transformation.

In a 2x2 matrix, a linear transformation is represented as:

(𝑥′𝑦′)=(𝑎𝑏𝑐𝑑)(𝑥𝑦)(x′y′)=(acbd)(xy)

Where 𝑎a, 𝑏b, 𝑐c, and 𝑑d are constants representing the transformation.

For translation, the transformation involves adding a constant 𝑡𝑥tx to the x-coordinate and a
constant 𝑡𝑦ty to the y-coordinate, which cannot be represented using just a 2x2 matrix.
Therefore, to perform translation operations, we need to use an extended coordinate system such as
the Homogeneous Coordinate System (HCS), which incorporates an additional dimension to
represent translations.

ii)

To achieve translation operations using a Homogeneous Coordinate System (HCS), we extend the 2D
Cartesian coordinate system to a 3D system by adding an extra dimension, typically denoted as 𝑤w.
In this system, a point in 2D space is represented as a vector (𝑥,𝑦,𝑤)(x,y,w), where 𝑤w is usually set
to 1 for points in Euclidean space.

For translation, we need to represent the translation components 𝑡𝑥tx and 𝑡𝑦ty as the third
component of the vectors. Then, we can use matrix multiplication to perform translations along with
other transformations like rotation and scaling.

The translation matrix in HCS can be represented as follows:

𝑇=(10𝑡𝑥01𝑡𝑦001)T=⎝⎛100010txty1⎠⎞

To apply the translation to a point (𝑥,𝑦,1)(x,y,1), we perform matrix multiplication with the
translation matrix 𝑇T:

(𝑥′𝑦′𝑤′)=(10𝑡𝑥01𝑡𝑦001)(𝑥𝑦1)⎝⎛x′y′w′⎠⎞=⎝⎛100010txty1⎠⎞⎝⎛xy1⎠⎞

=(𝑥+𝑡𝑥𝑦+𝑡𝑦1)=⎝⎛x+txy+ty1⎠⎞

As we can see, the resulting point (𝑥′,𝑦′,𝑤′)(x′,y′,w′) has 𝑥′=𝑥+𝑡𝑥x′=x+tx and 𝑦′=𝑦+𝑡𝑦y′=y+ty, which
represents the translation operation.

This extended representation allows us to perform translation operations using matrix multiplication
in the Homogeneous Coordinate System.

i) Basic 2x2 matrices can only represent linear transformations such as rotation, scaling, and
shearing. Translation, on the other hand, involves adding a constant value to each coordinate, which
is not a linear operation and cannot be represented by a 2x2 matrix. Therefore, basic 2x2 matrices
cannot be used to directly perform translation operations.

ii) To achieve translation operations using matrices, we need to extend our coordinate system to
include an additional dimension, resulting in what is known as Homogeneous Coordinate System
(HCS). In HCS, we represent points in 2D space using three coordinates: (𝑥,𝑦,𝑤)(x,y,w), where 𝑤w is
typically set to 1.

To perform translation using matrices in HCS, we use a 3x3 matrix. The translation matrix for
translation by (𝑡𝑥,𝑡𝑦)(tx,ty) is:
𝑇=(10𝑡𝑥01𝑡𝑦001)T=⎝⎛100010txty1⎠⎞

To apply the translation matrix 𝑇T to a point (𝑥,𝑦,1)(x,y,1), we perform matrix multiplication:

(𝑥′𝑦′1)=(10𝑡𝑥01𝑡𝑦001)(𝑥𝑦1)⎝⎛x′y′1⎠⎞=⎝⎛100010txty1⎠⎞⎝⎛xy1⎠⎞

=(𝑥+𝑡𝑥𝑦+𝑡𝑦1)=⎝⎛x+txy+ty1⎠⎞

As you can see, the resulting (𝑥′,𝑦′)(x′,y′) coordinates are the original coordinates (𝑥,𝑦)(x,y) translated
by (𝑡𝑥,𝑡𝑦)(tx,ty), which achieves the desired translation operation.

a)

Parallel Projection:

In parallel projection, all the projection lines are parallel to each other. This method is commonly
used in engineering and architectural drawings where accurate representation of object dimensions
is important.

Types of Parallel Projection:

Orthographic Projection: In orthographic projection, the projection lines are perpendicular to the
projection plane. This results in a true representation of object dimensions without any
foreshortening.

Orthographic Projection

Oblique Projection: In oblique projection, the projection lines are not perpendicular to the projection
plane. One axis remains parallel to the projection plane, while the other axis is projected at an angle.

Oblique Projection

Perspective Projection:
In perspective projection, the projection lines converge at a single point called the vanishing point.
This method mimics the way objects appear in the real world, where objects farther away appear
smaller.

Types of Perspective Projection:

One-Point Perspective: In one-point perspective, all parallel lines converge to a single vanishing point
on the horizon line. This is often used in architectural drawings to represent buildings or roads.

One-Point Perspective

Two-Point Perspective: In two-point perspective, parallel lines in the object converge to two different
vanishing points on the horizon line. This is commonly used to represent rectangular objects viewed
from an angle.

Two-Point Perspective
Three-Point Perspective: In three-point perspective, the object is viewed from an extreme angle,
resulting in three vanishing points. This is often used in artistic drawings to create a dramatic effect.

Three-Point Perspective

b)

Ambient Light: Ambient light is the overall light in a scene that is not directly coming from any
particular light source. It represents the light that is scattered and reflected multiple times, providing
general illumination to objects in the scene. Ambient light contributes equally to all parts of an
object's surface, regardless of its orientation.

Diffuse Light: Diffuse light refers to the light that is reflected equally in all directions from a surface. It
occurs when light interacts with a rough or matte surface, scattering in multiple directions. Diffuse
reflection causes objects to appear evenly illuminated, with no clear distinction between light and
dark areas.
Specular Light: Specular light is the direct reflection of light off a surface in a single direction. It
occurs when light hits a smooth or shiny surface and reflects at an angle equal to the angle of
incidence. Specular reflection creates highlights on objects, emphasizing their glossy or reflective
properties.

Commonality: The commonality among ambient, diffuse, and specular light is that they all contribute
to the overall appearance of objects in a scene by affecting their brightness and color. However, they
differ in how they interact with surfaces and how they contribute to the perceived illumination of
objects