A-Level psychology

update
Spring / Summer 2024 Issue 4

Contents:
IN THE SPOTLIGHT ANITA BAKER
THE PSYCHOLOGIST WILHELM WUNDT
RESEARCH BITES WHEN FACES TURN DEMONIC
BODY LANGUAGE HOW DO I LOOK?
SKILLS COMPARING APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY
COMPETITION JOIN IN!
CULTURE BIAS COMPETITION WINNERS
AQA & OCR SPECIFICATIONS MODEL ESSAY
CHALLENGE KNOW YOUR TERMS
TEST YOURSELF QUANTITATIVE SKILLS
WRITING EFFECTIVE EVALUATION
www.tutor2u.net/psychology
 SPOTLIGHT ANITA BAKER
WORKING IN THE MEDICAL PROFESSION
Psychology is one of the subjects that can help people prepare for
working in medical roles, such as nursing, research, and therapy.
In this section, we talk to Anita Baker, who has worked in multiple
roles across the NHS, to find out what it’s really like to work in the
medical profession.

Hi Anita, thanks for joining us and letting us ask questions on behalf of all Psychology students!
Q: Anita, you have had a varied career in the NHS. What roles have you had and how did you get started?
A: When I was younger, I wanted to work in physiotherapy, but at the time I needed to get a job before starting any training, so I started work at
Walton Hospital as an Auxiliary nurse. I absolutely loved it and thought about working as a nurse instead of a physiotherapist. There was an advert
in the Liverpool Echo to do your nurse training at Broadgreen Hospital and it was in a couple of months, so off I went for the interview. I remember
my car broke down on the way, but I managed to fix it myself because my dad had taught me everything about cars. I managed to get to the
interview on time, but a little bit oily! I started my nurse training in 1978 and never looked back.
Q: How did you progress in your career?
A: I started on a surgical ward when I qualified and I loved the psychological side of supporting patients who were going to surgery, informing the
patients about everything, and preparing them for their recovery. This was when I decided to do my mental health training. I did my RMN training,
so I’m also a Registered Mental Health nurse as well as a general nurse, and I found having a mental health background so helpful to my general
nursing. I specialised in drug and alcohol abuse and that led me to work in A&E, where I used my mental health training so much. People were
acutely ill from cardiac issues, and respiratory issues, amongst other things. Many people were experiencing mental health issues, and I felt
that I could just give that extra care to them, and their relatives. The anxiety of having somebody critically ill in Resus was distressing and I could
look after them and felt that I was a good support. I was involved in a lot of cases where people had attempted suicide. From this I became a
specialised nurse in Intensive Care, and then a Matron, then Nurse Manager. I retired at 60 but came back 3 months later as a bereavement nurse.
Q: Are there any cases or days that stand out to you?
A: Each day was full of all sorts of emotions, but also very thrilling. One of the things I always remember is a lady who was only 43. She was very
sick and had to be ventilated because she had choked on a chicken bone. As the chicken bone went down, it ripped open her oesophagus and
she became incredibly poorly. At one stage, her heart stopped so we had to rip her chest open there and then. When the surgeons arrived we
took her to the operating theatre with me, pumping her heart to keep it going until we managed to stop some of the bleeding. She recovered,
and then she invited me to her wedding!
Q: How did you support people when someone was not going to survive?
A: I nursed children in intensive care too. There were some sick children with meningococcal meningitis or children who had been knocked over or
near drowning, and they all got better. But sadly, many people didn’t make it, so that was really sad. At that point, it is important to ensure that we
are looking after the parents and making people who are dying, or who have the last few days of life left, as comfortable as possible for them and
their families, because that’s what they remember. We always say you only get one chance, and that always rings in my ears. One chance and
if we mess it up, this could affect the patient and their family for the rest of their lives. They will always remember their loved one dying and the
other thing I always, always remember from training is to treat everyone as if it’s your mum, your dad, your brother, your son, your daughter, and
you can’t go wrong then.
Q: I am sure no two days were the same in your role, but you must have had some scary and stressful
times yourself.
A: Absolutely. I came out of retirement to return to work during the COVID-19 pandemic. Well, you just couldn’t comprehend it.
It all seems so surreal. It was a horrendous time. We didn’t know what we were facing, and we were learning and adapting
day by day. I helped to set up and then worked on the CPAP unit which was high dependency. We learned an awful
lot from other countries, and they were two or three weeks ahead of us with their pandemic experience. So, our
consultant spoke regularly to the doctors over there on Teams and Zoom meetings and told us what to do
and what not to do, which was the main thing. For example, don’t just put everybody on a ventilator,
which then meant that we had to become selective about who got a ventilator. That felt like
playing God, , but it was eased by all the physicians in the UK agreeing on an eligibility
criteria that we had to stick to. So, it’s not just ‘if you live in one area, you get
a ventilator and if you live in another, you don’t’.

2 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

 There was a strong set of criteria and at times it was heartbreaking to implement. We asked patients whether they wanted to be ventilated
because most patients never came off ventilators at the beginning, but as we got better and better at coping with the pandemic and treating
people, we did get people better and we had fewer deaths. We knew what the optimal settings for the ventilators were for treating COVID-19,
what pressures, and what modes, and we knew what drugs to use, such as Dexamethasone and Tocilizumab.
Q: What was your experience of supporting families when their loved ones were ill in hospital?
A: T hey were and still are very traumatic times. Families couldn’t come in to visit their loved ones who were ill or dying. We are used to people
being with their loved ones when they died, we had to use iPads and we held them so that their loved ones at home could see their mum, dad,
son, daughter, and so on. We tried to enable them so that they could say their goodbyes and talk to them as they were dying. And we had all
the knitted hearts and we had twin hearts, where one heart went with the patient, and the other one we posted to the relatives after it had been
quarantined for seven days in a sealed bag. We had all that to deal with on top of the medical care. We used to ask the patients or the families
‘What is something that they would like’? One gentleman who had COVID just wanted to get his wife some flowers and chocolates. One of the
consultants arranged for flowers to be delivered to the front of the hospital. We let her come in towards the end, and while he was dying she got
into bed with him.We used to have disclaimers for families who were desperate to come in. They would sign a disclaimer, accepting responsibility
that if they got COVID, it was at their own risk, so that was sad. If I was looking after somebody who we tried everything for, and we couldn’t
get them better, we had to strip them of the equipment and put them in a side room. It was our privilege then to sit with them and hold their
hand, and the family could see us with them virtually via the iPads. We were all in PPE. We had masks, visors, helmets, and special respiratory
equipment, and all-in-one suits. It was tough working conditions, but you just got on with it. We had no choice. We didn’t know what lay ahead
and we thought it would be for a couple of weeks, possibly a month.
Q: How do you cope when dealing with tricky or difficult patients?
A: T here were also a lot of anti-vaccine people who came in during the pandemic, and we had to treat them just as much as people who had the
vaccine. That could have been an ethical dilemma, but we treat everyone the same, just like when we have a road traffic accident where the
driver might be drunk and had hit someone. We must treat them just as much as the victims of the incident. We often looked after prisoners who
had tried to take their own life. They were handcuffed to the bed, but we had to treat them with dignity and respect as we would anyone else.
We’re not there to judge and we were never told what the prisoners had done because they thought it may cloud our judgement and affect the
way we cared for them.
Q: Can you tell us more about your work with those who have experienced bereavement, and what traits
you need to work in such a role?
A: I did this for five years, making sure people at ‘end of life’ stages were getting everythig we could offer them, that families were supported, or
offered mementos. People were so grateful for being looked after post-bereavement, such as the support we gave to people who could not afford
funeral costs or were left worrying about where they would live. For example, when someone’s mum died, an additional stressor was that the
mum was the rent holder, so we had to speak to the Council about not evicting people. Some people we supported were young students, and we
had to speak with their education providers, such as universities, and explain why they couldn’t focus or complete their dissertations. We used to
write to the university as proof that they needed an extension due to grief caused by bereavement and it was very challenging. I would have loved
to bring their loved one back, but I just had to help them with any part of their grief. I helped them build coping mechanisms and set up some
bereavement groups. Some of the hardest but most rewarding times were when I supported parents who had lost, or who were losing their
child. They would continue to come to the hospital every day and I used to meet them at the Mortuary to nurse their child or baby, just so that
they could have a little cuddle each day until the funeral. I would help them get through inquests, which was massive. Everyone who dies
under the age of 18 has an inquest unless the cause of death is a long-term illness. For example, the sudden unexpected death of a child
goes to the coroner and there is an inquiry. That sometimes can be six months to a year after the loss and supporting them during that
time and at the inquest was challenging. I also worked with Survivors of Death by Suicide, a charity that supports families who have
had a loss via suicide. Parents/guardians feel like they failed their child. They ask themselves, ‘Could we have done more?’
Q: How do you cope with all the stress you have experienced as part of your roles?
A: Y ou can imagine some sad cases where you lose your patient and then must tell the families and prepare them to
leave the hospital without their loved ones. We used to see them off the premises and make sure they were OK,
and then come back and just get on with the next admission because that’s how it was. We never had time to
reflect, but we all used to go and get changed and grab a few seconds for a chat whilst we changed scrubs
or got ready to go home. The pastoral care was good and obviously, we needed it, but we sort of just got
on with it. To keep our registration, nurses have to keep a portfolio and include at least 5 reflections, so I
used to write a lot a few days after a case, such as what I could have done better or what I did well.
Nursing is a science but it’s also an art. You can be putting someone on dialysis one moment,
and altering settings on a ventilator to adjust to different pressures of the blood gases the
next moment. I could be braiding a patient’s hair and preparing for them for family
visits or saving someone in a life-threatening situation.

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 3
Q: What skills do students need if they are thinking of going to study nursing, after completing their
Psychology course?
A: P ersonality. I think you must be quite outgoing. In some ways, you need to be able to express yourself and be confident, but not
overconfident. As a nurse especially in bereavement work, you must be a good listener. Sometimes you want to interrupt people because
they can’t think of a word to describe how they feel, but you need to let them come up with that word themselves. You must be comfortable
asking questions but give them lots of time to answer. Being skilled in asking open questions is massive. Do not just say things like ‘hope
you’re feeling better’ or ‘Are you feeling better?’ Questions must encourage people to talk, elaborate, and open up. For example, ‘How are
you feeling compared to last week?’ and ‘What changes do you feel are going through your mind?’
Q: Some students might think that high grades in Psychology will make you a great fit for a medical
role. Do you agree?
A: K nowledge and grades are important, as is experience. However, empathy and personable skills are vital. I always feel it’s a job for
somebody that has got life experience. Although you don’t disclose personal information to patients or relatives, if you have had personal
losses yourself, the families you look after can tell that you have empathy. A lot of times, when it’s somebody who is a similar age to me,
they will ask if I have still got my mum or dad, and when I say no, they feel a bit of a bond with me and take comfort in that despite my
losses, I have managed to cope. I can’t emphasise enough how important it is to treat people with patience and respect, as if they were your
family member. Don’t be judgmental. Everyone is an individual, especially in grief. Some people cry and some don’t. Just because people
aren’t crying doesn’t mean to say that they’re not hurting inside.
Q: Psychology plays a crucial role when solving problems, communicating with patients and families
and many more areas. Has this been the case in your career?
A: D efinitely! Psychology can help you empathise, understand people and situations. A background in psychology will be an asset for anyone
who wants to work in the health and nursing industry. Sometimes there are complaints about the communication of some nurses and other
medical staff, which only highlights how important and how valued it is by patients and families. Psychology will also give you the tools and
knowledge you need to put yourself in other people’s shoes. It will help you be reflective too. My mental health training has helped me. You
study lots of aspects of mental health and you get to understand people’s emotions and coping mechanisms, and the training has helped
me in all aspects of my career. With the suicide cases, I could understand what their loved one must have been going through because I
had nursed people with suicidal tendencies. My mental health background and experience do help to understand what the loved one who
took their own life was going through or felt at the time. I can’t emphasise enough how important it is to listen to people. You cannot make it
all about your views, or what advice you want to give to them. Let them have their moment, let them talk. Sometimes, one of the big things
when people needed to talk about their bereavement was that they wanted to understand the illness. For example, they didn’t understand
myocardial infarction, or cerebral vascular accidents, or whatever it said on the death certificate. I would spend hours with them and at the
end of it, although I felt I hadn’t done anything, I’d listened and by allowing them the time to talk, they would process the whole thing a lot
better. We would talk about coping strategies when significant dates come around, like the first Christmas without their loved one. So there
is a lot of psychology in doing all aspects of the roles.
Q: What would you say to any students who are thinking about working in the medical profession?
A: V oluntary work can be a great way to stand out from others and prepare for working in the medical profession. I used to do voluntary
roles. One of them was as a Veteran champion, because my son is in the Royal Navy. We used to look after families because of things
like PTSD, or where they had developed a drinking problem or depression. Now that I have retired, I have kept on as a Veteran champion
and I look after the Veteran garden which is nice. If you are thinking of working in the medical profession, you need to be caring
and empathetic, and you need to have a lot of patience and not judge people. For example, mental illness is an illness.
If somebody said, ‘I’ve had a heart attack’ some people are more sympathetic to that than if someone is diagnosed
with depression or addiction. Working in the profession, you cannot hold those beliefs. There are a lot of things to
consider when you’re looking after somebody, and you must always treat everyone with dignity and respect.

4 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

 THE PSYCHOLOGIST:
WILHELM WUNDT
One of the psychologists that you may study or be
familiar with is Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). He is
known as the father of experimental psychology,
and credited for moving Psychology away from
philosophy, and towards the realms of science.

After studying medicine, he worked as a physiologist at Heidelberg University and

later at Leipzig University. While at Heidelberg, he delivered the first university course
on scientific psychology and went on to write the first textbook on psychology,
‘Principles of Physiological Psychology’.
In 1879, at Leipzig University, he set up the first contrast, the work of Wundt was conducted under strict,
laboratory dedicated to experimental psychology. controlled conditions, adding scientific credibility.
He separated psychology from philosophy and was Wundt’s use of introspection inspired others to apply it
the first person to be referred to as a ‘psychologist’. to more complex mental processes, such as learning,
Long before there was the development of paradigms like language, and emotion. This required the researchers to
Behaviourism, Humanism, and Cognitive Neuroscience, exert less control over the way that introspection took
Wundt offered an insight into the human mind and place, however, it soon became clear that introspection
thoughts. His approach became known as structuralism, was not a reliable method for finding out about mental
simply because he used experimental methods to find states since we can only report a fragment of what
the basic building blocks (structures) of thought and we are thinking and often have little awareness of the
investigate how they interacted. Whilst Wundt and processes that influence our decisions. Additionally, any
his research did involve some subjectivity, he took recollections and reports after introspection were biased
an experimental approach to study sensation and and influenced by subjectivity.
perception, breaking participants’ observations of objects, As a result of the issues that emerged with the work of
images, and events down into constituent parts in the Wundt, a new way of thinking emerged: Behaviourism. By
same way that an anatomist would study a body, trying 1913, Watson was able to argue that introspection should
to find its constituent parts and how they interact. play no part in scientific psychology and Behaviourism
At first, he did this by studying reaction time, which we now became the dominant approach in psychology. In contrast
understand to be an interval level of measurement and is to Wundt, Behaviourists like Watson, Skinner, and Pavlov,
regarded as scientific. Wundt systematically changed the aimed to use experimental methods and lab studies to
stimuli he presented to participants and measured how long break behaviour into parts and study them separately.
it took them to respond - inferring that the longer it took to Much further along the psychology timeline and paradigm
respond, the more mental processes must be involved. This shifts, introspection gained a new lease of life when the
experimental approach was a far cry from the assumptions Cognitive approach realised that it could give reliable
and theories of philosophers like Aristotle. insight into higher mental processes if controlled very
In Wundt’s later work, he developed a process called carefully. Valuable inferences have been made from diary
introspection, a technique that he taught to participants, studies, where people have been asked to report specific
so he could learn more about mental processes and details at regular intervals during a day or whenever a
insight. Introspection refers to observing and examining specific event such as forgetting a name takes place.
your conscious thoughts and emotions. Overall, the contributions of Wundt to psychology are
Before Wundt, introspection had been used by fundamental to the subject and paved the way for
philosophers to study how new ideas are created. In psychology to become a science.

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 5
RESEARCH BITES:
When faces turn demonic

A case of prosopometamorphopsia

A fascinating piece of research published in the journal, ‘The Lancet’, reports the case study of a 58-year-
old man who, for almost three years, has been seeing peoples’ faces as distorted and ‘demonic’. The patient
described the distortions as stretching of the face with deep grooves on the forehead, cheeks, and chin, and
the patient claims that these features were present on every person’s face he encountered in real life (but not
when viewing faces on a screen or paper).
The patient had a medical history of bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, a significant head injury at age 43
that required hospitalisation, and possible carbon monoxide poisoning at age 55, around 4 months before the onset of
his symptoms. He was not taking any medications and did not use illegal substances.
Brain MRI scans revealed a round lesion, approximately 1 cm in size, on the patient’s left hippocampus. However, the
internal anatomy of this important brain structure was preserved. This lesion was not thought to be responsible for the
patient’s symptoms as this area of the brain is not linked to visual processing.
Since the patient did not experience distortions when viewing facial images, he was asked to compare an in-person
face with a photograph of the same face taken under identical lighting conditions, in the same room. By alternating
between the live face (perceived as distorted) and the undistorted photograph on a computer screen, he provided real-
time feedback on any perception differences. The researchers then used image-editing software to modify each photo
until it matched the patient’s distorted in-person perception.
Based on the patient’s description of his visual perception and neuropsychological assessment, the researchers
concluded that he had prosopometamorphopsia, a rare neurological disorder in which faces appear distorted in shape,
texture, position, or colour. Typically, these distortions occur consistently, whether viewing faces in person, on a screen,
or in print, making it difficult for patients to assess the accuracy of illustrations depicting their abnormal perceptions,
as the illustrations themselves would appear distorted.

6 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

Prosopometamorphopsia can arise from various causes, including head trauma, stroke, epilepsy, migraine, and
hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder, but it can also manifest without detectable structural brain changes.
In this case, the patient’s unusual case, combined with computer software, enabled the researchers to generate
photorealistic visualisations of the distortions he experienced, which they believed had not been accomplished
before for anyone with this unique condition.
Reference:
Visualising facial distortions in prosopometamorphopsia
https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(24)00136-3/fulltext (accessed 27.3.24)

Answer the following questions using your knowledge of Psychology.

1. This research is a case study. What is meant by a case study?

2. Why is a case study an appropriate method to use in this research?

3. The researchers note that the cyst on the hippocampus is unlikely to be the cause of the patient’s condition,
but what is the hippocampus responsible for?

4. The researchers compared an in-person face with a photograph of the same face taken under identical lighting
conditions in the same room. Why was it important for the researchers to use identical lighting conditions?

5. Why might it be difficult to generalise the findings of this case study to others with this condition?

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 7
BODY LANGUAGE:
What is it? Body language refers to communication through
movements such as facial expressions, gestures, eye contact,
and personal space. It is often called ‘nonverbal communication’
so it is distinguished from ‘verbal communication’.

How we say something is also called ‘paralinguistics’ and this refers

to the tone, volume, and pitch we use when we speak. It also refers
to the emphasis and intonation of words when we speak.
For example, if someone denies that they are lying, but does so
in a high-pitched voice, it could suggest guilt.

We often misinterpret what people say on a text message. Imagine

you text your friend and ask them what they have been doing
at the weekend, and they reply, ‘Not much’. Without more
information, this could be interpreted irrationally.
Verbal communication...
Have they fallen out with me? Is something wrong
...what we say.
with them? Do they not want to speak to me?
Non-verbal We can make these inaccurate interpretations because
communication... we have no body language to accompany the message.
...how we say something We cannot see their facial expressions or hear their voice.
and the movements we make. This demonstrates the importance of nonverbal communication,
in contrast to verbal communication alone.

8 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

HOW DO I LOOK?
What might someone notice about me? Body language is an essential part of our
communication, and it shows our feelings, attitudes, and moods. Being good at understanding body
language can make conversations better, put people at ease, and make you stand out in situations
like job interviews.
For example, imagine you are going to a job interview in a very formal place, with a panel of people
who are judging your suitability for a role. They will listen to what you say (verbal communication) but
they will also listen to how you say it (paralinguistics). They will also be looking at your eye contact,
use of gestures, and whether your posture is open, closed, trustworthy, or not.
Posture Open body language is relaxed and conveys acceptance and comfort. In contrast, closed
body language can be perceived as aggressive or defensive. For example, imagine you are in a
job interview. You sit with your arms crossed whilst answering the questions. This is closed body
language and conveys a rather antisocial message. If you sit with your arms uncrossed and use
some animation of the hands, you can transform yourself into someone who is engaging and friendly.
You may also start to notice postural echo, which is when people mirror each other’s posture and
body language. This tends to happen when people are interested in each other or getting on well in
a social interaction.
Eye contact When we talk with someone and are face to face with them, eye contact is a powerful
tool. It aids communication and conveys when someone has finished speaking, or whether someone has
something they want to say. Researchers found that when people were placed in a group and asked to
discuss a topic, they performed much better when they did not wear blindfolds, compared to when they
did wear blindfolds. The conclusion was that the lack of eye contact disrupted the flow of communication.
The amount of eye contact you show someone can also send various messages. It is well known that eye contact is a way
to signal attraction to someone and that our pupils can enlarge due to an increase in adrenaline. However, the amount of
eye contact you show someone can make a difference in how you come across. Very little eye contact or rapid eye contact
(looking away a lot) can make you appear nervous, suspicious, or uninterested. In contrast, too much eye contact (for
example, very rarely breaking eye contact with someone) can be intimidating or alarming! There is an optimum level of eye
contact that helps with signalling attraction, however, the same rules about eye contact apply in most situations!
Researchers have found that eye contact, open body language, and postural echo are all effective ways of increasing tips from
customers in places such as restaurants. They found that when waiters/waitresses used closed body language and stood next
to the table when interacting with their customers, tips were lower in comparison to when they sat at the customer’s table or
lowered themselves to the eye line of the customer. Watch out for this use of body language next time you go out or go to work!

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 9
 COMPARING APPROACHES
IN PSYCHOLOGY
One of the key skills you need as a student is the ability to make comparisons
between approaches, as well as other theories and methodologies. Let’s focus
on psychological approaches.
This refers to your ability to identify similarities and differences between approaches in psychology. For example,
what similarities and differences are there between the biological approach and the cognitive approach? What
similarities and differences are there between humanistic psychology and the behaviourist approach?
To demonstrate this skill, you must have a good understanding of the A01 and A03 of each approach, so that you
have the foundations to form effective comparisons.

Evaluation & Comparison with

Issues, Debates & Approaches

Evaluation: Use the issues and debates to evaluate the different approaches.
Free Will vs. Determinism Nature vs. Nurture Reductionism vs. Holism Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Scientific
h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h
h

Biological Biological Determinism

Behaviour is controlled
by internal biological factors
Nature
Behaviour is the result of
innate biological factors
Biological Reductionism
Behaviour is broken down
into biological structures/
Nomothetic
Creates universal laws, as
humans share similar
Scientific
The biological approach promotes
scientific methods of investigation
(e.g. genes, hormones, (e.g. genes, hormones, processes. physiologies. (e.g. brain imaging).
h

neurotransmitters, etc). neurotransmitters, etc).

Behaviourist Environmental Determinism Nurture Environmental Reductionism Nomothetic Scientific

h

Behaviour is controlled Humans are born as a tabula Behaviour is broken down Creates universal laws, as The behaviourist approach utilises
by stimulus-response rasa (blank slate) and into simple stimulus-response behaviour is the result of scientific methods of investigation
conditioning. behaviour is learned. associations. stimulus-response (e.g. laboratory experiments
associations. and animal research).
h

Social Learning Determinism (Soft)

Behaviour is controlled by
Nurture
Behaviour is learnt from
Partially Reductionist
This approach shares elements
Nomothetic
Attempts to establish general
Mostly Scientific
Utilises scientific methods
h

Theory environmental forces. However,

humans have personal
responsibility and free choice.
observation and vicarious
reinforcement.
of both the behaviourist and
cognitive approach.
laws of behaviour (e.g. vicarious
reinforcement).
but also takes into account
mediational processes.
h

Cognitive Determinism (Soft)

Behaviour is controlled by
mediational processes; however,
Nature & Nurture
Behaviour is the product of
information processing and
Experimental Reductionism
Behaviour is investigated in
terms of isolated variables
Nomothetic & Idiographic
Attempts to establish general
laws of cognitive processing but
Mostly Scientific
Utilises scientific methods of
investigation; however, researchers
h

humans can choose what modified by experience. (e.g. capacity of STM). utilises an idiographic approach are unable to directly observe
information they attend to. with case studies. cognitive processes.

Psychodynamic Psychic Determinism Mostly Nature Reductionism & Holism Nomothetic & Idiographic Not Scientific
h

Behaviour is determined by Behaviour is the product of Behaviour is reduced to innate Attempts to establish general Examines many concepts/
unconscious drives and early innate drives, but shaped by drives, while taking into account laws in relation to innate drives, theories which cannot be
childhood experiences. early childhood experiences. the multiple aspects of human while considering unique empirically tested. Relies on
h

behaviour. experience (during childhood). subjective interpretation.

Humanist Free Will Mostly Nurture Holism Idiographic Not Scientific

h

Humans control their own Behaviour is shaped by the Focuses on understanding Focuses on the subjective Rejects scientific methods
environment and are capable environment as humans strive all aspects of human experience human experience and makes and is therefore unable to provide
of change. to achieve self-actualisation. and interaction. no attempt to create general laws. empirical evidence.
h

Comparison: Compare and contrast the different approaches, using issues and debates.

If you’re
studying

Another way to plan your comparisons is to use Venn diagrams. You can see in the example provided, that similarities
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@tutor2uPsych overlap. You can also
www.tutor2u.net/psychology
see that the differences are in the outer circles.

Have a go at taking one similarity, and one difference between these two approaches and
write them as thorough discussion. You can explore the points more, but make sure that you:
a Use appropriate language, such as ‘whereas’, ‘in contrast to’, or ‘similarly’
to demonstrate that you are drawing comparisons.
b Avoid the temptation to offer A01 detail that is not relevant.

10 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

 1
Both approaches have
Psychodynamic had good implications for Humanistic
society. Psychodynamic approach
Approach has led to the development of Approach
• The approach focuses psychoanalysis treatment, • The approach focuses on
on what is ‘wrong’ with us, whilst Humanism has led how people can improve,
and our ‘sickness’. to the development of person grow, and achieve
centred therapies. self-actualisation.
• The approach is criticised
for gender bias, and 2 • The approach is criticised
assuming that males Both approaches are criticised for culture bias, assuming
are the benchmark for for lacking scientific credibility that all cultures aim for
‘normal’ development. because they both rely on self-actualisation when
concepts that are subjective this is not the case.
and not testable.

One similarity between the psychodynamic and humanistic approach is:

One difference between the psychodynamic and humanistic approach is:

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 11
COMPETITION
TIME
To win a chance to be featured in the next
Psychology Update magazine, and some tutor2u
goodies, answer the following question and
submit your entry to [email protected]
by 30th June 2024.

Making references to your A-Level Psychology specification, explain

how Psychology affects the economy. Include both positive and
negative implications for the economy.
Your answer should be at least 500 words, and all your own work. In your email, include your name,
school/college, and a photograph (optional).

12 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

update issue 3
COMPETITION WINNER A #
A discussion of culture bias in Psychology
by Amelia Westbrook
Culture bias is a tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret phenomena through the lens of one’s own
culture. This is an issue as it can lead to the results of studies only being relevant to one culture and therefore
conclusions cannot be generalised to other cultures. If norms are created from these results, then any behaviour that
deviates from this is viewed as abnormal rather than a cultural difference. Critics have argued that psychology has
generally ignored culture as an important influence on human behaviour. It has been mistakenly assumed that findings
from studies in Western culture can be easily applied all over the world.
A negative consequence of cultural bias can be ethnocentrism. This is when someone believes, consciously or not, in
the superiority of their own culture and includes bias in their research. For example, Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation
involved looking for indicators of attachment that were not universal. For example, she wrote that German mothers
were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence in their children. This could lead to German
mothers feeling guilt for raising their children in traditional ways, directed by their culture. Western culture has been
viewed as the norm and this can lead to harmful stereotypes.
Another issue with cultural bias within psychology is that not all cultures view science in the same way. In Western
culture, the participants are often familiar with the general aims of a study. However, many other cultures may not
have the same knowledge or faith in scientific tests, and they may show demand characteristics which could be
exaggerated findings. This can lead to low validity in research.
However, due to recent reflection from many psychologists, cultural bias is often acknowledged, and reflexivity is
present in lots of recent studies. The process involves the researcher reflecting on their cultural assumptions and
biases and how these might affect their interactions with participants and interpretations of findings. Researchers are
beginning to realise the effects of their own bias on their work. Reflexivity
is an important development in psychology as it may lead to a higher
awareness of the role that personal biases play in shaping research.
Studies done in separate cultures can allow for more understanding
from psychologists about the differences across cultures. Cross-cultural
research may challenge the typically Western ways of thinking within
most psychological research and allow for more diverse and deepened
understandings of behaviour around the world. Understanding that some of
the knowledge and concepts that we take for granted or that aren’t shared
by other people around the world may promote a greater sensitivity to
individual differences and cultural relativism in the future.
To conclude, cultural bias can lead to unfair and harmful stereotypes about
other cultures and lots of bias creating invalid results. However, doing cross-
cultural research can also lead to more understanding of other cultures and
reflexivity increases awareness of results being shaped due to bias.

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 13
update issue 3
COMPETITION WINNER B #
Exploring culture bias in Psychology
by Harriet George
Cultural bias in psychological research presents substantial consequences that affect study outcomes and populations who are less likely to
be included in research. This results in a prevalent tendency for samples of participants to be characterised as WEIRD (Western, Educated,
Industrialised, Rich, and Democratic). This introduces considerable challenges concerning the generalisability of research findings. This hinders
our collective understanding of human behaviour by ignoring the diversity and dynamics of intricate global cultures.
One consequence stemming from this cultural bias is the potential misapplication of research findings. For instance, psychological theories
that stem from studies with a WEIRD sample, get applied to drastically distinct cultures that may have different learning practices and crucially
a different genetic background. For example, genetic predispositions might make individuals from one cultural group more susceptible to
specific mental health conditions than those from another group so a study on the percentage of a population with this condition may be
inaccurate. However diverse research can also result contribute to stereotypes when research consistently presents certain groups in a narrow
light. Additionally, it also influences societal attitudes and behaviours, potentially resulting in discrimination. This has colossal consequences,
with real-world implications. For instance, if research portrays a particular ethnic group as less intelligent or more prone to aggression, it can
fuel prejudiced beliefs and actions, perpetuating harmful stereotypes and contributing to systemic discrimination.
Controversially, Psychologist Ramon Cattel wrote ‘If two such races inter-breed, the resulting reshuffling of impulses and psychic forces
throws together in each individual a number of items which may or may not be compatible and capable of being organised into a stable unit’.
This discriminatory sentence was written by a once well-respected psychologist. When someone prominent writes up untrue research, it
promotes the beliefs of how race is divided in psychology, further inspiring hatred and bias.
The complex challenge of addressing cultural bias in psychology calls for a strategy that revolves around diversifying research samples to
ensure a more comprehensive representation of minority groups including ethnicities and socio-economic backgrounds. Actively include
participants from more non-WEIRD societies, like those in developing countries where their genetic background and development have not
had representation in studies before. This would enhance external validity and foster a more inclusive understanding of human behaviour.
Additionally, we could approach this problem by prioritising the research and active participation in studies across diverse cultural populations.
This could involve adapting measures and tests to be culturally sensitive and relevant as well as starting with putting psychologists from a
diverse background at the front of research.
A study conducted by Steven Robert found that of publications with research that highlighted race, 87% were edited by white editors. This would
ensure that studies and research methods capture the behaviour and experiences of diverse populations. This adaptation could facilitate the
development of theories across a range of cultural contexts which would then contribute to the next generation of studies being more valid.
Another strategy could be to improve cultural awareness and target cultural bias in psychology. This could present itself via training programs
and education initiatives to encourage psychologists to approach their research with heightened sensitivity and awareness to decrease this
bias and increase global validity. Andrew Gelman recently drew attention to, “the prominence of [racist] attitudes among many key figures in
the history of statistics.” An increase in collaboration with psychologists from diverse cultural backgrounds would bring more unique insights
to the forefront of psychology, increase diversity in research, and bring unique insights into different psychological methods and reasons for
why people behave in certain ways.
The path forward should involve the commitment to embrace diversity in research studies and use a range of participants from developing
countries to promote cultural inclusion among researchers. Improving diversity in psychology would propel itself to be more inclusive and
relevant, leading to a decrease in cultural bias in psychology.
Psychological research has a racism problem, Stanford scholar says, Stanford News | Psychology Must Reckon with its Racist Past and
Present, Psychology, College of Liberal Arts (umn.edu) | The Racist Past of the American Psychology Establishment on JSTOR | Cultural
Bias in Psychological Testing, Helms, Major Reference Works, Wiley Online Library.

14 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

AQA ONLY | MODEL ESSAY
Q: Discuss the contributions of
the behaviourist approach to our
understanding of human behaviour (16)
The behaviourist approach created a paradigm shift when they proposed the idea that we should no longer be
researching the human mind using introspection. Instead, the assumed that we should be measuring only what
is observable. They were also the first approach to stress the importance of lab experiments in research and are
therefore credited with moving psychology closer to becoming more empirical. According to the approach, all
behaviours are learned through conditioning.
For example, Skinner believed that we learn behaviours through operant conditioning, which is the process
of learning through consequences. Positive reinforcement (rewards) and negative reinforcement (removal of
something unpleasant) both strengthen behaviours whereas punishment weakens behaviours. For example, if
someone receives a compliment for dieting, they are positively reinforced to keep dieting.
Secondly, Pavlov proposed the idea of classical conditioning, where we learn behaviours by making an association
between an unconditioned stimulus and an unconditioned response. For example, associating an insect with fear.
One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has contributed a lot to our understanding of human behaviour.
It helped to understand the development and maintenance of phobias. For example, operant conditioning helps us
understand that avoiding something you are afraid of can negatively reinforce a phobia. In addition, the approach
has led to the development of behavioural treatments for phobias, such as Systematic Desensitisation, which
involves progressing through an anxiety hierarchy whilst receiving positive reinforcement from the therapist. This
shows how the approach has helped us to understand mental health and how what is learned, can be unlearned.
One strength of the approach is that it also has real-life implications for shaping behaviour in schools and other
institutions, such as prisons. Token economies are built on the behaviourist assumptions of positive reinforcement.
This type of system is used in schools to encourage good behaviour, eating disorder clinics to encourage nutrition,
prisons to deter aggressive behaviour and some psychiatric institutions. For example, in some schizophrenic
clinics, patients are rewarded when they do not respond to hallucinations. This shows how instrumental the
principles of the behaviourists approach have been in creating positive change in society.
Despite the positive contributions of the behaviourist approach, there are concerns about its reductionist nature.
The approach is criticised for attempting to reduce complex behaviours down to just one level of explanation,
without any acknowledgement of the importance of factors like cognition and biology. A holistic approach is likely
more appropriate when trying to explain behaviours such as attachment and phobias, which are complex and
affected by individual and cultural differences. In contrast, the humanistic approach does not attempt to reduce
behaviour down to testable parts, instead viewing behaviour holistically and emphasising the importance of our
subjective experiences.
However, there is research to support the principles of the behaviourist approach. In the case of Little Albert, it
was shown that phobias can be learned through classical conditions. Little Albert was not afraid of white rats until
the animals were paired/associated with something that did cause fear – a loud bang. Once the association was
formed, Little Albert demonstrated a phobia of the white rats, supporting the claim that behaviour is learned.
Level 4 Response

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 15
 OCR SPECIFICATION ONLY MODEL ESSAY
(c) Tim is a detective with a team of police officers who are investigating a high-
profile murder case in London. Several witnesses have been called forward; some
have taken part in the standard police interview and others have taken part in a
new interview technique which uses components of the cognitive interview. Those
witnesses who took part in the new interview method recalled more information
and Tim now wants all the police officers to use this method with future witnesses.
However, some of the officers are reluctant and believe it is a waste of time.
Discuss how Tim might apply his knowledge of the collection of evidence to explain
why the police interview led to high levels of recall in the witnesses and why this
method should be used by his officers in the future. (10 marks)

The standard police interview and the cognitive interview (CI) are both
methods used by the police to elicit information from witnesses to a
crime. A psychologist should outline the advantages of using the cognitive
interview and the drawbacks of the standard police interview so that
the police officers can see how the new technique will help them to
elicit more information in their cases. The psychologist could explain Good application of
to the police officers that the problem with the standard interview is psychological knowledge
and understanding
the inconsistency in the method. Because of its lack of structure and is demonstrated
standardisation, this type of interview often involves police officers through explaining the
being able to ask whatever questions they feel relevant, in inappropriate disadvantages of the
standard interview.
sequences and in a rapid-fire way. The frequent interruptions of this
method can often confuse witnesses’ ability to think clearly and reduce
the quantity and quality of information obtained.
The standard police interview may result in less detail, due to an over-
reliance on short answer questions. In comparison, the Cognitive Interview
(CI) technique is more structured and the idea behind the CI is that if
the cues and context of the crime can be recreated for the eyewitness,
then they will be able to retrieve more information. In this case, it is
likely that the police officers who used the CI with the witnesses asked
them to reinstate the context of the murder; and they would be asked to
remember smells, sounds and other details about the scene at the time
of the murder, and these would enhance their recall. The witnesses who
took part in the CI will have also been able to tell the story of the murder
in their own words, and give every detail no matter how insignificant it The answer is explicitly
may seem without interruptions; this is known as the ‘report everything’ contextualised to the
stage. The witnesses who took part in the CI may also have recalled more question scenario, with
reference to the murder
information because they were asked to change perspective. They would case. The features of the
have been encouraged by Tim to put themselves in ‘someone else’s CI are applied effectively
to the novel source.
shoes’ and consider what the murder victim, or other witnesses may have There is a good use
seen. This new perspective would have allowed for additional information of terminology from
to be recalled. Tim would also want future witnesses to be asked to the CI is used.

16 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

 change the order of what they saw: perhaps beginning from the murder
itself and then going backward in time to what had happened previously.
Tim would advise his officers that the change of order of the retrieval
description will lead to the recall of extra details.
It is likely that the CI was effective because those officers who had
successfully used the technique were trained by a senior police officer.
Memon et al. (1994) found that when the training was given by a
researcher rather than by a senior police officer, the police showed An appropriate
resistance to the training, failed to follow instructions and used poor discussion has taken
place to explain why the
questioning techniques. Therefore, a senior police officer should carry CI is effective and how
out future training with the reluctant police officers. Furthermore, this the training should be
training programme should last at least two days in order for it to be delivered.
effective; and it should be emphasised to the reluctant officers that this
will be time well spent.
Tim would be able to explain why the CI is effective by presenting the
officers findings from research by Milne (1997) who compared the full
CI procedure with each individual component (context reinstatement, There is a well-developed
line of reasoning which
changing order and changing perspective). No differences across is clear and logically
the different component groups were found but the full CI procedure structured. Evidence
produced more recall than any of the individual components, with the is presented that may
persuade the reluctant
exception of the cognitive reinstatement technique. Therefore, for the officers.
officers who were particularly reluctant to use the CI, getting them to
ask witnesses to focus on reinstating the context of the murder scene
would be a good starting point and may be a compromise for those who
think the CI is a waste of time.
Therefore, the psychologist can present the above information to Tim and
his team to explain that the new interview method will be a more effective
technique as it utilises existing methods from the cognitive interview that The information
presented is relevant
have proven to be successful. The new interview method can be used to to the scenario and
help witnesses recall more information, and where possible this technique substantiated with
evidence.
should be used instead of the standard police interview.
(700 words)

Examiner Style Comments: Mark Band 4: 9 - 10 marks

This is a well-detailed and accurate answer. The response demonstrates good
application of psychological knowledge and understanding to clearly explain
why the cognitive police interview led to high levels of recall in the witnesses
and how the reluctant police officers could be persuaded to use it. There is
explicit reference to details from the scenario which allows the response to
be relevant to the requirements of the question. Application of knowledge
is substantiated from research evidence (A02). Furthermore, the answer
incorporates good use of psychological terminology throughout.

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 17
CHALLENGE: KNOW YOUR TERMS
One of the key skills you must demonstrate in your exams is the ability to use specialist terminology accurately, and
appropriately. For example, many students will confuse the term, ‘reliability’ and ‘validity’ and this can be detrimental to
the clarity of your answers. In contrast, some students may not make any attempt to use specialist terms at all, which will
also detract from the quality of your answers. Below is a glossary of terms that you might use when discussing Milgram’s’
research into Obedience, or Research Methods. For each term, write a suitable definition in the space provided.
The answers are at the back of the magazine for you to compare your answer to, once you are finished!

Specialist term Defintion

Random
allocation

Counterbalancing

Order effects

Standardisation

Matched
pairs design

Demand
characteristics

Behavioural
categories

Informed consent

Dissenter

18 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

Specialist term Defintion

Proximity

Systematic
sampling

Investigator
effects

Content analysis

Thematic
analysis

Confederate

Agentic state

Legitimate
authority

Situational
variables

Obedience

Debriefing

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 19
 IN FOCUS QUANTITATIVE SKILLS:
TEST YOURSELF!
Can you use your knowledge of research methods, maths, and quantitative data to
answer the following questions? The answers are revealed at the back of the magazine!
1 Table 1 shows the frequency with which different age groups checked social media
sites within a 24 hour period:
Calculate the overall mean score for the checking of social media sites using
the data in Table 1. You must give your answer to one decimal place. Table 1
Age group Frequency
10-15 45.6
16-20 86.18
21-30 78
31-40 27.93
41-50 16.3

2 Figure 1 shows the frequency distribution curve for the number of times in a 24-hour
period that people crossed a road when the pedestrian lights were red.
Figure 1
A
B
C
Frequency

Identify the measure of central tendency shown at data points A, B and C on the frequency distribution curve
for the data shown in Figure 1.

20 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

 3 Kate has conducted a survey into the number of English Lit students who would
recommend ‘Wuthering Heights’ as a suitable text to study at A Level. She asked each
student to rate their recommendation for the text on a scale of 1-10, 10 being ‘would
highly recommend’. The results of this study are shown in Table 2 below:
Table 2

Participant 1-10 score a. Explain why the mean would not be a suitable measure of central tendency
to analyse the results of Kate’s study.
1 8
2 9
3 1
4 8
5 10
6 8
7 8

b. Which measure of central tendency should Kate use to analyse her data?

4 Table 3 shows the measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion per
condition in an independent measures experiment looking for a difference in recall,
depending on whether the participants were asked to recall items from a colour
photograph or a black and white photograph.
Explain what the difference in standard deviation between the conditions
means in terms of the dispersion of the data.

Table 3 Mean SD
Colour 12 0.8
photograph
Black & white 7 2.3
photograph

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 21
WRITING EFFECTIVE
DO
• Reread the question after each point to make sure you
are still focused on the relevant topic
• Use writing frames to help you improve your structure,
such as the tutor2u burger frames
• Use analytical language to signpost your evaluation to
the examiner. For example, use terms
like ‘however’, ‘in contrast to this’, or ‘one limitation is’.
• Use research support/challenge appropriately and only
offer enough information to make your critical point
• Develop counterarguments to build discussion and
generate links between your evaluation points

DON’T
• Write a list of evaluation points. Doing this will only offer
limited, superficial knowledge and is not
likely to gain you many marks, if any.
• Offer generic evaluation statements. For example, if
you are criticising the ecological validity of something,
then make it specific and tailor the point to the topic in
question.
• Get distracted by research. You can offer research
support/challenge but often there is no need to give a
full account of the study, or the strengths and limitations
of the study. Only use what is relevant to the question.

22 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

EVALUATION
Here is an example of a burger paragraph for the fight
or flight response (Biopsychology, AQA A Level Psychology).

Top Bun (point)

Some psychologists have argued that fight
or flight is not the only response to stress.

Burger 1 (evidence/elaboration)
Grey (1988) suggests that the first
response to danger is to avoid
confrontation altogether, which is
demonstrated by a freeze response.
During the freeze response animals
and humans are hypervigilant, while
they appraise the situation to decide
the best course of action for that
particular threat.

Bottom Bun
(explanation of what it means and link)

This suggests that when faced with

dangerous situations our reaction is not
limited to a fight or flight and sometimes
more cognitive processing is involved.

In this writing frame, we have demonstrated the point (the specific strength or limitation),
the evidence/elaboration (the knowledge and understanding of the point) and the link
(why the point matters).

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 23
WRITING EFFECTIVE EVALUATION
Once you have nailed using this ‘single whopper burger’ writing
frame, you could upgrade to the ‘double whopper burger’ frame,
where you can start to incorporate your wider knowledge,
understanding, and synoptic skills.
Here is an example that looks at the post-
mortem method of measuring the brain
(AQA A Level Psychology) with the
addition of a counterargument.
Top Bun (point)
Post-mortems were vital in providing a foundation
for an early understanding of key processes within
the brain

Burger (evidence/elaboration)
For example, Broca and Wernicke both relied on
post-mortem studies to establish links between
brain structure and language.

Second Burger (counter argument)

However, there are issues with causation as
observed damage of the brain may not be
linked to the deficit(s) shown by the person
when they were alive. The deficits could have
been caused by another illness or trauma

Bottom Bun
(explanation of what it means and link)

This suggests that although post-mortems

improved our knowledge of the brain many years
before neuroimaging was possible, they are less
useful now psychologists are able to use techniques
like fMRI scans.

In this writing frame, we have demonstrated the point (the specific strength or limitation), the
evidence/elaboration (the knowledge and understanding of the point), a counter-argument
(building discussion with an opposing view to our point), and a link (why the points matter).

24 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

 ANSWERS
RESEARCH BITES:
When faces turn demonic
1. This research is a case study. What is meant by a case study?
A case study is an in-depth study conducted with one group or one person. Case studies can be conducted over a
long period and are often used alongside other techniques, for example, a combination of interviews, observations,
and experiments.

2. Why is a case study an appropriate method to use in this research?

Case studies offer detailed insights into unusual forms of behaviour that would otherwise be difficult to manipulate
in an experimental setting. Therefore, case studies help us to understand our understanding of rare cases, such as
prosopometamorphopsia in this case.

3. The researchers note that the cyst on the hippocampus is unlikely to be the cause of the patient’s condition,
but what is the hippocampus responsible for?
The hippocampus has several roles, including forming new memories, learning, and emotions.

4. The researchers compared an in-person face with a photograph of the same face taken under identical lighting
conditions in the same room. Why was it important for the researchers to use identical lighting conditions?
Lighting conditions are an extraneous variable that would have been important for the researchers to control.
This is because light could impact the perception of facial characteristics by the participant. Therefore, if the
lighting was different this could have caused a change in the perception of facial features rather than the patient’s
condition alone.

5. Why might it be difficult to generalise the findings of this case study to others with this condition?
The patient has experienced several factors which may act as confounding variables when attempting to
generalise this case study to others with the same condition. For example, the patient had a medical history of
bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, a significant head injury at age 43 that required hospitalisation,
and possible carbon monoxide poisoning at age 55, around 4 months before the onset of his symptoms.
Therefore, these factors could have contributed to the specific nature of his condition, meaning insight into
prosopometamorphopsia may be limited.

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 25
 ANSWERS
CHALLENGE: SPECIALIST TERMS
Specialist term Defintion

Random Random allocation refers to the unbiased way of allocating participants to experimental
and control conditions. Random allocation greatly decreases systematic error, so
allocation
individual differences in responses or ability are far less likely to affect the results.

Counterbalancing Counterbalancing is a technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated
measures design. With counterbalancing, the participant sample is divided in half, with
one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the
conditions in the reverse order.

Order effects Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refer to how the positioning
of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom effect on second task.

Standardisation Standardisation refers to the process in which procedures used in research are kept
the same. Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical.

Matched Matched pairs design is an experimental design where pairs of participants are matched
in terms of key variables, such as age and IQ. One member of each pair is then placed
pairs design
into the experimental group and the other member into the control group.

Demand Clues that create the risk of participants changing their natural behaviour in line with
their interpretation of the aims of a study, in turn affecting how they respond in any
characteristics
tasks they are set.

Behavioural A list of behaviours that observers look for in a study. When conducting structured
observations, psychologists must decide which specific behaviours should be examined.
categories
They need to operationalise the behaviour using behavioural categories.

Informed consent Ensuring that all participants understand the aims and intentions of the study they
are taking part in, including the risks and their right to withdraw at any point.

Dissenter Someone who does not conform/obey. For example, when there was a disobedient
partner in Milgram’s study, obedience rates declined.

26 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

Specialist term Defintion

Proximity Proximity is a situational variable affecting obedience and refers to how close you are to
someone or something. In Milgram’s experiment, when the teacher and learner were in
the same room, the percentage of participants who administered the full 450-volt shock
fell from 65% to 40%.

Systematic A sampling technique that uses a predetermined system to select the participants from
a target group. For example, every fourth person in a list could be used in the sample.
sampling

Investigator Investigator effects occur when a researcher unintentionally, or unconsciously influences

the outcome of any research they are conducting. For example, through body language
effects
or tone of voice.

Content analysis Content analysis is a method used to analyse qualitative data (non-numerical data).
It is a technique that allows a researcher to take qualitative data and transform it into
quantitative data (numerical data).

Thematic A method used to analyse qualitative data, and keep it in a qualitative form. It involves
reading through the data numerous times and identifying themes that emerge.
analysis

Confederate Alternative term for stooges or pseudo-participants. Someone who is not a ‘real’ participant.
Instead, they are working with the researcher and pretending to be a participant.

Agentic state The agentic state is an explanation of obedience offered by Milgram and is where an
individual carries out the orders of an authority figure, acting as their agent. The shift
from autonomy to ‘agency’ is referred to as the ‘agentic shift’.

Legitimate Legitimacy authority is an explanation of obedience offered by Milgram. Milgram

suggested that we are more likely to obey a person who has a higher position or status
authority
in a social hierarchy.

Situational Following Milgram’s original research, numerous variations were carried out to examine
how different variables affect obedience. These situational variables include proximity,
variables
uniform, location, and more.

Obedience Obedience means to comply with the demands of someone you see as an authority figure.

Debriefing After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant.
Debriefing aims to return the person to the state they were in before they took part.

www.tutor2u.net/psychology 27
 ANSWERS IN FOCUS
QUANTITATIVE SKILLS: TEST YOURSELF!
1. Calculate the overall mean score for the checking of social media sites using the data in Table.
You must give your answer to one decimal place.
The mean score is 50.8 (254.01 divided by 5 = 50.802 which is 50.8 to one decimal place)

2. Figure 1 shows the frequency distribution curve for number of times in a 24-hour period that people
crossed a road when the pedestrian lights were on red.
Identify the measure of central tendency shown at data points A, B and C on the frequency distribution
curve for the data shown in Figure 1.
A = Mode
B = Median
C = Mean

3a. Explain why the mean would not be a suitable measure of central tendency to analyse the results
of Kate’s study.
The reason why the mean would not be a suitable measure of central tendency in this study is that 6 out of
7 of the scores lie between 8-10 with only one score of 1 which is an outlier. This score of 1 skews the mean
(with this data set it is 7.4) and does not give a representative value (if the outlier is removed from the data
set the mean becomes 8.5 which is more representative of the data set).
3b. Which measure of central tendency should Kate use to analyse her data? (1)
Kate should use the median as it will not be affected by the outlier (the median is 8).

4. Explain what the difference in standard deviation between the conditions means in terms of the dispersion
of the data.
The standard deviation for recall of the black and white photograph is higher than for recall of the
colour photograph which suggests that there was more variability of performance in this condition
i.e. participants’ scores were spread further from the mean more than for the colour condition.

28 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

ESSENTIAL REVISION WORKBOOKS
Support your AQA A Level Psychology exam success
tutor2u’s AQA A Level Psychology Knowledge Books are designed to help students recap and revise
the essential specification knowledge by providing retrieval activities and exam skills development -
all in one handy workbook for each topic! Each Knowledge Book provides students with:
/ Structured, sequenced knowledge acquisition activities / Practice stem questions enabling
students to apply their knowledge / Examiner tips throughout / Practice Research Methods
questions / A mini mock at the end /.

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RESEARCH METHODS RESOURCES

Support your AQA A Level Psychology exam success
tutor2u have a fantastic range of Research Methods resources available to help
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NEED SOME HELP PREPARING
FOR YOUR SUMMER EXAMS?
tutor2u has a range of online courses that are designed to
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Catch-up courses for on the course for free!
AQA A Level Psychology
This collection of catch-up courses provides students
with an in-depth tutorial on topics such as Biopsychology,
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Topic Essays for AQA A Level Psychology Scan the QR code and enrol
on the course for free!
If you are struggling with your extended essay writing, check out
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with examiner commentary. This collection of example essays
demonstrates to AQA Level Psychology students how to write
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In each collection of topic essays, each response has been written
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Mastering Maths in Psychology on the course for free!
This free course is ideal for anyone who needs to improve
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30 A-Level Psychology Update Spring / Summer 2024

MASTERING INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
AQA A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY
This on-demand course walks you through everything
you need to know about inferential tests and assessment
questions on this part of the research methods topic.

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PSYCHOLOGY REVISION BLASTS!

Check out the complete collection of tutor2u Psychology
Revision Blasts on Youtube. Explore the playlist for revision
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AQA A-Level Psychology

Grade Booster Online

Enrol in the tutor2u AQA A Level Psychology Grade Booster Online course!
This self-paced online course will help you prepare for exams and is
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