Lecture 4

Prof. F.N. Karanja

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Outline
 4.1. Objectives
 4.2. Methods of Spatial Data Management
 4.2.1 Spatial Databases Design
 4.2.2 Populating Spatial Databases
 4.2.3 Management of Spatial Data Bases

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4.1. Objectives
 At the end of this lecture you should be able
to:-
 Explain the role of database management
systems in GIS.
 Discuss the main geographic database types
relevant to GIS and their functions.
 Design a geographic database
 Structure geographic data within a DBMS
 Perform database editing and maintenance.

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About Spatial Data

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A GIS can answer the question: What is
where?

 WHAT: Characteristics of features

(= attributes).
 WHERE: In geographic space.

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Definitions
 Database – an integrated set of attributes on a
particular subject
 Geographic (=geospatial) database – set of attributes
on a particular subject for a particular geographic area
 Database Management System (DBMS) – software to
create, maintain and access databases

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Databases (1/7)

 In general a database is an integrated set of data on a particular

subject whereas a geographic database are databases containing
geographic data for a particular area and subject.
 A collection of data that handle and maintain a large amount of
data that is shareable among different applications.
 Databases can physically be stored in files or in specialist
software programs called database management systems.
 In the non-spatial domain, databases have been in use since
1960s for various purposes e.g.,
 Bank account administration
 Stock monitoring
 Salary administration
 Order bookkeeping
 Flight reservation systems.
Databases (2/7)
 These applications have something in common, i.e. they deal with large
amounts of data, but the data itself has a simple and regular structure.
 Considerations in setting up a database:-
 Purpose
 Users
 Then,
 Identify available data sources
 Define format in which data will be organized within the database
(database structure).
 Then,
 Enter data into the database
 NB: It is important to keep the database up to date which means that
documentation of all the design decisions made to ensure that the database
life is extended.
Databases (3/7)

Major Functions of a database

Databases (4/7)

Functions of a spatial database

 Databases (5/7)
Advantages of the database approach to storing geographic data (I)

 Reduction in redundancy since all data is stored in a single location.

 Reduction in maintenance cost due to better organization and reduction in
data duplication.
 Applications become data independent since multiple applications can use
the same data and evolve separately over time.
 User knowledge can be transferred between applications more easily since
the database remains constant.
 Data sharing is enabled and a corporate view of data can be provided to all
managers and users.
 Security and standards for data and data access can be established and
enforced.
 DBMS are better suited to managing large numbers of concurrent users
working with vast amounts of data.
Databases (6/7)
Advantages of the database approach to storing geographic data (II)
Databases (7/7)
Disadvantages of the database approach to storing geographic data

 The cost of acquiring and maintaining DBMS

software can be quite high.
 A DBMS adds complexity to the problem of
managing data especially in small projects.
 Single user performance will often be better
for files, especially for more complex data
types and structures where specialist indexes
and access algorithms can be implemented.
Strategic Database Planning (1/10)
 Aim is to move from data that is private and
fragmented to one data.
 To be successful, data must be viewed as a corporate
resource, and other corporate resources must be
devoted to the development, implementation, and use
of one or more databases.
 An essential element in this is database planning.
 Database Planning is a strategic corporate effort to
determine the information needs of the organization
for an extended period into the future.
Strategic Database Planning (2/10)
Need for Database Planning

 Need for Database Planning is determined by information needs which

in turn are determined by the organizations business Plan as shown in
the figure.
DATABASE
INFORMATION
BUSINESS PLAN DATABASE PLAN DEVELOPMENT
NEEDS
PROJECT

 Advantages of Database Planning include:-

 It expresses managements current understanding of the information
resource
 It identifies and justifies resource requirements thus ensuring that resources
will be available.
 It identifies opportunities for effective resource management, including
collaboration among departments or divisions within the organization.
 It specifies action plans for achieving objectives
 It can provide a powerful stimulus and sense of direction to employees at all
levels, focusing their efforts, increasing their productivity, and making them
feel that they are genuine part of the enterprise.
Strategic Database Planning (3/10)
Data Sharing Levels

 The most significant difference between a file-based system

and a database system is that data is shared.
 This calls for change in the users thinking and how data is
handled and managed.
 We can identify three types of data sharing i.e. between:-
 Functional units
 Management levels
 Geographically dispersed locations.
 Data sharing implies that people in different functional areas
use a common pool of data, each for its own application.
Strategic Database Planning (4/10)
The Database Planning Project

 Strategic database Planning is initiated by senior management.

 They allocate resources and identify personnel to participate in the
project.
 The project team should have extensive experience in information
systems and the other functional areas of the organization.
 The output from this team will have a major impact on the organization
for many years.
 The strategic database plan recommends the number and the kind of
databases that should be developed as well as the schedules for the
projects.
 Once the plan is finally approved, the plans for designing and implementing
specific databases can be carried out and the methodology for doing this
is the Database Development Life Cycle.
Strategic Database Planning (5/10)
Database Development Life Cycle (DDLC) I

 This includes:-
 Information gathering to determine user data needs
 Database schema (logical structure) design to satisfy those
needs.
 Selection of a DBMS to support the use of the database
 Development of computer programs to utilize the database
 Review of the user information needs within the context of
the developed database.
Strategic Database Planning (6/10)
Database Development Life Cycle (DDLC) II

 In general consists of six stages namely:- Preliminary

 Preliminary Planning
Planning

 Feasibility Study
Database
Feasibility
 Requirements definition Evaluation and
Maintenance Study

 Conceptual design
 Implementation
 Database Evaluation and

Maintenance. Requirements
Implementation
Definition

Logical Design
Strategic Database Planning (7/10)
Different Levels of Users

 These include:
 Operations
 Middle management
 Executive
 These 3 levels correspond to 3 different types of
automated business systems namely:-
 Electronic Data Processing (EDP)
 Management Information Systems (MIS)
 Decision Support Systems (DSS).
Strategic Database Planning (8/10)
Electronic Data Processing (EDP)

 This is applied to the lower levels of the

organization to automate the paperwork.
The basic characteristics include:-
 Focus on data, storage, processing and
flows at the operational level
 Efficient transaction processing
 Summary reports for management
Strategic Database Planning (9/10)
Management Information Systems (MIS)

 This elevated the focus on information systems

activities with additional emphasis on integration and
planning of the information systems function. The
characteristics include:-
 An information focus, aimed at the middle managers
 An integration of EDP jobs by business function,
such as production MIS, marketing MIS, personnel
MIS, etc.
 Inquiry and report generation, usually with a
database.
Strategic Database Planning (10/10)
Decision Support System (DSS)

 Focussed higher in the organization and the

characteristics include:-
 Decision focused, aimed at top managers and
executive decision makers
 Emphasis on flexibility, adaptability, and quick
response.
 Support for the personal decision-making
styles of individual managers.
Types of Data Stored in Spatial
Databases
 Two-dimensional data examples
 Geographical
 Cartesian coordinates (2-D)
 Networks
 Direction
 Three-dimensional data examples
 Weather
 Cartesian coordinates (3-D)
 Topological
 Satellite images

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Spatial Databases (1)

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Spatial Databases (2)

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SDBMS Three-layer Structure
Core Spatial
 SDBMS works with a

Interface to spatial application

Functionality

spatial application at the

Spatial application

Interface to DBMS
Taxonomy

DBMS
Data types
front end and a DBMS

DBMS
Operations

at the back end Query

language

 SDBMS has three layers: Algorithms

Access

 Interface to spatial
methods

application
 Core spatial
functionality
 Interface to DBMS
Database System Environment

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Spatial Databases
 Spatial databases have been defined as systems used to store
and manipulate spatial objects like any other object in the
databases.
 The following briefly covers the evolution of spatial databases,
and then reviews three aspects that associate spatial data with
a database namely; data types, indexes, and functions.
 Spatial data types refer to shapes such as point, line, and polygon;
 Multi-dimensional spatial indexing is used for efficient processing
of spatial operations;
 Spatial functions, posed in SQL, are for querying of spatial
properties and relationships.
 Combined, spatial data types, indexes, and functions
provide a flexible structure for optimized performance and
analysis.

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4.2.1. Geographic Database Design
 In database design we can identify:-
 Conceptual database design:-This consists of defining the data elements to be
included in the database, the relationship that exists between them, and the value
constraints that apply. A value constraint is a rule defining the permissible values for
a specific data item.
 Physical database design:- this determines the physical structure of the database and
includes such decisions as what access methods will be used to retrieve data and
what indexes will be built to improve the performance of the system.
 To carry out conceptual database design, the DBA staff must include personnel who
are expert in design concepts as well as skilled at working with user groups.
 The DBA designers work with users in various areas and design portions of the
database where such portions are referred to as Views and are intended for use by
the originating group.
 These views must then be integrated into a complete database schema which
defines the logical structure of the entire database.
 Conceptual design process requires the resolution of conflicts between different
user groups, for instance different groups may use the same term in contradictory
ways, or groups may be jealous of their data and resist allowing others to access it.
 Controls must be established that define access rights.

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Process of GIS database design

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4.2.2. Structuring Geographic Data (1)
 The principal elements of a conceptual data model are
objects and relationships.
 Objects represent things important to users in reality
that need to be modeled.
 Relationships link objects.
 The maximum number of instances of one object set
related to a single instance of the other object set is
referred to as Cardinality, i.e. we can have 1:1, 1:Many,
Many:Many relationships.
 The three levels are namely, conceptual, external and
internal levels.

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4.2.2. Database Implementation (2)
 Here first a DBMS is selected and acquired.
 Then map the conceptual to implementation model.
 Build data dictionary which is a central repository for data
structure definitions in the database. It contains information on
access authority, security rules and related controls. It also acts
as a control centre for the system as well as enforcing data
standards and eliminating problems in coordinating data
sharing among applications.
 The next step is to populate the database by loading data into
the database.
 Then develop procedures for using the database.
 Train users on the procedures and other facilities of the
system.

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4.2.2. Database Implementation Process (3)

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4.2.3. Database Editing and Maintenance
 Within the context of geographic
databases, editing is understood to refer
to making changes by adding new objects
or changing existing objects as part of
either uploading data or database update.
 Where a database update involves any
change to the geometry and/or attributes
of one or more objects or to the
database schema
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 Transaction Versus Versioning (1)
 Now data entered into the editor must be stored persistently in a file
system or database and access to the database must be carefully
managed to ensure continued security and quality is maintained.
 This mechanism for managing edits to a file or database is referred to
as a Transaction. On the other hand, one of the most challenging
problems in a GIS data management environment was how to allow
multiple users to edit the same continuous geographic database at the
same time. It is a well known fact that in GIS applications geographic
objects or features do not exist in isolation and are usually closely
related to surrounding objects.
 For instance a tax parcel will share a common boundary with an
adjacent parcel and changes in one will directly have an impact on the
other. In the same breadth, connected road segments in a highway
network should be edited together to ensure continued connectivity.

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Transaction Versus Versioning (2)
 In mainstream GIS and DBMS, the
solution to these problems have been
implemented by extending the standard
DBMS transaction model by providing a
multi-user framework called Versioning.
 This is especially useful in solving the
problem where multiple users need to
edit and share a continuous geographic
database at the same time.
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Example of applications

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 The End

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