Teacher notes

Dividing up space: coordinate geometry,

3 Voronoi diagrams, vectors, lines
Essential understandings
Geometry and trigonometry allow us to quantify the physical world, enhancing our spatial
awareness in two and three dimensions. This branch provides us with the tools for analysis,
measurement and transformation of quantities, movements and relationships.

Content-specific conceptual understandings

This chapter leads to the following content-specific conceptual understandings listed in the subject
guide:

 The properties of shapes are highly dependent on the dimension they occupy in space.
 Volume and surface area of shapes are determined by formulae, or general mathematical
relationships or rules expressed using symbols or variables.
 Different representations of trigonometric expressions help to simplify calculations.
 Systems of equations often, but not always, lead to intersection points.
 In two dimensions, the Voronoi diagram allows us to navigate, path-find or establish an
optimum position.
 Vectors allow us to determine position, change of position (movement) and force in two
and three-dimensional space.
 Matrices are a form of notation which allow us to show the parameters or quantities of
several linear equations simultaneously.

We have taken these suggested content-specific conceptual understanding statements and, as

recommended in the Teacher Support Manual, developed our own conceptual understandings.
Students are led step-by-step through the investigations to arrive at one or more of these
conceptual understandings:

Conceptual understandings Investigation

The properties of shapes depend on the dimension they occupy in
Investigation 1
space.

The relationships between the length of the sides and the size of the
angles in a triangle can be used to solve many problems involving
position, distance, angles and area.

Equations of straight lines can be rearranged into equivalent equations, Investigation 2

such as gradient–intercept form, general form, point–gradient form, all
representing the gradient of the line and its position on the coordinate
grid.

All points equidistant from two fixed points lie on the perpendicular Investigation 3
bisector of the line segment joining those two points.

The edges of a cell on a Voronoi diagram lie along the perpendicular Investigation 4
bisectors of the line segments joining the points.

The incremental algorithm allows the edges of a Voronoi diagram to be Investigation 5

easily found.

The solution to the toxic waste dump problem lies at a vertex of the Investigation 6
Voronoi diagram.

© Oxford University Press 2019 Teacher notes 1

 Teacher notes

Adding vectors gives the resultant effect of all the vectors acting Investigation 7
successively.

Vectors can be given as a magnitude and direction or written in Investigation 8

component form, and using component form allows you to find the
resultant easily.

The scalar product can be used to find the angle between two vectors. Investigation 9

The vector product of two vectors represents a vector perpendicular to Investigation 10

the two vectors.

The equation of a line r  a  bt is defined by the vectors a and b where Investigation 11

a is the position vector of a point on the line and b is a vector in the
direction of the line.

The motion of a particle travelling with constant velocity can be given as Investigation 12
the equation of a straight line with direction vector v and parameter t
which represents the time from the initial position.

Syllabus sections covered in this chapter:

 SL2.1*
 SL2.3*
 SL2.4*
 SL3.1*
 SL3.5
 SL3.6
 AHL3.10
 AHL3.11
 AHL3.12
 AHL3.13

Cognitive academic language proficiency

The academic language used in this chapter is listed as "microconcepts" at the start of the chapter.
Moreover, when specific terminology is introduced it is defined clearly and then used in context to
deepen students’ understanding.

Cognitive activators

The stimulus questions, developing inquiry skills, before you start activities, investigations and
modelling activities are cognitive activators. They get students ready to learn and engage with the
subject, providing opportunities for collaborative and peer-to-peer learning, and to develop of
inquiry, investigative and modelling skills.

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 Teacher notes

Digital resources

Prior learning Animated worked GDC skills and Additional

support example support exercises
Page 87: Example 1
Page 82: Dividing up Page 100: Example 4
space: coordinate Page 90: Example 2 Pages 85, 95,
geometry, Voronoi Page 106: Example 5 101, 112, 118,
diagrams, vectors, Page 100: Example 4 126
lines Page 124: Example 14
Page 124: Example 14

Assessment opportunities

End of chapter summary Chapter review Exam-style questions

Page 127 Page 130 Page 131

3.1 Coordinate geometry in 2 and 3 dimensions

TOK

Use the fact that the cosine rule is one possible generalization of Pythagoras’ theorem to explore
the concept of “generality”.

Investigation 1
Conceptual understanding:
The properties of shapes depend on the dimension they occupy in space.
The relationships between the length of the sides and the size of the angles in a triangle can be
used to solve many problems involving position, distance, angles and area.


1 B 0, 4, 0 , C 5, 0, 0 , D 5, 0,3 
2 2.5,2,1.5 , 2.5,2,0

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 Teacher notes

x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2
3 , ,
2 2 2

4 a 2.5,2,1.5
b It is the same as the mid-point of [OA] which is what you would expect as the diagonals
meet in the centre of the cuboid.

5 a BC  42  52  51

 
2
b BD  41  32  50

6 BC p2 q2

2
7 BD r2 p2 q2 p2 q2 r2

8 BD  42  52  32  50
2 2 2
9 length = x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1

Justification might be that a cuboid can be constructed between any two points in 3-
dimensional space with lengths of sides equal to the difference between the corresponding pairs
of coordinates. The result from question 6 can then be used to find the length.
Factual: What is the formula for finding the length of the line segment joining
x1 x2 , y1 y2 , z1 z2 ?

x1 x2 y1 y2 z1 z2
Answer: , ,
2 2 2

Factual: What is the formula for finding the distance between x1 x2 , y1 y2 , z1 z2 ?

2 2 2
Answer: distance x2 x1 y2 y1 z2 z1

Conceptual: How are the formulae for distance between 2 points and mid-point of a line
segment in 3 dimensions related to the same formulae in 2 dimensions?
Answer: The properties of shapes depend on the dimension they occupy in space.
The relationships between the length of the sides and the size of the angles in a triangle can
be used to solve many problems involving position, distance, angles and area.

Developing inquiry skills

Look back at the opening problem for the chapter. You were trying to divide the territorial waters

between three islands. The positions of the islands can be modelled as shown:

The lines x = 0, x = 100, y = 0 and y = 80 mark the boundary of international waters and
distances are given in kilometres. The islands are given exclusive fishing rights within these
boundaries with the island closest to a point having the rights at that point.

How can you find the distances between each of the islands?

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 Teacher notes

Answer: The distances between the islands can be found using Pythagoras’ theorem, and are
AB = 63.2 km, AC = 44.7 km, BC= 44.7 km

3.2 The equation of a straight line in 2 dimensions

Investigation 2
Conceptual understanding:
Equations of straight lines can be rearranged into equivalent equations, such as gradient−intercept
form, general form, point−gradient form, all representing the gradient of the line and its position
on the coordinate grid.
1 The gradient is 0.5 whichever points are chosen.

y 3 y 3
2 m or 0.5
x 1 x 1
y y1
3 m
x x1

4 m x x1 y y1 y y1 m x x1

5 y 3 0.5 x 1

6 y 0.5x 2.5

7 x 2y 5 0

Conceptual: What are the three forms of the equation that give the relation between the x-
coordinates and the y-coordinates of all points on a straight line?
Answer: Equations of straight lines can be rearranged into equivalent equations, such as
gradient−intercept form, general form, point−gradient form, all representing the gradient of
the line and its position on the coordinate grid.

Investigation 3
Conceptual understanding:
All points equidistant from two fixed points lie on the perpendicular bisector of the line segment
joining those two points.

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 Teacher notes

3 3 7
1 The perpendicular bisector has equation y  4 
4
 x  3 or y  x 
4 4
3 7
2 The ship has coordinates 7,7   and 7 
4
7 
4

3 SA = SB = 50  7.07 km. The ship is equidistant from the two points.

4 From the diagram it can be seen that the triangles SAC and SBC have one side in common
(SC), and AC = BC as C lies on the perpendicular bisector. Both angles at C must be 90˚ as it is
perpendicular to [AB] and hence we can use Pythagoras to show the lengths SA and SB must
be equal for any point on the perpendicular bisector.

Conceptual: What is the relation between all points on the perpendicular bisector of the line
segment joining two points?
Answer: All points equidistant from two fixed points lie on the perpendicular bisector of the
line segment joining those two points.

Developing inquiry skills

Look back at the opening problem for the chapter. You were trying to divide the territorial waters
between three islands.

1 Find the equations of the perpendicular bisectors between the islands.

2 Find the coordinates of the point where the perpendicular bisectors between A and B and A
and C meet.

Verify that the perpendicular bisector between B and C also passes through this point. Do you
think these lines divide the waters in a fair way? Justify your answer.

Answer: The midpoint between A and B is 50,50 , A and C is 30, 40 and B and C is

60,30 .

Equations of perpendicular bisectors are, y 2x 150 and y 3x 100 (or

x 2y 50 , 2x y 150 , 3x y 100 )

Bisectors meet at 50,50 . This point also lies on the perpendicular bisector of BC, as can be
verified by substituting.

In one sense it is fair as everyone has access to the water closest to them. It could be argued
that it is not fair, as not all islands get the same area. This should only be surmised ‘by eye’ at
this stage.
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 Teacher notes

TOK

Should we use gradient or slope? y = mx + b or y = mx + c or ax + by + c = 0? Does the

language used hinder understanding? How can we deal with this issue?

3.3 Voronoi diagrams

Investigation 4
Conceptual understanding:
The edges of a cell on a Voronoi diagram lie along the perpendicular bisectors of the line segments
joining the points.
1

2 x  4.5
3 Lines shown on the diagram above.
4 It might not be clear which areas need to be shaded so this could lead to a discussion on which
strategies students used to decide.

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 Teacher notes

Conceptual: What can be said about the boundaries of a Voronoi diagram?

Answer: The edges of a cell on a Voronoi diagram lie along the perpendicular bisectors of
the line segments joining the points.

Investigation 5
Conceptual understanding:
The incremental algorithm allows the edges of a Voronoi diagram to be easily found.
1

2 Perpendicular bisector of AC: 4x  3y  4.5

Perpendicular bisector of BC: 4x  y  12.5

They all meet in a single point.

3 and 4

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 Teacher notes

5 Perpendicular bisector of AD: 3x  y  4

Perpendicular bisector of BD: x  y  4

Perpendicular bisector of CD: x  2y  0.5

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 Teacher notes

7 Adding D to the original diagram would have introduced another 3 perpendicular bisectors to an
already crowded diagram and so it would have been difficult to construct the diagram directly.
8 Conceptual: Why is the incremental algorithm used in the construction of a Voronoi diagram?
Answer: The incremental algorithm allows the edges of a Voronoi diagram to be easily
found.

Investigation 6
Conceptual understanding:
The solution to the toxic waste dump problem lies at a vertex of the Voronoi diagram.
1 d The largest circle will pass through three points.
2 a Three edges means there are three regions incident on the vertex. Let the sites in these
regions be A, B and C and the vertex be V. If VA then VB as V lies on the
perpendicular bisector of A and B, similarly VC , and so all three sites are equidistant from
V.
b The distance to each of the points would equal the radius of the circle.
3 If a point D was such that VD < x then V would be closer to D than to A. This is a contradiction
to the statement that V is on the boundary of the cell containing A.
4 Conceptual: Explain how the construction of a Voronoi diagram can lead to a solution of the
toxic waste dump problem.
Answer: The solution to the toxic waste dump problem lies at a vertex of the Voronoi
diagram.

Developing inquiry skills

Look back at the opening problem for the chapter. You were trying to divide the territorial waters
between three islands.

1 Draw the Voronoi diagram showing the regions in which each of the three islands have exclusive
fishing rights.

2 Find the area of each of these regions.

Answer:

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 Teacher notes

2 Voronoi edges meet the boundaries of the diagram at 0,25 , 75, 0 and 60, 80 .
Each area is composed of a triangle and a trapezium.

1 1
A 50 25 30 60 50 2275 km2
2 2
B 3225 km2

C 8000 3225 2275 2500 km2

3.4 Displacement vectors

Investigation 7
Conceptual understanding:
Adding vectors gives the resultant effect of all the vectors acting successively.

7
1 a
6

b−f The student should find that, whichever intermediate points they take, the sum is always
7
.
6

2 a and b Students’ answers will vary.

7
c The sum will always be .
6

d The vector sum will always be equal to the direct vector from the start to the finish point.
Conceptual: What is the geometric meaning of a vector sum?
Answer: Adding vectors gives the resultant effect of all the vectors acting successively.

TOK

A class discussion might include vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This
can be to save a lost sailor or destroy a building with a laser guided bomb. Are either or both
acceptable?

TOK

In how many ways can you prove Pythagoras’ theorem?

Investigation 8
Conceptual understanding:
Vectors can be given as a magnitude and direction or written in component form, and using
component form allows you to find the resultant easily.

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 Teacher notes

1 a

b x2 52 82 2 5 8 cos1050 x 10.5 km

sin sin105
47.50 Bearing is 45+47.5 = 092.5˚
8 10.5

3.54 6.93
c i , ii 10.4 km east, −0.464 km north
3.54 4.0

10.4
iii iv 10.42 0.4642 10.5 km, 90˚+2.5˚=092.5˚
0.464

2 a

30 30.8 39.4 21.4

=
52 84.6 5.2 27.4

Distance = 34.8 m
b It is not intended that students do this question using sine and cosine rules just to
appreciate that as the number of vectors increases it very quickly becomes more difficult to just
use the lengths of the lines and the angles. Some might realize that they can create right-
angled triangles which is an equivalent method to find the components.
Factual: How can you represent vectors?
Answer: Vectors can be represented by giving their magnitude and direction or using
component form.
Conceptual: Which representation is easier to use to find a resultant?
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 Teacher notes

Answer: Vectors can be given as a magnitude and direction or written in component form,
and using component form allows you to find the resultant easily.

3.5 The scalar and vector product

Investigation 9
Conceptual understanding:
The scalar product can be used to find the angle between two vectors.

1
 
1 a AB   3 
 5 
 
2 2
b a  1  4  9  14 b  4  25  4  33 AB2  1  9  25  35

1
c
2
14  33  35  6
d 6
e The result is the same as that evaluated in part d.

 a1  æ b1 ö 2 2 2
2 Given a=    and b= ç ÷ then a = a1 a22 and b = b12 b22
 a2  èb ø 2

2 2
Because AB is b a then AB2= b1 a1 b2 a2

1 2 2 1 2 2
a b AB2 a2 a22 b12 b22 b1 a1 b2 a2
2 2 1
When the right hand side is expanded you get

1 2
a a22 b12 b22 b12 2a1b1 a12 b22 2a2b2 a22
2 1

Cancelling gives a1b1 a2b2 ab

3 A similar method for a three-dimensional vector gives a∙b = a1b1 a2b2 a3b3

4 a The length AB can be found using the cosine rule.

2 2
AB2 a b 2 a b cos and rearranged to give the required form

1 2 2
a b cos a b AB2
2

a1b1 a2 b2 a1b1 a2b2 a3b3

cos cos
b a b a b

1 2
i 2 6 4
5 2 3

a 12 22 5 and b 22 32 13

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 Teacher notes

4
cos so 60.3o
5 13

2 3
ii 0 2 6 8 14
4 2

14
cos so 139.4o
20 17
6 a 0 b The vectors are perpendicular.
7 Conceptual: What can the scalar product be used to find?
Answer: The scalar product can be used to find the angle between two vectors.

TOK

Here is an explanation from Peter Webb.

All laws for vector arithmetic must have a specific property, being that the answer to any vector
arithmetic question must be independent of how you lay out the axis.

You can add two vectors by putting the tail of one on the head of the other and forming a triangle.
I am sure you have done this many times. You don’t need to lay out a set of axis to do this. It’s
purely geometric. If you want to do this algebraically, you can lay down some x-y axes and
calculate (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d). But it doesn’t matter how you lay down the axes, you
get different numbers, but the resulting vector (the sum of the two vectors) is always the same.

There is an excellent reason why vector arithmetic has to be independent of the axis you select.
Nature doesn’t have axes, they are a human invention, so things in physics have to be
independent of coordinate systems. And physics is believed to be isotropic − rotating an
experiment should not affect an outcome, but it does affect the coordinate axes, so the layout of
the coordinate system can’t matter.

If you follow these rules, you have two choices about how vector multiplication in 2D space works.
You can define multiplication as being a dot product which produces a scalar (a number), or the
cross product which gives another vector perpendicular to the plane.

If you want vector arithmetic to model real physics, then the rules have to be independent of the
coordinate system, and the dot and cross product are the only versions of multiplication that work,
i.e. are independent of the (arbitrary) choice of axes. They are the only ones which are
independent of the axes and hence can model real physics.

Investigation 10
Conceptual understanding:
The vector product of two vectors represents a vector perpendicular to the two vectors.

5
7
1
4

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 Teacher notes

2 In each case the vector product is 0, which means it is perpendicular to each of the two
vectors.
3 The verification will also give 0.
Verifying part 4 will prove that the conjecture is always true.

a2 b3 b2 a3 a1
4 The scalar product
a1b3 b1a3 a2 =0
a1b2 b1a2 a3

5 Conceptual: What can you say about the direction of the vector product of two vectors?
Answer: The vector product of two vectors represents a vector perpendicular to the two
vectors.

International-mindedness

Bigha − India

Mou − China

Feddan − Egypt

Rai − Thailand

Tsubo − Japan

3.6 Vector equations of lines

TOK

Why are the symbolic representations of 3D shapes easier to work with than the actual drawings?

What does this tell us about our knowledge of mathematics in other dimensions?

Investigation 11
Conceptual understanding:

The equation of a line r  a  bt is defined by the vectors a and b where a is the position vector
of a point on the line and b is a vector in the direction of the line.

1 OC  OA  2AB

1 2 1 2 1 2

2 OA     0   OB     1   OD     1  
3 1 3 1 3 1

1 2
3 Any point P on the line can be written as OP     t   for some value of t.
3 1

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 Teacher notes

 2
4 The vector from A to any point not on the line will not be parallel to   and hence cannot be
1
written in this form.

5 Values of s are: A s  1 , B s  0 , C s  1 , D s  2

6 Factual: What is the vector equation of a line in symbols?

Answer: r  a  bt

7 Conceptual: How do we express the vector equation of a line in word?

Answer: The equation of a line r  a  bt is defined by the vectors a and b where a is the
position vector of a point on the line and b is a vector in the direction of the line.

TOK

A good class discussion as students might be more confident with previously encountered work.

Investigation 12
Conceptual understanding:
The motion of a particle travelling with constant velocity can be given as the equation of a straight
line with direction vector v and parameter t which represents the time from the initial position.
1 a After one hour the boat will be at point B with position vector
5 2 3
1 .
1 1 2

b After two hours it will be at point C with position vector

5 2 1
2
1 1 3

5 2
c r t
1 1

2 a x-coordinate will be 0 b t 2.5

3 a x is negative, y is positive and x y b 5 2t 1 t t 6

4 Conceptual: How can the motion of a particle travelling with constant velocity be expressed
and what do the variables stand for in this representation?
Answer: The motion of a particle travelling with constant velocity can be given as the
equation of a straight line with direction vector v and parameter t which represents the time
from the initial position.
Reflect: How might you find the least distance between two objects each moving with constant
velocity?
How might you find the time when the bearing of one object to another, is in a given direction?
Answer: The relative position of B from A can be used to find the distance between A and B
and the direction they are relative to each other.

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 Teacher notes

Developing inquiry skills

Look back at the opening problem for the chapter. You were trying to divide the territorial waters
between three islands.

Island A feels it is not getting a fair allocation of the area. An alternative is proposed whereby
instead of the previous area it can have exclusive fishing rights for all of the region within 35 km
of the centre of the island, including the international waters, except where this would overlap with
an area closer to one of the other islands.

Vector methods will be used to find the area of this region.

a Use the diagram to write down the vector equations of the three perpendicular bisectors
from the opening problem.

Let P and Q be the points on the perpendicular bisectors of [AB] and [AC] which are 35 km from A
and on the edges of the Voronoi diagram.

b Find the vectors AP and AQ .

c Show the new region in which A has exclusive fishing rights on the diagram.

d Use the scalar product to find angle QAP.

e Find the area of the region in which island A has exclusive fishing rights.

Answer: This is a tricky problem so should be regarded as an extension question for the able
students.

Let point (50,50) be M

50 1 50 2 50 1
a r t , r t and r t
50 3 50 1 50 2

(other forms are possible, in particular students might use the midpoints as the fixed point in the
equation)

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 Teacher notes

50 1 50 2
r t , r t
50 3 50 1

Let the two points be P and Q

50 t 20 30 t 2 2
AP so AP 35 30 t 10 3t
50 3t 60 10 3t

t 4.74...

Note: there are 2 solutions but only one is on the edge of the Voronoi diagram.

34.74 50 2t 20 30 2t
AP and AQ
4.23 50 t 60 10 t
2 2
AQ 35 30 2t 10 t so t 22.04...

Note: there are 2 solutions but only one is on the edge of the Voronoi diagram.

14.08
AQ
32.04

c The region bounded by the line Q to (50.50), from (50,50) to P and the major arc of the
circle.

d Angle between AP and AQ

615.5
arccos 120.2 or 2.10 radians
1224 1224

1
e Area of sector = 1224 2 2.10 2560
2

30
Use of vector product to find area of two triangles: AM
10

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 Teacher notes

1 14.08 30 1
AQ AM 94370 485.7
2 32.04 10 2

1 34.74 30 1
AP AM 136790 184.9
2 4.23 10 2

Total area 3230 km2

Real-life Voronoi
Approaches to Learning: Thinking Skills: Evaluate, Critiquing, Applying
Exploration Criteria: Presentation (A), Personal engagement, (C) Use of mathematics (E)
IB Topic: Voronoi Diagrams
In this task students will be asked to create their own problem that can be answered using Voronoi
diagrams. They are asked to take inspiration from the world around them, perhaps linking it to one
of their subjects, their services or activities, their hobbies or interests. Students will need to clearly
state the aim and context for their exploration. The rationale will help to demonstrate the personal
engagement (Criterion C) of looking at a topic that is obviously relevant to a student.
Voronoi diagrams

In the examples, investigations and exercises in the chapter students have seen some of the
potential uses of Voronoi diagrams and the types of problems they can solve.
Distance:

From the chapter students may consider the three farmhouses that are to be powered by wind
where a new wind turbine is to be placed at the point equidistant from the 3 farms or ‘the Toxic
waste problem’.
Area:

From the chapter students could consider the three schools problem where children go to the
school that is closest to their home when measured by a direct line and an estate agent wishes to
construct a diagram, which shows in which school’s catchment area a house lies.
Questions from the chapter can provide inspiration when students are creating their own
questions.
Exploration

The aim is essential as it clearly states what students are going to complete in their exploration
and a rationale will provide a context for why they have chosen a particular area of study.
Choosing something that they are genuinely interested in studying and finding out more about is
likely to make the exploration more successful for students.
Listing potentially interesting areas will be very useful when students actually have to decide what
to do for their exploration using any mathematics topic. Encourage students to keep this list safe
for use later.
Possible areas of interest could be, for example:
 School subjects you are most passionate about
 Particular areas you have studied in your subjects that have inspired you
 The service(s) you are involved in
 Activities you do in school and outside school
 Hobbies, games, sports you play
 Areas of interest you read about or watch regularly
 Careers or university courses you are interested in entering.

If needed, you could hint at the above suggestions.

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 Teacher notes

For example:

A student who is involved in an animal conservation-based service could choose to model and
analyse the territories of a chosen animal.
Beekeepers may use Voronoi diagrams because knowing the location of other beehives can be
useful to prevent overcrowding as each beehive needs sufficient territory to survive.
Or

A student who is considering studying business when they leave school could have an interest in
retail as so could choose to analyse the placement of a new shop in their hometown.
Other examples are:
 Urban planning, anthropology/history, cartography, urban settlement patterns, ecology,
chemistry (crystal growth)

When writing their aim and context for their choice, make sure that students think about the
region in which the Voronoi diagram is going to be drawn should be defined.
You do not want a problem with too many points!
Even if students do not go on to solve the problem, the process of thinking about what they could
study and what needs to be considered when writing an aim and rationale is a very useful
exercise.
Extension

This will require students to do a little research as it is not covered in the chapter. However, it is a
useful application that may be more suitable for the type of problem that students have devised
for themselves.

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