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TEACHING APTITUDE
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Teachers, I believe, are the most responsible and important members of society
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because their professional efforts affect the fate of the earth
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–Helen Caldicott
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Chapter Overview

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This chapter comprises questions based on different aspects of teaching. These include the nature,
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objectives, characteristics, and basic requirements of teaching, characteristics of learners, factors
affecting teaching, methods of teaching, teaching support system, evaluation systems, classroom man-
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agement, etc.This section evaluates the ability of a candidate to become a successful teacher. Around
5–6 questions are asked from Teaching Aptitude in UGC-NET Exam. The difficulty level of these
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questions varies. Important concepts related to teaching have been covered in this chapter along with
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practice questions. The chapter also includes questions from previous years’ papers.

Syllabus
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• Teaching: Concept, Objectives, Levels of Teaching (Memory, Understanding, and Reflective), Characteristics,
Basic Requirements
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• Learners’ Characteristics: Characteristics of Adolescent and Adult Learners (Academic, Social, Emotional and
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Cognitive), Individual Differences

• Factors Affecting Teaching Related to: Teacher, Learner, Support Material, Instructional Facilities, Learning
Environment, and Institution
• Methods of Teaching in Institutions of Higher Learning: Teacher-centred vs Learner-centred Methods, Offline
vs Online Methods (Swayam, Swayamprabha, MOOCs, etc.)
• Teaching Support System: Traditional, Modern, and ICT based
• Evaluation Systems: Elements and Types of Evaluation, Evaluation in Choice-based Credit System in Higher
Education, Computer-based Testing, Innovations in Evaluation Systems

INTRODUCTION Teachers have the responsibility of overall develop-

Helen Caldicott considers teachers as the impor- ment of students thereby preparing civilized citizens
tant and most responsible members of the society. of tomorrow. According to A.P.J. Abdul Kalam,

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.2 UGC-NET Paper-I

‘Teaching is a noble profession that shapes the char-

acter, calibre, and future of an individual. If people Sustainable development goals
remember me as a good teacher, that will be the big-
gest honour to me’. Aim: To ensure inclusive and equitable quality edu-
The meaning of ‘teaching’ is to instruct someone cation and promote lifelong learning opportunities
or impart knowledge regarding a subject or a skill. for all by 2030.
It is the process of flow of ideas, instructions, and
knowledge from one mature person (teacher) to other
less mature persons (students). Teaching has been OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING
defined by various experts in the following ways: The objectives of teaching are given below:
Teaching is defined as an interactive process pri- • To provide knowledge and skills to learners so
marily involving classroom talk which takes place that they can cope with the fast-changing world
between teacher and pupil and occurs during certain • To mould and shape learners
definable activity. • To nurture students during all stages of learn-

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–Edmund Amidon ing
• To inculcate values, morals, punctuality, and

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Teaching process is designed and performed to pro- discipline in students
duce change in student behaviour. • To develop a sense of solidarity, brotherhood,

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–Clarke communal unity, teamwork, leadership, etc., in
Teaching is an intimate contact between a more learners with the use of classroom activities
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mature personality and a less mature one which is • To prepare students to be better citizens of
designed to further the education of the latter. tomorrow
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–Morrison In other words, the main objective of teaching is

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Teaching is concerned with the activities which are all-round development of students.
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concerned with the guidance or direction of learning

of others. LEVELS OF TEACHING
–Ryan
Memory Level
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Teaching is the stimulation, guidance, direction, and

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encouragement of learning. • The main proponent of Memory Level of teach-

–Burtan ing is Herbart.
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• This is the initial level of teaching and a prereq-

Teaching needs three qualities, Knowledge,
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uisite for Understanding and Reflective levels

Communication Skills, and Aptitude. of teaching.
When you think about ‘teaching’, there will be • The different phases of memory include learn-
an image in your mind of an interaction between a ing, retaining, recalling, and recognizing.
teacher and a group of students in a classroom set-up. • At this level, the teacher focuses on memoriza-
This is ‘formal teaching’. But there can be teaching tion of facts and information by learners. There
even outside the classroom as well. This is ‘infor- is no attention on understanding of informa-
mal teaching’, where one learns from family, friends, tion, procedures, and concepts.
society, etc. So, teaching can be formal or informal. • The habit of rote learning is developed at this
Teaching leads to skill development which improves stage so that learners can retain and recall the
the prosperity of the nation as educated and skilled information whenever required.
workforce will earn better. The meaning of ‘aptitude’ • Teachers occupy the primary position with their
is the ability to do something. ‘Teaching Aptitude’ authoritarian and dominant role, while learners
means the tendency to teach. Questions based on occupy the secondary position.
Teaching Aptitude relate to different aspects of • At this level, teacher-centred and subject-
teaching and test the ability of a candidate to teach. centred methods are used.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.3

• It is suitable especially for lower classes. playing democratic role occupy the secondary
• Oral and written tests and essay-type questions position.
are used to evaluate the learning. • Techniques used are student-centred.
• It is useful especially for higher classes as stu-
Understanding Level dents of lower classes might not possess the
• The main proponent of Understanding Level of requisite skills.
teaching is Morrison. • Tests with essay-type questions are used for
• This level is an extension of Memory level. It evaluation at this level. Also, there is evalua-
also lays the foundation for Reflective level. tion of attitude, beliefs, involvement in learn-
• The memory level of teaching focused only ing and development of critical and creative
on rote memorization of concepts, while at the skills.
understanding level, emphasis is on mastery of
the subject by developing understanding and NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS
insights. OF TEACHING

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• At this level, learners get to know about the
meaning of concepts, generalizations, princi- Teaching is a science Teaching is a science as it

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ples, and theories along with their applications. is a systematic, logically planned activity. The aim
• Teachers and learners play an active role in of teaching is to shape the behaviour of students

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the development of intellectual behaviour in in a desired manner and it is outlined before start-
learners. ing teaching. It involves the use of scientific strate-
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• Techniques used are teacher-centred and subject- gies, practices, and techniques to enhance learning.
centred. Teachers experiment with different strategies to test
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• More comprehensive techniques like essay and their effectiveness among themselves and among stu-
dents. Teachers also maintain a record of the score of
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objective-type questions are used for evaluation

students in tests to keep track of their performance.
at the understanding level.
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Teaching is an art Teaching is based on creativity

Memory Reflective of the teacher to use different methods and aids of
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level level teaching. What suits one student, may not suit oth-
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ers; so teachers have to adjust the strategies, prac-

Understanding tices, and techniques to the requirements, levels, and
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level personality of the students. There is flexibility in

teaching. Teaching also depends upon the aptitude,
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Levels of teaching ability, personality, and knowledge of the teacher.

Thus, teaching is an art.
Reflective Level
Teaching is a craft A craft requires skills or a
• The main proponent of Reflective Level of set of skills that have been acquired through expe-
teaching is Hunt. rience. Teaching is also a craft as it requires some
• It is the highest level of teaching and makes use skills like communication skills, creative thinking,
of knowledge and research skills of learners for critical thinking, class management skills, presenta-
solving real-life problems. tion skills, and confidence. It should be noted that
• It involves the use of problem-centric approach. these skills are not inherent always, but these can be
• Classroom environment is open and independ- learned through experience, observation, or train-
ent at this level of teaching. ing. Successful career in teaching is an outcome of
• It also leads to the development of creative knowledge, skills, and hard work.
skills.
• Learners occupy the primary position and par- Teaching is a moral activity The purpose of
ticipate actively in learning, while teachers education is all-round development of students.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.4 UGC-NET Paper-I

Teachers should not just focus on the prescribed Students are now encouraged to ask questions and
syllabus while ignoring the moral development take part enthusiastically in classroom activities.
of students. Students are the citizens of tomor- Teaching should be a dialogue, instead of being a
row. Classroom plays an important role in shap- monologue.
ing them into citizens with good moral character. Other than the characteristics mentioned above,
Moral and ethical aspects should be integrated in the teaching is a rational and reflective process. It is
curriculum. goal-oriented, the goal here is the all-round develop-
ment of students. Teaching facilitates learning.
Teaching is dynamic The teacher’s activities are
influenced by various qualities and incidents and
change accordingly. They are not executed in strict A teacher is like a small ship sailing from the land of
routines and regimes. So, teaching is dynamic and ignorant people to the land of knowledgeable people.
flexible. –Socrates

Teaching is a complex activity Teaching is a sci- BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF

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ence, an art, as well as a craft. Due to these multi-
ple aspects of the nature of teaching, it is a complex TEACHING

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activity for which diverse sets of skills and abilities • The basic requirements of teaching include
are required. A teacher has to deal with students of Teacher (the independent variable) and Students

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different personalities at the same time. While plan- (the dependent variable).
ning the teaching activity, a lot of factors have to be • The teacher uses different methods, strategies,
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considered like student’s prior knowledge, pace of aids, and learning materials, which act as inter-
learning, interests, etc. vening variables.
• Teaching is a continuous process, so patience,
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Teaching is diverse Diverse means ‘showing a motivation, determination, and focus are the
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great deal of variety’. There is diversity in every real forces which keep students on track.
• Teaching is a complex activity; so the teacher
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classroom; so teachers have to use diverse sets of

strategies, methods, and techniques depending upon needs to be devoted and determined for the bet-
the students. ter future of students.
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• Students should also have an interest in the

Teaching is continuous Teaching can be seen
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subject, activities, learning materials, etc.

as a lifelong learning process. It is not completed • Classroom activity facilitates learning and
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in just one step; rather it is a continuous process. helps students retain information for a longer
Learning is now considered to be continuously a part period.
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of the journey from ‘Cradle to Grave’. Robert E. Lee • There is need of continuous and comprehen-
remarks ‘the education of a man is never completed sive evaluation so as to assess the performance
until he dies’. of students and suggest remedial measures for
Teaching can be formal or informal As seen improvement.
already, teaching can be formal, as the interaction • Discipline is an important requirement of teach-
between teacher and student in a classroom set-up. ing. In the absence of discipline in the class, the
On the other hand, teaching can also take place out- teacher will not be able to teach students, no
side the classroom, which is informal teaching. matter how qualified he/she is.
• Classroom environment should be such that it
Teaching is interactive Teaching is a two-way encourages effective communication and inter-
interaction between the teacher and learners. There action.
is flow of knowledge from both the sides. Teachers • Knowledge of teaching methods, effects of
as well as students learn in this communication pro- teaching, principles of teaching, knowledge of
cess. Earlier, teaching practices were more teacher- subject, knowledge of the nature of students,
centric, but now the focus has shifted to learners. etc., are also required for effective teaching.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.5

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING help in optimum use of resources for the fulfilment of

predetermined goals of teaching within the time limit.
Principle of activity The teacher should involve Without planning, it is difficult to complete the sylla-
the students in learning through some activity. This bus within the specified time. Course plan, lesson plan,
will help in better retention and they will not forget test schedules, assignments, etc., should be planned.
what they have learnt. If the teacher is not able to
engage the students, then they will not focus on what Principle of division It is not possible for a teacher
is being taught. Activities can be classified into phys- to teach a whole concept at once. The teacher should
ical activity and mental activity. Benjamin Franklin divide the topic into smaller units which are inter-
said, ‘Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remem- related, so that on completion of one unit, students
ber. Involve me and I learn’. So, learning takes place should be curious to learn the next unit. This makes
when students are involved in it. This principle is learning easy and interesting as they will be dealing
used in Montessori Method, Role Playing Method, with only one unit at a time.
Project Method, Kindergarten Method, etc.
Principle of revision It is human tendency to for-

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Principle of interest According to this principle, get whatever we read even within a few days. So, to
students must have interest in the class. A teacher retain knowledge, revision is compulsory. Students

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should only teach if the students have interest. In should revise at home what they have covered in the
case, students lack interest, then the teacher should class. Homework should also be planned in such

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first develop curiosity in them for learning. It can a way that it leads to revision of class work. Tests
be done by telling them how they will be able to should be planned from time to time so that students
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use the new information in real life or by giving revise the content continuously.
questions first and then telling the concept used to Principle of democratic dealing The teacher can
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answer them. The teacher should relate theoretical play a democratic or authoritarian role. If the teacher’s
knowledge with practical examples from real life.
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behaviour is authoritarian, then students will get little

He can also improve or change the teaching method or no opportunity to participate in learning and they
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if students lack interest. Teaching aids can also be will be passive listeners. This will also affect the con-
used to capture the interest of students. fidence of students. But if the behaviour of the teacher
is democratic, then students will actively participate
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Principle of linking with life Theoretical knowl-

in learning. Student-centric methods should be used
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edge should be integrated with examples from real life.

By this, students will learn at a faster pace and they in such classrooms which will help in developing self-
confidence, self-esteem, and self-respect in students.
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will be able to retain the new information which they

have gained. Principle of motivation Every student possesses
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some unique skill and this need to be appreciated.

Principle of definite aim The aims of teaching
If a student is not much good in studies, he might
must be predetermined and clearly defined so that the
be good in some other activities. The teacher should
teaching activities can be planned accordingly along
encourage the skills of students and motivate them to
with the selection of teaching method and aids. The
pursue a career of their choice and encourage them
aim and objective of the course and lesson should
to sharpen their skills for a better future. Students
also be communicated to students at the beginning of
should be motivated for participating actively in
class. This will help in developing curiosity in them.
learning for better results. Rewards, gifts, praise,
Principle of selection Material should be selected etc., can be used for motivating students. Stories of
in such a way that it helps in fulfilment of the aims of great personalities and their experiences can also
teaching. The content should be updated from time to arouse motivation in students.
time with respect to the updates in the field. It should
Principle of recreation Recreation can be used
also be adjusted according to the needs of the students.
for tackling the fatigue of lengthy classes which usu-
Principle of planning Teaching activities, methods, ally end with bored and frustrated students. It will
and aids should be planned in such a way that they enhance creativity in class and engage the students.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.6 UGC-NET Paper-I

Principle of individual differences No two stu- 2. It is easy for students to build new knowledge
dents have the same ability, skill, and personality. if they are able to relate it to what they already
So, the teacher should be able to recognize the indi- know. So, teaching should flow from known
vidual difference in students and address their spe- to unknown. Past experiences of the students
cific needs for effective teaching. Though students should be linked to new teaching.
have individual differences, teaching should be 3. Similarly, the teacher can plan the lesson to
planned in such a way that all students have equal flow from seen to unseen. Such an approach
opportunities and no one is left behind. can be used for better understanding of stu-
dents.
Principle of remedial teaching The teacher
should be able to identify and understand the prob- 4. The teacher should explain the established
lems, and suggest remedial measures for these prob- facts first and then move on to abstract facts.
lems. So, teaching should proceed from concrete to
abstract facts.
Principle of sympathy A teacher should be kind, 5. Specific facts should be discussed first, and
caring, and sympathetic. This will help him in build-

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then these should be used to generalize, by fol-
ing cordial and trustworthy relation with students. lowing the approach from particular to gen-

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This will also have an effect on the teaching. eral. Such an approach is inductive in nature.
6. It might be difficult for students to understand

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Principle of creativity The teacher should encour-
age creativity and critical thinking in students. the whole topic at once. The teacher should pre-
Teaching methods should be selected in such a way sent the whole topic by breaking it into smaller
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that they help in enhancing the students’ creativity parts, so that they can grasp it easily. The
and critical thinking. approach used here is from m whole to part.
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7. While planning the lecture, the teacher

Principle of reinforcement Teachers can rein- should keep in mind the psychological needs
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force students verbally, by praising them, or by of students first and then go into the logical
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giving gifts and rewards for good and responsi- arrangement of concepts. By addressing the
ble behaviour, correct answers, good grades, etc. psychological needs first, the teacher will be
This will encourage them to continue their hard able to engage the students. So, the lesson
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work and practice good habits. planning should be from psychological to

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Principle of training the senses Sensory organs logical.

play an important role in learning. Different activi- 8. The teacher should first teach analysis and then
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ties, methods, and aids involve the use of different synthesis. According to the Oxford English
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sensory organs such as the eyes and ears. Dictionary, ‘analysis’ means ‘the process of
separating something into its constituent ele-
ments’ and ‘synthesis’ means ‘the combination
DID YOU KNOW? of components or elements to form a connected
whole’. So, for better understanding and clar-
World Teachers Day is celebrated every year on ity, a problem should be divided into parts for
5th October. analysis and then the parts can be combined to
solve the whole problem by synthesizing.
How to Teach 9. Empirical knowledge is based on experience
while rational knowledge is based on logic.
A teacher should keep the following in mind while
Teaching can start with empirical knowledge
teaching:
andd proceed to rational knowledge. Empirical
1. Students understand simple things easily. So, a knowledge is specific and rational knowledge
teacher should approach from simple to com- is general.
plex content. Explain simple concepts first, and 10. The teacher should always encourage self-study
then the complex. among students.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.7

LEARNERS’ CHARACTERISTICS Personal Academic Social or Cognitive

There has been a growing usage of the term character- characteris- emotional characteris-
istics tics characteristics tics
‘Learner’ as a synonym for ‘Student’, similar to the
use of ‘Learning’ for ‘Teaching’. But there is some • Include • Learning • Based on the • Determine
demo- goals, prior relation of a how the
difference between these terms. Learning can take graphic knowledge, group or of an learner
place even without teaching, but teaching is unimag- informa- and educa- individual with perceives,
tion of the tional level the group remembers,
inable without some form of learning. Similarly, the learners of learners • Group struc- thinks, solves
term ‘Learner’ is broader than ‘student’, as learners • Age, ture, place of problems, or-
gender, the individual ganizes, and
can learn even in the absence of the teacher, but a represents
maturity within a group,
teacher is required for students. Learning can take level, sociability, information in
place inside as well as outside the classroom, but language, self-image, her/his brain
socioeco- mood, etc. • Attention
teaching is only inside the classroom. Learning is a nomic span, mem-
lifelong pursuit, so the excitement and willingness status, ory, mental
cultural procedures,
to find and learn should be nurtured throughout life. back- and intellec-

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The characteristics of learners revolve around their ground, tual skills
personality, attitude, confidence levels, prior knowl- etc.

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edge, ability, etc.
On the basis of nature, characteristics of adoles- The teacher should plan the classroom activity on

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cent and adult learners can be categorized as: per- the basis of the above-stated characteristics of the
sonal, academic, social or emotional, and cognitive. students.
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Characteristics of good learners
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1. Good learners are persistent. The process of 6. They always find time for reading, analysing,
development for good learners is continuous and and evaluating the information they have gath-
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gradual. ered.
2. They know how to make use of their knowl- 7. They enjoy learning and don’t dishearten over
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edge, that is, how it can be used to solve real-life the hardships which arise in the journey of learning.
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problems.
8. They have a lot of questions. They seek to learn
3. They share their knowledge with others and do new things while finding answers to their ques-
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not restrict it to just themselves. They know very tions. As said by Langer, ‘If we would have new
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well that knowledge increases by sharing. knowledge, we must get a whole world of new
questions’. So, getting answers also leads to
4. They are free from negative emotions which
another set of questions and the learning contin-
weaken the learning abilities such as anger, jeal-
ues.
ousy, greed, and so on.
9. They have the ability to associate new knowl-
5. They are always curious to learn about some-
edge with what they know already. Their knowl-
thing they do not know. They are always in search
edge base is updated continuously.
of new knowledge.

LEVELS OF LEARNING According to Bloom’s Taxonomy (also known as

KSA), there are three domains of learning:
Bloom’s Taxonomy
In 1956, under the leadership of Dr. Benjamin Bloom • Cognitive Domain – focuses on Knowledge
a new vision for teaching, now called Bloom’s • Psychomotor Domain – focuses on Skills
Taxonomy, was developed which focused on under- • Affective Domain – focuses on Attitude
standing, analysing, and evaluating concepts, princi-
ples, and procedures.

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1.8 UGC-NET Paper-I

Cognitive domain Cognitive domain comprises his book The Conditions of Learningg identified the
six sub-categories, namely (arranged from simple to following mental conditions essential for effective
complex) Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, learning:
Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. Knowledge,
comprehension, and application involve low order Reception Gain attention of students. Voice mod-
thinking skills and the other three, analysis, syn- ulations, gestures, short introductory video, hand-
thesis, and evaluation, involve high order thinking outs, etc. can be used for this purpose.
skills. Expectancy Inform them about the objectives of
Cognitive domain was revised by Lorin Ander- what they are about to learn so that their interest will
son and David Krathwohl in 2001. The new version be developed.
involves Remembering, Understanding, Applying,
Analysing, Evaluating, andd Creating. Retrieval Relate the new information with their
prior knowledge.
Affective domain This domain was proposed
by Krathwohl. It is concerned with feelings and Selective perception Present the new information

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emotions, which can be arranged as (from sim- in an effective and easy-to-understand manner using
ple to complex) Receiving, Responding, Valuing, different methods and aids depending on the needs

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Organization, and
d Characterization. and level of students.

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Psychomotor domain Also called kinesthetic Semantic encoding Help students to learn and
domain, it relates to natural, autonomic responses retain new information by use of examples, case
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or reflexes. There are different models of psycho- studies, storytelling, etc.
motor domain. Simpson had includedd Perception,
Responding At this stage, students can dem-
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Set, Guided Response, Mechanism, Complex
Overt Response (to know what will be the result onstrate what they have learnt through question–
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immediately after performance), Adaptation, and answer rounds, role playing, etc.
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Origination. Dave used Imitation, Manipulation, Reinforcement Provide feedback to students on

Precision, Articulation, and
d Naturalization. Harrow the basis of their responses and reinforce important
talks about movements by using Reflex Movements, points for their clearing doubts and helping in retain-
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Fundamental Movements, Perceptual Abilities, ing new information.

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Physical Abilities, Skilled Movements, and d Non-

Discursive Communication. Retrieval Assess their performance through some
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tests.
Gagne’s Nine Levels of Learning
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It is also known as Gagne’s Nine Conditions of Generalizations Students should apply what they
Learning, Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction, or have learnt to new situations and conditions, then
Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning. Robert Gagne in with practice they will be able to generalize it.

In general, the levels of learning can be simplified as shown in the below figure:

Teaching

Assimilating and
implementing
Reflecting

Listening,
reading

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.9

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AMONG Learning style Every learner has a different learn-
LEARNERS ing style. Some need complete silence, while others
In the case of learning, ‘one size fits all’ is not true. may need music to concentrate. Some may learn bet-
Not everyone can learn in the same manner. For ter with discussions, while others may like to study
example, while some students cannot study without alone. Some may prefer e-books and other online
loud music, others need a calm environment. Some materials, whereas others may be more comfortable
learners can be comfortable with online courses, but with textbooks.
others may prefer textbooks over online study mate- Attitude The attitude of the learner is also a very
rial. Thus, there are differences among learners. These significant factor. A positive attitude will help in
differences are discussed below: learning effectively. The different aspects of attitude
Intelligence There is difference in intelligence such as interest, open-mindedness, cheerfulness,
level of different learners. It can affect their abil- prejudice, and affection help in shaping the person-
ity to grasp content. Some learners can understand ality of the learner.
quickly, while others may need to spend more time.

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Environment For effective learning, the learner
It also affects their ability to remember, recall, and should be in a comfortable environment. Different

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reinforce. learners can be comfortable in different types of envi-
ronment. Some can learn better in groups or if there

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Aptitude This is the ability to do something. The
learner’s aptitude affects his performance. In many are other learners around them, such as in a library,
research studies, it has been found that higher level whereas some others may prefer learning individually.
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of aptitude results in better performance in learning Health The health of the learner influences his
and retaining it. It is also related to critical thinking
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ability to learn, remember, and recall. A learner
of the learners. with poor health will not be able to concentrate. The
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Age Age affects the curiosity to learn. We know teacher should take extra care of a student with poor
health; for example, a student with poor eyesight,
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that kids are more curious to acquire new knowledge.

But as we grow older, our curiosity levels decrease. can be seated in the first row in the classroom.
The individual differences of the learners are not
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Motivation Every learner may have different addressed in teacher-centred methods of teaching,
motivating force for learning a skill or anything as in these methods, the teaching activities are of
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else. It could be the desire of employment, better sal- ‘one size fits all’ type. But in the case of learner-
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ary, business success, a hobby, or fulfilling parents’ centred methods of teaching, the individual needs
wish, etc. It will help learners in staying focused. and differences of the students are addressed and
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also students have the option to learn as per their

Personality The personality of a learner also comfort level.
impacts his ability to learn. His interaction with
others will depend on his personality. Different per- FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVENESS
sonality traits such as extraversion, agreeableness,
OF TEACHING
conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness are
related to job performance, academic achievement, Educational qualification For effective teach-
leadership, and well-being. ing, suitably qualified teachers should be employed.
The teacher must possess the minimum qualification
Prior knowledge Prior knowledge of the learner
required as per the class level of students. A special-
also makes a difference in his learning ability. A
ized teacher in the field teaches in a better way as
learner will be able to learn better if he is able to relate
compared to an unspecialized teacher.
it with his prior knowledge. If a person does not know
the basic mathematical operations, then how will he Skills The teacher should have the appropriate
learn advanced mathematics? So, prior knowledge skills needed for teaching. These include presentation
and experience of the learner affects his learning. skills, communication skills, ability to manage class,

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.10 UGC-NET Paper-I

etc. Some skills are inherent, while some are learna- should be adjusted according to the characteristics
ble. So, for effective teaching, the teacher must have of students so as to keep them focused.
gone through the prerequisite training before starting
Personality of teacher In order to have produc-
his job. If they don’t possess these skills, then they
tive learning environment, the teacher should have
may face problems in managing the class.
patient, caring, and kind personality. He/she should
Building trust The teacher’s ability to build a not be rude towards students. A dedicated teacher
trusting relationship with students also affects the will ensure safe, positive, and productive classroom
effectiveness of teaching. The teacher should always for students.
be willing to help students if any problem arises.
This will help in the creation of a safe, positive, Learners Learners are a significant part of the
and productive learning environment. Students teaching–learning process. The aptitude, attitude,
will follow the advice of the teacher only if they personality, prior knowledge, age, level of determi-
trust him. nation, etc., of the learners influences the effective-
ness of the teaching.
Pace of teaching and learning The teacher

ss
should know about the pace and capacity of students Support material The availability and use of the

re
and plan the course accordingly. If the pace of teach- study material, audios and videos, online courses,
ing is too fast, then students will not be able to match online tests, and other teaching aids also increase the

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it and if it is too slow, then the syllabus will not be effectiveness of the teaching and learning.
completed on time. So, the teacher should adjust the Instructional facilities These include the class-
sit
pace of teaching as per the need of the students to rooms, laboratories, seminar rooms, projectors,
improve its effectiveness. whiteboards, and so on which are used in delivering
er

Ability to engage students If the teacher doesn’t instructions to students. Their availability ensures
effective teaching, but if these are not available in
iv

have the ability to engage students, then it will be

difficult for him to manage the class and present the adequate amount as per the number of students, then
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content efficiently. Teaching methods and activities students will not be able to learn properly.
d

Characteristics of a good teacher

or
xf

1. Well qualified and knowledgeable. A teacher with how to use these effectively according to the
good knowledge of the subject will address the need and personality of students.
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class confidently.
8. Has positive attitude and a good sense of humour.
2. Acts as facilitator and encourages learners’ ability
9. A role model for students. His achievements and
to think, communicate, and work together with
experiences act as a source of motivation for stu-
others.
dents.
3. Motivates students to succeed in life.
10. Not authoritarian in class. He encourages stu-
4. Plans the course content considering the pace dents to take part in classroom activities.
and capacity of students.
11. Believes in justice. He manages classroom con-
5. Presents the learning material in an interesting flicts very well and further develops the feelings
manner so as to engage students. of brotherhood, communal unity, etc. in stu-
dents to avoid conflicts in future.
6. A lifelong learner and keeps on updating himself
continuously. 12. Always keen in accepting feedback from stu-
dents. He takes criticism positively and uses it in
7. Has knowledge of different teaching models,
improving himself.
methods, and strategies. He also knows about

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.11

Learning environment Effectiveness of teaching Social Interaction Models

also depends upon the learning environment. If the This type of model focuses on the importance of
teacher and learner are comfortable in the surround- social relations and interactions. According to these
ing environment, then the learning will be effective; models, social interactions act as the source of
else, both the teacher and students will be distracted, learning. It is a student-centred approach for teach-
leading to ineffective learning. In a noisy class, no ing. In such type of teaching, students participate in
matter how well-qualified the teacher is, he will not group activities such as group discussions, while the
be able to teach effectively. teacher monitors their activities. Students learn by
way of questions, reflections, helping each other, etc.
Policies of the institution Effectiveness of teach-
Commonly used strategies are Group Discussions,
ing is also affected by the policies framed by insti-
Projects, Graffiti Model, Role Playing, Cooperative
tutions. These policies can give autonomy to the
Learning, Social Inquiry, etc.
teacher or can control the classroom activity. If the
teacher feels extremely controlled, then his perfor-
mance will suffer. On the other hand, autonomy to SOCIAL INTERACTION MODELS

ss
teachers to choose teaching methods and classroom
activities will bring an element of flexibility.

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Group investigation – John Dewey and Herbart
Other factors which affect effectiveness of teach- model Thelim

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ing include the financial incentives offered to teach-
Social inquiry model – Benjamin Cox and Byron
ers, parental pressure, prior knowledge of students,
Laboratory model
dedication of teacher, interest of students, etc.
sit
er

TEACHING MODELS Behaviour Altering Models

School faculties and individual teachers create life As the name suggests, these models of teaching focus
iv

in schools by models of teaching, they choose and on altering the behaviour of students so as to make
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create. them better citizens of tomorrow. B.F. Skinner is one

–Bruce Joyce of the proponents of this model. These models are
based on achieving predetermined and observable
d

For effective teaching, a teacher should have goals and objectives. Common strategies used in such
or

good knowledge of teaching models and should models are Desensitization, Direct Instruction, Direct
choose the appropriate model, keeping in mind the Teaching, Direct Training, Behaviourism, Hunter
xf

needs of students and the subject. These models Learning Model, Self-control, Simulation, etc.
help in boosting interest, creativity, motivation, and
O

innovations. The different types of models are given

as follows: BEHAVIOUR ALTERING MODELS

Social Mastery learning – Benjamin Bloom, James Block

interaction
models
Direct instruction – Tom Good, Jere Brophy, Carl
Gereiter, Ziggy Engleman,
Wes Becker
Information Teaching Behaviour Simulation – Carl Smith, Mary Smith
processing models altering Social learning – Albert Bandura, Carl
models models Thoresen, Wes Becker
Programmed – B.F. Skinner
Personal schedule (task
basis performance
models reinforcement)

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.12 UGC-NET Paper-I

Information Processing Models METHODS OF TEACHING IN

These are based on the ability of learners to process INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING
the information they receive from their surroundings. Effective teaching also depends upon the choice
Some models encourage creative thinking, concept of appropriate teaching method. There are many
formation, hypothesis testing, etc., in learners, while methods which can be used by teachers depending
others provide concepts and information directly. The on the basis of availability of resources, interest of
different strategies used in these models help students learners, curriculum, level of students, policy of
to acquire, organize, process, and retain data and the institute, demand of subject, etc. The important
information so as to use it further for problem solving. teaching methods are given below:

INFORMATION Teacher-centred Learner-centred

methods methods
PROCESSING MODELS
• It is a conventional • It is relatively a modern
approach. concept.

ss
Inductive thinking – Hilda Taba, Bruce Joyce • The main focus is on the • It focuses on students
Concept attainment – Jerome Bruner, Fred Light

re
teacher. as well as instructor.
hall, Tennyson, Cocchiarella,
• Teacher delivers lecture • Students are active

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Bruce Joyce
to students who act as learners due to their
Mnemonics – Michael Pressley, Joel passive learners. active participation in
Levin, Richard Anderson
sit learning.
Advance organizers – David Ausubel, Lawton
• Flexibility is lesser in • These have greater
and Wanska
er
such methods. flexibility as the
Scientific inquiry – Joseph Schwab
learning needs to be
iv

Inquiry training – Richard Suchman, Howard adjusted according to

Jones the individual needs
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Synectic – Bill Gordont of students.

• Students work on their • Students can work in
d

own and not in groups. groups or on their own

Personal Basis Models depending upon the
or

Such models enhance self-esteem, self-efficacy, and activity.

understanding. These relate to the uniqueness of
xf

• Teacher monitors • Students can learn

each learner. The ultimate aim of such models is to students. even in the absence of
O

stimulate creativity, self-expression, and confidence, teacher.

so as to develop integrated, competent, and confi-
• Learning is evaluated • Learning can be
dent individuals. These take into consideration the by teachers. evaluated by teachers,
individual differences which arise due to physical students on their own,
and social environment. or by their peer groups.

PERSONAL BASIS MODELS • Teacher chooses the • Students have choice

topic, study material, over the study material,
time to be devoted, learning activities,
Non-directive model – Carl Rogers classroom activities, timelines, evalua-
evaluation techniques, tion techniques, etc.
Enhancing self-esteem – Abraham Maslow etc. and students have Teacher can provide
Relaxation and stress – Fritz Pauls and no choice. the syllabus for course
reduction, self-awareness W. Schutz and guide the students
for referring to authen-
Creative model – William Gordon tic sources.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.13

Teacher-centred Learner-centred • It is economic as more information can be pro-

methods methods vided to students in a short span of time.
• There is flexibility as the teacher can adjust the
• There is usually pin- • Such classrooms are flow of information depending upon the time
drop silence as students lively as students par- and needs of the class.
are not allowed to talk. ticipate actively in dis-
cussions and activities Demerits
that enhance student • There is little or no participation from students’
participation. side.
• There is generally one • There can be multiple • The teacher controls the flow of information.
way flow of knowledge, channels of flow of • It has the tendency of becoming boring if the
i.e. from teacher to knowledge. teacher has not planned properly.
students. • Individual needs of the students are not
addressed.
• Teacher centred meth- • Student-centred

ss
ods include Lecture, methods include Demonstration Method
Team Teaching, TV/ Tutorial, Assignment,
Demonstration method is different from lecture

re
Video Presentation, Project Work, Case
Differentiated study, Programmed method as instead of an oral presentation, teachers

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Instruction, etc. Instruction, Computer demonstrate the procedure to students for their bet-
Assisted Learning, ter understanding. Demonstration means explaining
Interactive Video, Open or showing students practically the working of any
sit
Learning, Personalized procedure or object. It is most commonly used in
System of Learning, teaching mathematics and sciences.
er
Heuristic Method, etc.
Merits
iv

Knowledge Experience
Group of • It helps in boosting the interest of students
students
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Teacher
Knowledge and
Teachers which enhances understanding of the topic.
experience
Flow of • Students remain more active while watching
Students knowledge
demonstrations.
d

• Ideas, procedures, and concepts can be

or

The teacher can also use a mix of both the teacher- explained in an effective way using demonstra-
centred and student-centred methods to achieve the tions.
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desired goals.
Demerits
O

Lecture Method • It can be costly sometimes due to the use of

An oral presentation of the lesson by the teacher expensive materials.
is known as Lecture. Lecture is considered as the • Students are not actively involved in demon-
most ancient method of instruction. It has propa- strations as they only watch the teacher using
gated from the Idealism philosophy of teaching. It objects and they don’t perform them by them-
is the most ideal and most commonly used method selves.
for addressing large classrooms. Generally there • It can also be time-consuming.
is only one-way communication between teacher • The teacher needs to be an expert in the field
and student with little or no participation from for giving demonstrations.
learners. Depending upon the requirement of the class
and subject, the teacher can use Lecture-cum-
Merits
Demonstration method, by combining lecture with
• For addressing larger groups, usually lectures
demonstration.
are presented.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.14 UGC-NET Paper-I

Heuristic Method Merits

Heuristic method was proposed by Armstrong. The • Students can study video lectures and hand-
word ‘Heuristic’ is derived from Greek word ‘heu- outs at their own pace.
riskein’, which means ‘find’. The aim of this method • There can be better discussions on assignments
is to make students learn curiously by discovery, in the classroom.
instead of receiving information as such from teach- Demerits
ers. Students should try to explore, explain, describe,
• Teachers as well as students should be aware of
and predict the topic given to them by the teacher.
the latest technologies which can be used for
Principles of activity, logical thinking, known to
recording and sharing lectures.
unknown, purposeful experience, self-thinking,
• There could be problems if teachers and stu-
self-study, etc. are used in Heuristic method. In this
dents do not have good internet connection.
method, the teacher gives a topic or problem to stu-
dents and they have to find the solution using library, Kinesthetic Learning
laboratory, online resources, workshops, seminars, This is also known as Tactile Learning or Hands on

ss
etc. Learning. In such learning, there is more emphasis
on physical activities, instead of lectures or demon-
Merits

re
stration. Students learn by experiences, role playing,
• It is a student-centred approach.
drama, sports, drawing, etc.

yP
• The teacher encourages students to learn on
their own. Merits
• It focuses on developing scientific attitude in • It involves lesser use of technology.
sit
students for problem solving. • Such activities are good in engaging students so
• It helps in the all-round development of stu- that they learn with greater interest and curiosity.
er

dents. • It helps students in retaining what they have

• It also develops confidence in students.
iv

learnt.
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Demerits Demerits
• It is not meant for students of primary level. • Not all subjects can be taught using such
• Not all students possess the same set of skills. method. For example, to teach students about
d

So, below-average students will not be com- rockets, it will not be affordable for every
or

fortable with this method. school to provide hands-on experience at the

• It is important here for students to have access space centre.
xf

to library, laboratory, and internet, but some • Students might understand the working easily
O

institutes might not be able to provide these. using this method, but they will not have deep
So, in such circumstances, it will be difficult to knowledge of concepts. To overcome this, it
use this method. should be used with lecturing, but not as a sub-
stitute of lecturing.
Flipped Classroom Discussions
A modern concept that has become popular since Discussions can act as a better source of learning
2007, here teachers record their lectures and share than lecturing or explaining, as discussion involves
them with students. It is named ‘Flipped Classroom’ two-way communication and lecture involves only
as it is the opposite of a normal classroom. In a one-way communication. There can be discussion
normal classroom set-up, the teacher instructs the between the teacher and students, or discussion
students and gives them assignments as homework. between students, where the teacher initiates the dis-
But in a flipped classroom, the teacher shares the cussion and then listens to the viewpoint of students.
link for video lectures with students and they watch At the end of the discussion, the teacher can sum-
these at their own pace at home. The students then marize all the points discussed. Discussions can be
work on the assignments in the classroom. planned, partly planned, or totally unplanned.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.15

Merits course, takes place when the teacher and student

• Discussions can enhance confidence of stu- are geographically distant. Students can learn
dents, if they are encouraged to speak. from postal courses, audio or video call, television
• There is a tendency of high student participa- programmes, books, newspaper, online materials,
tion in discussions. etc. UGC, CBSE, and other educational institutes
• It also improves communication skills, critical provide video lectures to students through YouTube.
thinking, creative thinking, etc. of students. Students can enrol for such forms of learning with
• It is a group-centred approach. Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU),
State Open Universities, or other universities
Demerits offering open courses. But before enrolling, the
• It can turn out to be time-consuming. student should verify the validity and authenticity of
• It may also lead to emergence of inferiority com- the institute and course from UGC’s website. Also,
plex in introvert and shy students as they will there are online platforms like edX and others which
have difficulty in participating in discussions. offer courses offered by foreign universities as well
• It is suitable only for small groups. as reputed Indian institutes free of cost.

ss
Team Teaching Method Merits

re
In team teaching, not only one teacher plans the class • Open learning is a student-centred approach of

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activity, rather two or more teachers plan the activi- learning.
ties, aids, evaluation strategies, etc., for the same set • Students can study at their own pace, place, and
of students. time.
sit
Merits • It is helpful for those students who cannot
• It encourages friendship among teachers which attend regular classes.
er

will bring positivity in the learning environ- • There are no restrictions on learning.
iv

ment. • Open learning has greater flexibility.

• Different teachers have different teaching • It saves time and money.
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styles, ideas, so their collaboration will improve Demerits

the learning.
• There is a high tendency of getting distracted
d

• It is helpful for interdisciplinary approach in

as students will not meet the teacher and other
or

learning.
classmates every day. Everyday interactions
• It is a teacher-centred approach.
keep one aware of the deadlines; also students
xf

Demerits learn from the peer groups.

O

• There is a need of consensus among teachers • Students have to keep themselves motivated and
regarding the methods, aids, strategies, etc., to dedicated to successfully complete the course.
be used. • Many ‘open learning scams’ have been
• Such an approach cannot be used for all subjects. reported.

Open Learning Project Method

Open Learning is a form of learning in which there It was developed by William Heard Kilpatrick. The
are no barriers of age, place, time, etc. Students can Project method involves activity-based learning.
learn wherever and whenever they wish to. Learning Project can be static or working model, or it can be
is the responsibility of students. Even students in the form of a report. Project work is also a part
have choice about when they will attend exams. of many degree programmes. In project reports, stu-
Housewives, employed persons, students from remote dents conduct research, carry out survey, and then
areas, etc., can complete the course without any present the findings of research in the form of a
restriction of attending lectures. There is a difference report. Projects can be used in sciences as well as
between open learning and distance learning. social sciences. Projects can be allocated to students
Distance learning, also known as correspondence individually, or in groups.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.16 UGC-NET Paper-I

Merits • There is greater scope for participation by

• It is easy to evaluate. almost all students.
• It is a student-centred method of learning. • Such sessions boost creativity, confidence, and
innovations.
Demerits • It can be used for small as well as large groups.
• It can be time-consuming.
• Readymade projects are also available in the Demerits
market easily; if students purchase these, • Some students might hesitate in participating.
instead of preparing on their own, then the pur- • Such sessions may not always be effective.
pose of projects is not fulfilled. • These may not always be peaceful sessions.
• More focus on quantity than quality.
Panel Discussion • It can be time-consuming if not planned well.
In panel discussion, discussions about a topic are
held among the panel members. Panel members can Programmed Instruction
be chosen from within the class or subject experts Programmed learning takes place in a series of con-

ss
can be invited for panel discussions. trolled and sequential steps. Programmed material is
provided to students and they cover it as per their

re
Merits convenience. One of the features of this method is
• If planned and executed well, these can engage

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immediate feedback to student. Students are pro-
more listeners than a lecture or single speaker vided correct answers immediately after they have
activity. solved the questions. They progress gradually with
sit
• Students will get to learn from experts in the the content. Such type of method can also be used
field. in the absence of the teacher. The programmer has
er

• By observing the discussions, students will to fragment the topic into small sections. There will
learn how to communicate their ideas and
iv

be evaluative tests after each section and correct

viewpoints. responses are provided immediately.
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Demerits Merits
• Discussion will not be of any use if the mem- • It addresses individual differences.
d

bers do not have adequate knowledge regarding • ‘Learning by doing’ principle is used in this
or

the topic. method.

• Rest of the class might get bored during such • There is flexibility in teaching and learning.
xf

an activity.
Demerits
O

Brainstorming • This is time-consuming, so it will be difficult

Brainstorming sessions are marked by spontaneity. to cover the entire syllabus in a limited time
In such sessions, participants have to share their period.
opinion or idea about the topic. Ideas flow without • It can be costly.
any evaluation. Ideas are noted on a board or on • It is not meant for primary level students.
paper, and then at the end of the session, the best • There is need of experts for planning pro-
ideas are chosen and similar ideas are clubbed. The grammed instructions.
teacher acts as facilitator in such sessions.
Personalized System of Instruction
Merits Personalized Learning refers to a set of methods,
• The views presented by the students during the strategies, experiences, and techniques which are
session are not subject to criticism. used to address the diverse needs, interests, and
• It is a group-centred approach. aspirations of the students. Learning style, pace of
• These can generate many ideas within a short content, environment can vary from student to stu-
span of time. dent on the basis of experience, prior knowledge,

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.17

requirements, interest, and goals of students. The in sharpening the critical thinking, creative thinking,
learner has choice over what material he should use debating, negotiating, and reasoning ability of
to meet the course targets. The course objective also students.
varies from student to student. It is a student-centred
method of teaching. The students learn from what Merits
they do. They accomplish their own learning. It is an • It is interactive and helps students in retaining
alternative to ‘one size fits all’ approach of teaching. what they have learnt.
• It improves the communication skills of stu-
Merits dents.
• Learning is self-paced and student-centred. • Such a method can be used effectively to shape
• Learners are more autonomous and the attitude of students.
independent. • It helps in developing confidence in students.

Demerits Demerits
• Students need to be self-disciplined in order • It relates to real-life situations, which are very

ss
to complete the course within the specified complex.
duration. • The outcomes of such an activity cannot be pre-

re
• It cannot be used for primary level students. determined due to their unpredictable nature.
• It will be difficult to use in case of swiftly • Nature of students varies depending upon their

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changing course content. personality; introverts and shy students will not
be able to take part in such activities.
sit
Differentiated Instruction
The Differentiated system of instruction is different Simulation
er

from personalized system of instruction. The latter is Simulation is also a form of role playing. It is based
student-centred, while the former is teacher-centred. on experimental learning, where students learn in
iv

The goals to be achieved will be the same, but the an environment similar to real-life situations. This
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teacher can differentiate the subject matter, learning way they get prepared for solving problems simi-
practices, learning environment, etc., to address the lar to real-life situations. It is helpful for providing
individual needs of students. There is flexibility in training to medical students, management students,
d

instruction, grouping, and evaluation. defence forces, pilots, drivers, etc.

or

Merits Merits
xf

• It is a teacher-centred method. • It develops problem-solving abilities in stu-

• It is flexible and can be adjusted according to dents.
O

the requirement of students. • It is economical.

• It can be used effectively for small groups. • It helps in skill development.

Demerits Demerits
• The teacher needs to understand all students • Sometimes, expensive equipment may be
before planning differentiated activities for required for training.
them. • It is not easy to recreate the real-life situations
• There will be difficulty in implementing such a in artificial setting due to their complex nature.
method for a large group of students.
TV or Video Presentation
Role Playing Another way of engaging students is playing some
In this method, roles are assigned to students and educational video presentations or educational chan-
then interaction takes place between them. This nels on television. It can be used specially for showing
form of instruction is used to make students aware of documentaries. There can be a discussion ses-
the different persons and their perspectives. It helps sion or question hour followed by the presentation.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.18 UGC-NET Paper-I

Videos can be shown in the classroom or these can Demerits

be uploaded online. If it is uploaded online, then its • It will be difficult for students from remote
link can be shared with students to watch it at their areas who don’t have smartphones and good
own pace. internet connection to watch the sessions.
Merits Interactive Video
• It can help in gaining the interest of students. In an interactive video, there are quiz questions
• Students will be able to retain information. along with the video. Video will take a pause and the
• Lectures of teachers from highly reputed insti- viewer has to answer questions and responses will be
tutes and other experts can be shown to students marked immediately. So, the viewer will get imme-
even in remote areas. For example, there are diate feedback. If any of the answers is wrong, he
online lectures available of professors of IITs, can rewind the video and clear that doubt.
IIMs, and other reputed institutes. Those who
were not able to get admitted in these institutes Merits
can also watch these lectures and discussions • This approach is flexible.

ss
online. • Students have immediate feedback in the form
• Students can save video lectures for further use. of correct responses.

re
• It improves the decision-making power of stu-
Demerits

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dents.
• It is difficult to update videos with new infor- • It is a student-centred approach.
mation. If there is any update regarding a topic,
sit
then a new video should be recorded. Demerits
• It can be expensive, as software and equipment • It is time-consuming.
er

are required to record videos and present these • Resources and experts are required for imple-
in the class. menting such an approach.
iv

• For accessing online lectures and presentations, Computer-assisted Learning

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good internet connectivity is required. Computer-assisted learning has been gaining popu-
• There is only one-way communication. Queries larity as it makes learning active, efficient, easier,
of students are not resolved as they cannot ask
d

and convenient by the use of modern technology.

questions to experts in the video. Interactive whiteboards and smart classes can be
or

Live Sessions used. With the use of new technology, learning has
xf

Video presentation or telecast on television has the become very much faster as compared to the tradi-
drawback of lack of two-way communication. This tional techniques.
O

can be overcome with the use of Live Sessions. Merits

Teachers can go live on their Facebook pages, • Individual needs of the students can be
groups, YouTube channels, etc. Students can provide addressed.
feedback, ask questions in the chat section, or com- • It is a student-centred approach of learning.
ments. • There is active participation by students.
Merits Demerits
• No pre-recorded videos are required. Teacher • It is expensive due to use of costly hardware
can go live from his/her smartphone as well. and software.
• Students can ask questions immediately. • Teachers may not be willing to implement it.
• Video of live sessions gets uploaded online. If
anyone has missed the live session, he/she can Game-based Learning
watch it later as well. It is one of the most engaging methods of teaching.
• Any number of viewers can watch it. There is As the name suggests, learning is imparted with
no restriction on the number of viewers. the use of games. Rather than focusing on grades,

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.19

the focus is on inculcating skills, values, and morals Demerits

in students, that is, on preparing the mindset of stu- • Organizing a seminar can be costly as expenses
dents. Online games involve the players as decision- have to be incurred for inviting experts, arrang-
makers. The game progresses with the choices they ing accommodation and food for participants
make and students receive badges and points for and experts.
completing the objectives. There are gaming apps • It is time-consuming and at times could be bor-
for building vocabulary, practising typing, memoriz- ing for participants.
ing the periodic table, solving mathematical prob- • If students don’t participate wholeheartedly,
lems, etc. The teacher can plan games according to then the purpose of organizing the seminar is
the need of the curriculum. not fulfilled.
• There is no mechanism in evaluating the
Merits
knowledge which participants have received
• Use of games increases the student participa- from seminars.
tion and also boosts their interest.
• Students don’t have to wait for results, they get Tutorials

ss
immediate results. Tutorials are used as follow-up of classroom lecture.
• Students can learn as per their convenience.

re
After delivering the lecture, a teacher can group stu-
• It is not completely student-centred, as the dents on the basis of their needs and queries. The

yP
teacher plans the activities. teacher can then provide remedial teaching to clear
Demerits
sit their doubts in theory content or in practical work.
If the concept is clear to students, then the teacher
• It is expensive as costly equipment and soft-
can assign them a topic to present in the class. The
ware will be needed for its implementation.
er
student presents and the teacher supervizes the pres-
• Teachers need to undergo training so that they
entation. It is followed by a question session, where
can plan games according to the curriculum
iv

other students can ask queries; if the presenter is not

effectively.
able to resolve the queries, the teacher can help.
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• There is lack of willingness in teachers to use

such methods. Merits
• It is a student-centred approach.
d

Seminar
• It is an effective way of teaching as the teacher
or

Seminars can also be used as a teaching method.

Seminar is similar to classroom interaction, as there addresses the individual needs of students.
• It sharpens the communication skills of
xf

is an expert or a group of experts from similar areas

who addresses a number of students or participants. students.
O

Experts present the papers, which is followed by the Demerits

question session in which queries of participants are • It will be difficult to implement in larger class-
resolved. Slides are also used in seminars to engage rooms.
the participants. The topic of seminar is decided in • It can be time-consuming and the syllabus will
advance and experts on that topic are invited to pre- not be completed on time.
sent papers. Seminars are organized in almost all
educational institutes every year.
Assignments
Merits The classroom activity can be followed by assign-
• Seminars are a great source of information as ments. It helps in self-learning as it can be an
the experts of a particular field present the top- extension of classroom learning, that is, students
ics; so the information received is authentic. have to work on some additional information on a
• The presentation skills of participants improve given topic after the class on their own. It develops
in seminars. research attitude in students. Assignment should be
• Participants get to know about research activities. simple. While planning an assignment, the teacher

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.20 UGC-NET Paper-I

should take into consideration the topic covered in Merits

the class, level of students, time required to spend • It is a student-centred method of teaching and
on it, etc. If adequate time is not given to students, learning.
then it may lead to frustration, guilt, and inferior-
• It boosts creativity, critical thinking, commu-
ity complex in them. Assignments can be graded or
ungraded; if the assignment is ungraded, then the nication, interpersonal, and time management
teacher should inform the class that he/she will pick skills in students.
students randomly and check their assignment. If • Students work on solving real-life problems.
students are aware of this, they will complete the • These bridge the gap between theory and prac-
assignments on time; otherwise they may ignore tical, that is, students learn to apply theory to
these. tackle real-life situations.

Merits Demerits
• It develops creative thinking in students. • Teachers should be trained properly so that they
• Grades can be awarded for completing assign- can use case studies effectively.

ss
ments on time. • It might be difficult to find a case from real-life
• Students learn time management skills by

re
situations involving the concept under study.
working with deadlines. • There are chances of one perspective get-

yP
• It is a student-centred technique. Students have ting more focus, with little or no emphasis on
flexibility in completing it at their own conven-
another perspective.
ience but before the deadline.
sit
• Case studies cannot be used effectively for
Demerits short-term courses.
er

• It is difficult for the teacher to check all assign-

iv

ments, especially in case of classes with large SOME GREAT TEACHERS

number of students.
Un

• Deadlines for submitting assignments can pres-

surize students to focus on completing them Confucius – First private teacher in history
without taking care of the quality of content.
d

Friedrich Froebel – Founder of

• Students can copy assignments from each
or

kindergarten school
other. John Amos – Father of modern education
xf

Comenius
Case Study
O

Anne Sullivan – Teacher of first graduate

In case studies, cases based on real-life situations are deaf–blind person
assigned to the students. A case can be defined as an
Dr. Sarvepalli – His birthday is celebrated as
‘actual or near actual situation usually involving a Radakrishnan Teacher’s Day in India
decision, a challenge, an opportunity, a problem, an
Savitribai Phule – First female teacher of first
issue or a controversy affecting a person or persons in
women’s school in India
an organization’. Students act as problem solver and
study the case from different perspectives. They work
on a case by observing, analysing, recording, imple-
menting, summarizing, or making recommendations E-LEARNING FACILITIES
in order to solve it. The teacher can arrange discus-
sions on the case in class. Case studies ensure stu- MOOCs
dent-centred learning instead of traditional approach Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are online
of teacher-centred learning. Students participate courses that are available free of cost. Such courses
actively in solving cases and discussions. It involves are taught by prestigious Indian and foreign institutes
the interdisciplinary approach. on platforms such as MIT OCW, SWAYAM, edX,

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.21

Udacity, Coursera, and so on. Anyone can enrol in Consortium for Educational
a course of his choice without any restrictions of the Communication (CEC)
qualification. Online courses comprise videos, course CEC was set up in 1993 by the UGC for address-
handouts, suggested readings, and online tests. On ing the needs of higher education through the use
successful completion of the course, certificates are of television and information communication tech-
also issued. The below given image is the certificate nology (ICT). It is an inter-university centre and the
of an online course passed by the author of this book. nodal agency to coordinate, guide, and facilitate the
production of educational content at the national
level through its network of 21 media centres.
Before the setting up of CEC, the educational pro-
grammes were managed by the media centres estab-
lished by UGC in six universities. For this purpose,
Countrywide Classroom Programmes was started in
1984. EDUSAT is the educational satellite launched

ss
by Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) for
interactive satellite-based distance education. It

re
streams both the live as well as recorded sessions
(available on YouTube). Students can interact with

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teachers through text mode, over the telephone, or
through audio or videoconferencing.
sit
ePathshala
er
SWAYAM The ePathshala is set up by the joint efforts of
SWAYAM, which stands for Study Webs of Active- Ministry of Human Resource Development
iv

Learning for Young Aspiring Minds, is a MOOC- (MHRD), Govt. of India, and National Council of
Un

based initiative by the Indian government, where Educational Research and Training (NCERT). It is a
courses from prestigious institutes are available platform which supports a collection of a wide range
online. Students can enrol in these courses free of of educational e-resources including textbooks,
d

cost. audio, video, periodicals, and other materials. It can

or

be used by teachers, researchers, educators, students,

SWAYAM PRABHA and their parents.
xf

SWAYAM PRABHA is a project of Ministry of

Human Resources Development, Govt. of India, National Programme on Technology
O

under the National Mission on Education through Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

ICT. It is a set of 32 DTH channels which telecast NPTEL is a joint initiative by the IITs (Bombay,
high-quality educational programmes on 24 X 7 Delhi, Guwahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras, and
basis using the GSAT-15 satellite. The content is Roorkee) and IISc for improving the quality of tech-
provided by UGC, CEC, IITs, IGNOU, NPTEL, nical education by providing online content which
NCERT, and NIOS. The website of SWAYAM can be used by teachers and students. Teachers can
PRABHA is maintained by INFLIBNET Centre. use these courses to plan the classroom lectures.
New content is telecast every day for at least four
hours and it is then repeated five times in a day, so ICT Based Teaching Support Systems
that the students can learn at time of their conveni-
Most of the modern teaching support systems
ence. There are channels dedicated to school educa-
involve the use of ICT. The content can be made
tion and higher education in subjects of languages,
interesting using animations, videos, images in
humanities, social sciences, physical sciences, math-
slides. Also, ICT is used to share the teaching
ematics, life sciences, various engineering streams,
resources. Videos, course handouts, tests, and the
agriculture, vocational and allied sciences, etc.
other course contents can be uploaded online.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.22 UGC-NET Paper-I

Teachers can make use of online solutions like Traditional Modern

Google Classroom to share online content with stu- teaching teaching
dents, have discussions, receive assignments, and support support
conduct online tests. systems systems
In use Since very long Emerging with
developments of
TEACHING SUPPORT SYSTEMS new technology
Teaching support systems are the resources which Use of ICT No Yes
teachers use to make learning effective and long Prepared Papers, chart sheets, Hardware and
lasting. These are also known as teaching aids. using thermocol sheets, softwares
Students understand better and in lesser time with cardboard, chalk,
the help of aids as compared to the traditional colours
methods of teaching. These support systems make Example Blackboards, pup- Whiteboards,
learning interesting for students. There is a wide pets, textbooks, projector, radio
range of teaching support systems, from simple charts, plays, broadcast, slides,

ss
ones like the blackboard to the complex computer drama, storytelling, TV channels, live
programs. These can be based on audio, visual, puzzles, flash cards sessions, e-books,

re
or both. smart boards, etc.

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Offline methods of teaching Online methods of teaching
• Teaching takes place inside the physical boundary of the • There is no limit of physical boundary for class-
sit
classroom. room. Anyone from around the world can take part.
• Learners need to be physically present in the classroom. • Teachers will upload the content online and learn-
er

ers can access it from any place.

iv

• There is a limit on the number of students who can be • Any number of students can watch the course
enrolled depending on factors such as size of the class- videos online or enrol in the online courses.
Un

room, faculty, availability of funds.

• There are fixed timings for students to attend the classes. • There are no fixed timings. Learners can access
the online material any time as per their comfort.
d

• It can be used even in remote areas lacking electricity, • Internet connectivity is must for such courses for
or

internet, and gadgets. both the teacher and learners.

• The teacher is in direct contact with the students. He • In online teaching, the teacher is not in direct con-
xf

can analyse their behaviour, interest, values, etc. and can tact with students. However, students can contact
O

guide them. teachers through email or chat sessions.

• The teacher can resolve queries of students in the class- • Queries can be resolved in discussion forums.
room. Students can also clarify their doubts with their
class fellows.
• These methods can be teacher-centred or learner-centred. • These are usually student-centred.
• These lack flexibility as students have to attend classes and • These are flexible in nature as students can learn
appear in exams at the specified date and time along with oth- and appear in tests as per their own schedule.
ers.
• Examples include kinesthetic teaching, role playing, • Examples include computer-based learning,
simulations. programmed instructions, live sessions, interactive
videos, game-based learning.
Teaching activity involving lecture, demonstration, heuristics method, discussions, project work, panel discussions,
presentations, seminars, tutorials, assignments, case study etc. can be planned in either offline or online mode.
There can be methods which will involve both offline and online teaching, such as ‘flipped classrooms’, in which
students will learn content from videos uploaded online by their teachers and then will have discussions and solve
assignments in class.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.23

Benefits of Using Support Systems or

Teaching Aids DID YOU KNOW?
• Students retain concepts for a longer time if
taught using teaching aids. • Establishment of ‘Radio Club’ at Calcutta in 1923
• Teaching aids help in engaging students and marked the arrival of radio in India.
they learn with interest. • The regular broadcasting service started in
• Teaching aids break the monotony of 1927.
lectures. • In 1936, All India Radio (AIR) was launched when
• Teaching using an aid involves simultaneous the government took over radio service.
use of multiple senses of the students due to • 13 February is celebrated as World Radio Day.
which they learn easily.
• Experts can be brought to class with their audio
or audio–visual clips, instead of being physi- Radio Use of radio for educational purpose dates
cally present. This way sharing of knowledge back to 1927. Before Independence, there were 30

ss
becomes easy. These clips can be used by stu- AIR centres broadcasting educational programmes.
dents at various geographically distant places at Radio can be used for lecture streaming, news

re
the same time; thus it is possible for the teacher updates, streaming discussion sessions, and other
to instruct any number of geographically dis-

yP
educational programmes. Radio can be used as an
tant students together at once. effective aid for teaching due to its higher reach and
• Teaching aids motivate students for better availability in even remote areas.
sit
learning.
• Students don’t need to memorize or learn
er
by rote as they will understand the topic in
an effective way with the help of teaching
iv

aids.
• Teaching aids encourage active participation of
Un

students in classroom activities.

• These increase and reinforce learning.
d
or

Audio Aids
xf

Audio Aids are those which appeal to the sense

of hearing of students. These include use of radio, Recorder Recorders can also be used to facilitate
O

recorders, telephone, mobile, audio players, teaching. These can be used to record lectures, dis-
podcast, etc. cussions, dialogues, conversations, etc. The recorded

Audio aids Radio, Recordings, Audio players, Telephone and Mobile, Audio CD

Slides, Charts, Flash cards, Poster, Picture, Graph, Silent films, Maps,
Visual aids
Mindmaps, Diagram, Display Boards, Summary cards, Projectors
Three
Models, Puppets, Globe, Specimen, Samples, Diorama
dimensional aids

Audio– Filmstrip, Cartoons, Puppets, Drama, Television, Online videos, Documentaries

visual aids

Activity aids Field trips, Experimentation

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.24 UGC-NET Paper-I

audio clips can be used later at any time. The record-

ings can be saved for personal use or these can
be shared with others as well. Recordings can be
streamed on radio as well to maximize its reach.
There are special recorders available in the market to
serve the purpose. For affordable recording, students
can make use of the recorder in their phones.

Charts and graphs Charts and graphs can be

used to make learning easier. A teacher should

ss
have knowledge of charts, graphs, and their usage
so that these can be used in a way to make teach-

re
ing effective. These can be drawn manually or with
the help of softwares. Charts and graphs are also

yP
discussed in chapters on Research Aptitude and
Podcast Podcasts are also streamed like radio Data Interpretation in this book. Image given below
sit
programmes, but the difference between radio and shows different types of charts and graphs:
podcast is that podcasts are available over the inter-
er
net. These are similar to internet radio. Podcasts are
gaining popularity with their use by many institu-
iv

tions for streaming discussions or audio lectures.

Un

Podcast recordings are also uploaded online so that

anyone who missed a lecture can listen to it later.
Other audio aids These include the telephone,
d

mobile phone, audio CD, etc.

or

Visual Aids
xf

Visual aids are designed to appeal to the eyes of

O

the students. A few important visual aids are given

below along with their images:
Slides Slides are one of the most common visual
aids which can be used in nearly all fields. Software
like Microsoft PowerPoint and Google Slides can be
used to prepare slides. These can be projected in the
class with the help of projectors. Printouts of slides
can also be provided to students for further use. Flip chart Chart sheets are stacked on a board.
The teacher should make slides in such a way that These can be pre-designed or the teacher can also
these capture the interest of students. Animations, write over these in class. After discussion, the first
pictures, charts, text, etc., can be used in slides. chart is flipped to move to another chart. These can
The image given below shows a presenter delivering be used for discussing the sequential steps of an
a lecture. activity.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.25

hand or using softwares. Students can paste mind

maps of important topics on walls of their study area,
this makes revision easier. It also boosts creativity.
Maps Maps are of great use in teaching subjects
like geography. These help in memorizing places
easily by giving a pictorial representation of geo-
graphical regions.

Flash cards Flash cards are like compact cards.

ss
These are generally used in sets. One card is dis-
played immediately after another. Information can

re
be presented on both sides of the card. These can be
used for glossary, and quiz, where the question is

yP
displayed on front side of the card and the answer on
rear. Flash cards can also be made with the help of
sit
computer softwares.
Mind maps Mind maps are colourful, organized Posters and pictures Important instructions and
er

diagrams which can be drawn to list the complete concepts can be pasted on classroom walls in the
form of posters or pictures. Students will see them
iv

information about a topic. These can be drawn with

Un

An example of a mind map

d

Concept
Teaching
or

Objectives
xf

Teacher centred
vs Methods of
Learner centred teaching Basic requirements Levels of
O

teaching
Teaching aptitude Characteristics
Offline
vs Online
methods Learners’s
characteristics

Traditional Teaching Individual

support systems differences

Modern Innovations in
education systems
ICT based
Evaluation systems
Computer based
testing
Elements and Evaluation in choice
types of evaluation based credit system
in higher education

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.26 UGC-NET Paper-I

daily consciously or subconsciously and their brain this led to the use of the blackboard. It is considered
will be tuned to follow those instructions. Students as the most effective and universal medium for con-
can be given homework assignments to prepare veying basic points, teaching processes, explaining,
posters or pictures on a particular topic or it can be notes, displaying diagrams, showing calculations,
planned as a classroom activity. Poster making com- etc. White or coloured chalks can be used to write
petitions can be arranged to enhance creative think- over these. These can be used for facilitating lec-
ing and drawing skills of students. tures, group meetings, and trainings.

ss
re
yP
sit
Diagram Diagrams are a common teaching aid Black colour is sentimentally bad but, every black board
used especially for sciences subjects. These help in makes the student’s life bright.
er
remembering the structure of an object. –A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
iv

80S ribosomes
Whiteboard Whiteboards are an updated version of
Un

Lysosome Cell wall

the blackboard. Chalk dust from blackboards causes
(see Extension
below)
irritation. Today, the blackboard is being replaced by
whiteboards which are like plastic boards. Instead of
d

Vacuole
(this takes up
most of the cell
Cell surface chalk, felt tip pens or markers are used to write on
or

membrane
but is drawn
smaller here to Chloroplast the whiteboards. Coloured markers can be used for
allow other
structures to highlighting important points on the board.
xf

be shown)
Smooth Mitochondrion
endoplasmic
O

reticulum Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Nuclear
envelope

Nucleolus Golgi body

Chromatin Nuclear pore
Nucleus

Display boards Display boards help in engaging

students. There are different types of display boards
as given below:

Blackboard Blackboard is one of the most popular

and primitively used aids of teaching. In earlier times,
the teacher used to write on individual slates of stu-
dents to instruct them. Then with time the idea of a
common board or slate for the whole class emerged,

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.27

Peg boards These have holes to affix diagrams, fig- Flannel board or felt board These boards are
ures, posters, models, articles, etc., using pins, or hold- made of special fabrics like flannel, wool, or baize.
ers. These are simple and easy to use. However, use of The objects have sandpaper on the backside so they
peg boards can be time-consuming as the objects used can be easily hanged on the board. This makes
for teaching needs a lot of time for preparation. objects easy to hang and remove. Objects of similar
order or involving similar principles can be clubbed
together for demonstrations.
Such an activity may involve a lot of time as the
teacher has to prepare objects needed for explaining.

ss
Magnetic boards These are a variation to the com-
mon blackboard and whiteboards. Magnetic strips

re
are used in the board and the objects to be used on
Projectors These are visual projection aids. These

yP
the boards have iron so that these stick on the board.
have gained popularity in recent times. These are
Objects can be moved across the board easily to show
required to project slides, images, text, videos,
the movements. It is similar to refrigerator magnets.
sit
diagrams, posters, etc., to facilitate the lecture or
demonstration. These arouse interest in students.
er
Students can also be given assignments to present
in the class using projectors. This will improve the
iv

presentation skills of students. Projector can be over-

Un

head or handheld. Nowadays, projectors can even be

connected to smartphones. While using projectors,
the teacher should make sure that the content is nei-
d

ther too small nor too big, it should be of optimal

or

size so that it is visible to all students.

Bulletin boards These are used to display impor-
xf

tant hand-outs, notices, diagrams, posters, instruc-

tions, etc., for students’ attention. Pins are used to
O

fasten papers on the board.

Summary cards Summary cards, as the name

suggests, are pocket sized cards displaying brief and
necessary information about a topic. These can be
used effectively for revision. These have very con-
densed form of major points about a topic. These act
as memory booster and also help students in keeping
track of what has been taught.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.28 UGC-NET Paper-I

Three-dimensional Aids Cartoons Student engagement in cartoons is

Three-dimensional aids help in bringing to the very high. These help in conveying important ideas
classroom objects similar to real objects. In some and instructions along with fun and entertainment.
cases, real objects can be shown to the students but Cartoons are effective especially for kids as the
in other cases real objects such as rockets, plan- tendency to imitate is higher in them. Kids will try
ets, mountains, wild animals, internal systems of to imitate what their favourite cartoon character is
human body, etc., cannot be brought to class. In doing. This way the habits of cleanliness, discipline,
such cases, a model can be used for effective teach- respecting each other, obeying parents, etc., can get
ing. Some of the common three-dimensional aids inculcated in kids.
are models, diorama, globe, puppets, specimen,
samples, and so on. Drama or play Drama or play can be organized for
spreading awareness. Such activities help in develop-
Audio–Visual Aids ing communication skills, presentation skills, crea-
tivity, cooperation, etc., in students who participate
Films Films, if chosen carefully, will act as
in drama. Such an activity should be planned and

ss
wonderful medium with much impact. These bring
executed carefully so that the outcome is as intended.
the outdoor world into the classroom and facilitate

re
Real-life situations can be recreated in drama and stu-
learning. Educational films can be shown in the class
dents can be taught how to deal with these situations.

yP
for the better understanding of students. Films based
on historical events create a visual representation Television channels Television (TV) can also
of past events; hence students can learn from these
sit
serve as a medium of education. Education chan-
easily and retain for longer time. nels can be launched for teaching different sub-
Films can also be used for learning outside the
er
jects. Experts from various reputed institutes can
classroom as well due to their reach and huge impact. be called to record video lectures. Students at
iv

Films based on subjects like sanitation and cleanli- remote areas can also have access to these chan-
ness (Toilet Ek Prem Katha), use of sanitary napkins
Un

nels on TV.
(Padman), etc. create awareness among masses. For example, ‘Swayam’ is an initiative by the
government under which TV channels have been
d

Puppets Puppets are toys showing some charac- launched for different subjects. Experts from IITs,
ters; these can be used by tying them with strings,
or

IIMs, and other reputed institutes teach on these

sticks, or putting them on hands and fingers (depend- channels.
xf

ing upon the size). The performer conveys some

ideas using interactions between puppets, or puppet Online videos Like TV channels, channels can
O

and humans. Such teaching aids help in engaging the be created on YouTube or other platforms. There
students. These had been used even at the time of are a huge number of educational channels on
freedom struggle in India. Puppet shows are a part YouTube. There are many websites as well on
of traditions of India. which educational videos are available. Video lec-
tures are now available on a wide range of topics.
The biggest advantage is that students can access
these free of cost. They just need to have good
internet connectivity and a smartphone or laptop
or computer.
Documentaries can also be shared with students
for gaining comprehensive knowledge on a topic.

Activity Aids
These are aids in which students learn by doing.
Students retain more if they were actively engaged

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.29

in the learning and have acquired knowledge on such that all students cannot see it at the same time,
the basis of some activity. These activities may be then it should be shown to students in groups.
an experiment in a laboratory, a role play, a field
Timeliness Time factor also plays an important
trip, a presentation, assignments, field work, survey,
role in determining the effectiveness of an aid.
computer-assisted learning, etc. Students understand
Teaching aids should be used at the right time and
better when they have been involved in the learning
place. For this, the teacher should have good knowl-
process instead of being passive receivers of knowl-
edge of teaching aids and their effective use.
edge.
Flexibility There should be flexibility in using
I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and teaching aids. Suitability of a teaching aid varies
I understand. from teacher to teacher. Similarly, it varies for stu-
– Confucius dents, that is, what suits one student may not suit
others. So, a teaching aid which suits the need of
subject, interest of students, and is comfortable for
FACTORS AFFECTING EFFECTIVENESS

ss
the teacher as well should be chosen. If need arises,
OF TEACHING SUPPORT SYSTEMS different aids can be used for different students or

re
they can be given a choice to choose one from a
Choice The choice of the teaching aid affects the group of aids.

yP
effectiveness of teaching. An appropriate number of
aids should be chosen. If the teacher uses too many Cost The cost factor should not be ignored while
teaching aids, it will confuse him/her as well as the choosing the teaching aid. Some aids require use of
sit
students. So, for effective results an appropriate costly hardware and softwares, while others can be
number of teaching aids should be chosen. used with locally available material.
er

Attractiveness Whatever aid a teacher chooses,

iv

Simplicity The teaching aid used should be sim-

should be appealing and attractive. In case of visual
ple to understand. If it involves the use of complex
Un

and audio–visual aids, colours can be used to make

diagrams or aids, then the teacher should try to
them look attractive, interesting, and highlight impor-
simplify these as much as possible for better under-
tant points. But not more than four colours should be
standing.
d

used in one slide. Colour combination should be cho-

or

Availability of resources Resource availability sen carefully. If any of the student has colour blind-
also affects the outcome of a teaching aid. If the ness, then pastel shades should not be used.
xf

required resources, that is, the hardware and soft-

O

ware essential for using a teaching aid are not avail- LEARNING DISORDERS
able in good condition and requisite quantity, then
the results will be compromised.
• Dyscalculia Students suffering from this dis-
Relevance The relevance of aids varies from sub- order have difficulty in understanding mathe-
matics and numbers, arithmetical operations,
ject to subject. The maps used for teaching geogra-
signs, etc.
phy will not have much relevance in a mathematics
• Dysgraphia It is related to handwriting and
class. So, the teaching aid should be selected while leads to poor handwriting, inconsistent spac-
keeping in mind the needs of the subject. ing, wrong spellings, etc.
• Dyslexia It is related to problems in reading
Visibility If the aid used is not visible or can- like in recognizing and understanding letters
not be used by all students in the class, then it will and words, low fluency, etc.
not be effective. While designing aids, the teacher • Dysphasia or Aphasia It is related to problems
should take into consideration the size of content; in understanding a spoken language.
it should not be too large or too small. If the size is

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.30 UGC-NET Paper-I

How much do we remember after two weeks? Students will

be able to
Learning
Read Define
10 % of what we READ through
text and list describe
Passive participation

observation
symbols explain

20 % of what we HEAR Listening to Learning

a lecture through
30 % of what we See View photos observation

Watch movies

50 % of what we See and HEAR Attending exhibition Demonstrate

watching demonstration apply practice

70 % of what we discuss Participating in discussions, workshops Learning

Active participation

with others Delivering lecture by Analyse

ss
Role playing doing define
create

re
Real life experiences evaluate
90 % of what simulating real situations

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we DO performing experiments
sit
er
EVALUATION SYSTEM 2. It is a continuous process. It is accomplished
Evaluation is a systematic process which involves along with the teaching–learning process and
iv

the use of different types of activities for assess- not just at the end of the teaching–learning
Un

ing the outcomes of teaching. It helps teachers process.

to understand the needs, interest, and potential 3. It is comprehensive. Evaluation is not intended
of students. According to the Oxford English to just assess the knowledge of students, but it
d

Dictionary, evaluation is ‘the making of a judge- stresses equally upon the other elements also.
or

ment about the amount, number, or value of some- It focuses on examining the all-round person-
thing’. Evaluation can be defined as the process ality of students.
xf

of collecting, examining, and interpreting data on 4. It evaluates the fulfilment of instructional

objectives.
O

knowledge, skills, beliefs, and attitude of students

for assessing the magnitude of their learning. The 5. It involves the use of diverse procedures, tests,
data can be collected by taking a test of students, and techniques.
interviewing them, or by observing them silently. 6. It helps in identifying the problems and weak-
Teachers keep a record of students’ performance nesses of students so that remedial measures
data and analyse it to know about trends in their can be adopted.
performance. If the students’ performance turns 7. It is pervasive and a crucial feature of teach-
out to be unsatisfactory, then changes can be made ing.
in the teaching methods and aids so that students 8. It helps student grow as they get to know about
understand better. Evaluation also stimulates the their weaknesses.
students to study. 9. Well-planned evaluation provides reliable and
valid measure of students’ learning and poten-
Characteristics of Evaluation tial.
1. Evaluation is a systematic process. This means 10. Prior knowledge of students can also be evalu-
it is carried out in a systematic and planned ated before the beginning of teaching–learning
way. process.

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 Teaching Aptitude 1.31

11. It is dynamic and flexible, which means it can skill level of the candidates is to be evaluated, then
be adjusted as per the requirement of circum- equipment, hardware, and software will be required
stances. accordingly.
12. It should be as realistic as possible. Analysis There is a need of analysing the perfor-
13. There should be objectivity in evaluation, that mance of the participants. In case of a written or oral
is, the results should not be affected by the per- test, marks can be assigned. Candidates can also be
sonal biases of teachers. given marks or ranked on the basis of their skills,
Functions of Evaluation behaviour, attitude, personality, confidence level,
etc. such as in interviews.
• It helps in detecting the problems and weak-
nesses in students’ learning so that remedial Decision-makers Decision-makers are persons
measures can be recommended. who will be making the final choice as per the results
• It helps in identifying the potential and abilities of of the analysis of candidate’s performance.
students. For example, UGC-NET exam tests the
ability of candidates for research and teaching. Types of Evaluation

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• By identifying the potential, candidates suit- Placement evaluation This is also known as pre-

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able for a course or a job can be selected. evaluation or initial evaluation. Such an evaluation
• It is the basis for certification and awards. is carried out at the beginning of course or term. It

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Certificates, degrees, awards are distributed to helps in identifying if the person has prerequisite
students if their performance turns out to be sat- sit knowledge or not. It aims at checking the required
isfactory in examination of the learning outcome. entry-level eligibility conditions. It can also be con-
• It helps in measuring the level of fulfilment of ducted to check the aptitude and calibre of students
er
instructional and educational objectives. before the beginning of the course. Quantitative
• It acts as a source of feedback for teachers as techniques in the form of entrance tests and inter-
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they will get to know if students understand views or the qualitative techniques like observation,
whatever is taught to them or not. If it turns out
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cumulative record cards, etc., can be used for evalu-

that students do not understand the subject mat- ating students. Such an evaluation intends to analyse
ter, then the approach can be changed for their the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domain.
d

better understanding.
Formative evaluation Paul Black is considered
or

Elements of Evaluation as the proponent of this concept. Such an evalua-

tion is carried out during the course of learning pro-
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Evaluator and participants The most impor- cess. He has compared it with the evaluation which
tant elements of an evaluation are the person who
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chefs conduct during cooking, which is to taste the

will evaluate and the person or persons who will be food during the process of cooking. At this stage,
evaluated. In the absence of one, there will be no improvements can be made depending upon the
purpose of evaluation. need. Similarly, during the teaching–learning pro-
Purpose and objective of evaluation It is a sig- cess, the teacher can evaluate the understanding of
nificant element of evaluation. The purpose of students. If any problems are found, then the teach-
evaluation can be admitting students to a course; ing methods, aids, or approach can be improved.
selecting candidates for a job; routine test to check This can be in the form of class test, quiz, pre-
the progress and understanding of students; or term- board exams, chapter test, unit test, weekly test,
end examination for promoting students to a higher monthly test, etc. These are not graded. It will pro-
class. The teacher can also evaluate students to know vide feedback to the teacher regarding effective-
whether they understood the content or he needs to ness of the teaching methods, aids, and approach
change the methodology. used. There is no risk of loss of marks in formative
evaluation; so students will be interested in experi-
Resources These are required for evaluation of menting with ideas. It reinforces learning among
question papers, answer sheets, or online tests. If the students. It is also called internal evaluation.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.32 UGC-NET Paper-I

Summative evaluation Paul Black also pro- comprehensive. It is based on evaluation of affective
pounded this concept. It is also known as external domain with the use of qualitative techniques.
evaluation. It is carried out at the end of the term, Diagnostic evaluation can also be used at the
course, or unit. Paul Black compared this kind of beginning of a course or term to know about prior
evaluation with the stage when the food is finally knowledge of the learners, so that the teaching pro-
served to the customer. Now, the chef cannot make cess can be adjusted accordingly.
any changes and his dish will be judged by the cus-
Norm referenced evaluation and criterion refer-
tomer. Similarly, at the end of term, the teacher’s
enced evaluation Norm and criterion referenced
task of providing information to students is com-
evaluation are two different ways of evaluating a
plete and there will be final assessment of students’
student’s performance. In norm referenced evalu-
learning. It can be in the form of term-end exams,
ation, the performance of one student is compared
final exams, board exams, projects to be submitted
with others, while in criterion referenced evaluation,
at the end of term, term papers, etc. These are graded
there are no comparisons and results are stated on the
and certificates and degrees are awarded depending
basis of certain critera. For example, ‘A has scored
on the performance. There is a risk of loss of marks

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98 per cent marks in test’ is the criterion referenced
in summative evaluation so students will have lesser
evaluation as there is no comparison of marks of any

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interest in experimenting with ideas.
other student. ‘A has scored highest marks in test in

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Diagnostic evaluation This is one step ahead of class’ is norm referenced evaluation, as there is com-
formative evaluation. Formative evaluation identi- parison of marks scored by A with marks of other
fies the problems, whereas diagnostic evaluation students of the class, which turned out to be lesser
sit
diagnoses the causes of such problems. It is more than A.
er
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Placement Formative Summative Diagnostic

evaluation evaluation evaluation evaluation
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Function To check entry-level To identify problems To grade and certify To provide explana-
eligibility conditions, in teaching–learning students on the basis tion for the problems
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pre-requisite knowl- process and pro- of their learning, and identified in forma-
or

edge and understand- vide feedback for to test the effective- tive evaluation
ing improvements and ness of teaching
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remedial measures
during the course
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Time of evaluation Before beginning of During course or On the completion of During course or
course or term term course, term, or unit term
Domain evaluated Cognitive, psy- Cognitive or psycho- Cognitive, psy- Affective domain
chomotor or affective motor domain chomotor or affective
domain domain
Technique of evalu- Quantitative and Quantitative Quantitative and Qualitative
ation qualitative techniques techniques qualitative techniques techniques
Report Selection or rejection Not graded Graded Anecdotal report

Score comparison Norm or criterion Criterion referenced Norm referenced Comparison of

Referenced standards standards standards actual and expected
behaviour

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.33

Evaluation in Choice-based Credit System Universities can decide the minimum passing marks
in Higher Education or CGPA required to pass the course. The percentage
In the Choice-based Credit System (CBCS), stu- equivalent of a grade can be decided on the basis of
dents can opt for subjects from the available choices. absolute grading or relative grading.
Students have to complete the required credits in
Techniques of Evaluation
order to obtain the course certificate. Credit points
and grade points are awarded to students and on The traditional examination system used to assess
the basis of these, the semester grade point average only the cognitive objectives. But today, the range
(SGPA) is calculated. The cumulative grade point and scope of evaluation have widened. The evalu-
average (CGPA) is calculated on the basis of perfor- ation techniques can now be used to examine the
mance in all the semesters. extent of fulfilment of objectives of cognitive as
well as affective and psychomotor domain. The
Grades It is the index of performance denoted by different techniques used in evaluation involve the
O, A+, A, B+, B, C, P, and F. following:

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Grade point It is the numerical number assigned Tests These can be oral or written. Oral test can be
to each grade letter. like viva or interview. Written tests can have multi-

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ple choice questions, short questions, or essay-type

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Letter Grade Performance Grade Points questions. Written tests can also have a mix of dif-
ferent types of questions. Multiple choice questions
test the understanding of the students. Descriptive
O Outstanding 10
sit
questions can be used to test the retaining ability
A+ Excellent 9 of students or for testing their understanding. For
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example, the question ‘Define Teaching Aptitude’

A Very Good 8
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can test the retaining and recalling power of student

and a question like ‘Define Teaching Aptitude in
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B+ Good 7 your own words’ will test the understanding of stu-

dents. So, tests examine the theoretical knowledge
B Above Average 6
and understanding of students. In other words, it
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can be said that tests evaluate the cognitive domain.

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C Average 5
Tests can be pen and paper based, computer based
(online), or adaptive. It is a quantitative technique of
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P Pass 4
evaluation.
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F Fail 0
Practical examinations These can also be con-
ducted depending upon the subject. These evaluate
For courses of qualifying nature, ‘satisfactory’ or
the practical knowledge of students or the extent
‘unsatisfactory’ can be indicated.
of skills that students have acquired, that is, these
Credit point Grade point × Number of credits of help in the diagnosis of psychomotor domain.
subject Practical exams are also a quantitative technique
of examination.
SGPA =
Credit pointssecured in allsubjectsopted in a semester Observation This is another technique of evalu-
ation. Teachers can evaluate the confidence, atti-
Total of credditsof all thesubjectsopted insemester
tude, aptitude, gestures, or behaviour of students by
observing them. This involves assessment of affec-
SGPA = Credit points secured in all semesters tive domain. It is a qualitative technique of evalu-
Total of credits of all seemesters ation. Other qualitative techniques of evaluation

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

1.34 UGC-NET Paper-I

are Interview, Checklist, Rating Scale, Attitudinal the teacher to set different paper for each student.
Scale, Anecdotal Records, Diaries, or Journals of Now, these shortcomings have been taken care in
Students, etc. the new methods of evaluation such as computer-
Evaluation can be conducted internally or exter- assisted evaluation and computer-based evaluation.
nally. Internal evaluation is like a class test, where In computer-based evaluation, the test is conducted
the teacher evaluates the students. External evalu- on computer and the test can be programmed in such
ation involves any other examiner either from the a way that each student will either get a question
same institute or any other institute, such as in uni- paper with different questions or with questions in
versity exams, board exams, or entrance exams. a different order. Since the test is conducted online,
There are chances of biases arising in internal the recorded responses will also be saved in the com-
evaluation. puter. Hence, these can be evaluated in much lesser
While selecting evaluation techniques, their time than manual checking. For instance, the recent
effectiveness, simplicity, usefulness, appropriate- NTA UGC-NET exam was held on 22 December
ness, practicability, and availability of resources 2018, and the result was declared on 5 January 2019.
should be kept in mind. The result was announced in less than 15 days’ time.

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Online tests or quizzes can be conducted on Google

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Innovations In Evaluation Systems forms.
With advancement in technology, newer means of Other than the changes in the mode of con-

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evaluating the progress made by students are also ducting the exam, there have been changes in the
being developed. Earlier, only oral and written type of questions. Earlier, a question like ‘Define
sit
tests were used for evaluation. Teachers had to check evaluation’ will check the memory and retaining
the answer sheets manually which led to delays power of the student. Students have to answer the
er
in the declaration of results. Students could copy question based on what they had memorized ear-
answers from chits or from other students as the lier, for which they used to get marks. But nowa-
iv

paper was same for everyone. It was not possible for days, the questions are more of conceptual nature
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Computer-based evaluation and computer-assisted evaluation

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The terms ‘Computer-based evaluation’ and includes English language test comprising Essay
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‘Computer-assisted evaluation’ may seem to be and Letter writing, other than multiple choice
similar as both involve the use of computer in con- questions.
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ducting tests. Computer-based evaluation implies Computer-assisted evaluation implies the

the use of online quizzes and tests, where the use of computer in evaluation. In competitive
candidates can attempt the paper on computer. exams, optical mark reader (OMR) answer sheets
The test can be uploaded online and students are provided to the candidates. The responses
will be given its link so that they can access it marked by the candidates on OMR sheets can
anywhere. It is used in MOOCs, online courses, be scanned by the OMR device and the scanned
online mock tests, etc. Another way of using data can be recorded in the computer. Then the
computer-based evaluation is for students to visit responses can be evaluated using the computer
the designated examination centres and take the programs. It will lead to declaration of the result
test. Competitive exams are conducted in this in lesser time as compared to manual checking.
method. NTA also uses this method, where candi- The student performance data can be presented
dates will appear in UGC-NET papers in the exami- in graphs and charts, to analyse their trend of pro-
nation centres allotted to them. It can be used gress. This way in computer-assisted evaluation,
for both objective and descriptive questions. For computers are used for evaluating and not for
recruitment in banking sector, the mains exam also conducting test.

© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

 Teaching Aptitude 1.35

such as ‘Define evaluation in your own words.’ A management skills are learnable and not inherent
person having sound conceptual clarity can answer traits. A chaotic classroom environment hampers the
it correctly. Multiple choice questions, fill in the learning of students and also results in higher stress
blanks, assertion–reason questions, statement– levels in teachers. No matter how much a teacher
conclusions, statement–argument, statement– knows about the subject, he/she will not be able to
assumption type questions figure in most question deliver the content appropriately if the class is not
papers. disciplined. On the other hand, a well-managed
The teacher can also evaluate students even classroom
without conducting tests, through observation. The
• is academically productive,
teacher can observe students, their behaviour, values,
• maximizes active learning,
etc. Students can be given assignments, one-minute
paper, assigned roles, practical performance, etc. At • eliminates behaviour that hinder learning,
the end of the topic or lecture, the teacher can tell • facilitates social and emotional growth, and
students to rewrite the content covered in the class • encourages student participation.
in a few words. Students can also be required to ana-

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lyse their performance themselves, or get it reviewed Effective classroom management facilitates or

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by their peer group. The results of the evaluation can improves student learning using different fac-
be declared online as well. tors, such as behaviour, environment, expecta-

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tions, materials, or activities that teachers use to
engage students. Student disinterest, behavioural
Classroom Management problems, or disorganized classes are a result of
sit
Classroom management is a set of learnable skills poorly designed lessons, boring learning materials,
and techniques that are used by teachers to run the or unclear expectations. Good teaching and good
er

class efficiently, without chaotic behaviour from classroom management are indistinguishable to
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students. It should be noted here that classroom some degree.

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Tips for classroom management

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or

1. Before beginning teaching, students should be 4. The popular idiom, ‘Spare the rod and spoil the
xf

informed about the course plan, syllabus. If they child’ implies that undesirable behaviour must
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know how the knowledge or skills they acquire be punished. The teacher should not ignore mis-
from the course can impact their life and how use behaviour of students in class. If ignored, such
it in real-life situations, then they will pay more behaviour will be repeated.
attention to it.
5. At first, the teacher should give students non-ver-
2. The teacher should try to understand the behav- bal signals such as looking at them, walking to their
iour of students, their strengths, and their weak- seats while teaching, asking them questions, or to
nesses and then plan the classroom activity use their name in example to grab their attention.
according to their needs.
6. If a student continues to disrupt the class even
3. The teacher should clearly specify that misbe-
after non-verbal signals, then the teacher can
haviour, such as indiscipline, coming late to class,
change his seat or direct him to stop distracting
disrespecting others, etc., will not be tolerated
the class.
on the very first day of the class. He should also
tell them about the consequences of such types 7. If he stills continues with his behaviour then
of behaviour. appropriate action should be taken.

(Continued)

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