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2ss7 Characteristics Curves of Semiconductor

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
411 views47 pages

2ss7 Characteristics Curves of Semiconductor

Uploaded by

luay
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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SCHOOL OF PHYSICS – LEVEL 200 PHYSICS LABORATORY REPORT SLIP

FOR ZCT 293/2 AND ZCT 294/2

Instructions to student: Please make sure you fill in the form completely.
Instructions to lecturer: Kindly record the numerical marks in the rubric
assessment form, not here.
PARTICULARS
Name: LUAY CHEE YI
Matric no.: 161864
Group: W6
Expt. Code: 2TS1
Expt. Title: CHARACTERISTICS CURVES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Lecturer in charge: DR YAM FONG KWONG
Report due date: 10 January, 2024

Experiment (√) Lab Report Grade (√)


1 ☐ 2 ☐ 3 ☐ A ☐ A- ☐ B+ ☐ B ☐
4 ☐ 5 √ 6 ☐ B- ☐ C+ ☐ C ☐ C- ☐
D+ ☐ D ☐ D- ☐ F ☐

Date Received (Stamp) Comments


Click or tap here to enter text.
CHARACTERISTICS CURVES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

By

LUAY CHEE YI

2024

Second Year Laboratory Report

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES...........................................................................................................4
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................5
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................6
1.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................7
1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: DIODES AND TRANSISTORS......................7
1.2 OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................7
2.0 THEORY.....................................................................................................................8
2.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE.................................................................................8
2.1.1 Static Characteristics........................................................................................9
2.2 POWER BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR.....................................................................10
2.2.1 Static Characteristics......................................................................................12
2.3 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER...................................................................13
2.3.1 Common-Emitter Configuration....................................................................13
3.0 METHODOLOGY....................................................................................................15
3.1 PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP.......................................15
3.2 PART B: NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP..................16
4.0 RESULTS..................................................................................................................17
4.1 PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP.......................................17
4.1.1 Diode Current when different diodes are used...............................................17
4.1.2 Resistance (Ω) Across Each Diode with Respect to Voltage Applied (mV). 20
4.2 NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP..................................21
4.2.1 Ic (µA) Reading of Transistor Varies with Vce (mV) under Different Ib
(µA).........................................................................................................................21
4.2.2 Amplification Factor, β in the Function of Base Current, Ib and Vcc..............21
4.2.3 Current Gain, α in the Function of Base Current, Ib and Vcc..........................22
5.0 DISCUSSIONS.........................................................................................................24
6.0 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................26
7.0 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................26
APPENDIX.....................................................................................................................27
MICROSOFT EXCEL GUIDELINES........................................................................27
DATA SHEET FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES..........................................27
PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP.............................................29
LED diode...............................................................................................................29
1N4007 Silicon Diode.............................................................................................33
Zener Diode.............................................................................................................35
Germanium Diode...................................................................................................38
1N4148 Silicon Diode.............................................................................................40
PART B: NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP........................43
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Simplified illustration of a junction diode structure..........................................8
Figure 2: The symbol used for a diode and its current and voltage references.................8
Figure 3: Static characteristic of an ideal diode................................................................9
Figure 4: Static characteristic of a real diode....................................................................9
Figure 5: Structure of a planar bipolar junction transistor..............................................10
Figure 6: Power transistor vertical structure...................................................................11
Figure 7: Circuit symbols, (A) NPN transistor and (B) PNP transistor..........................12
Figure 8: Base current plotted as a function of the base-emitter voltage........................13
Figure 9: Collector current as a function of the collector-emitter voltage with the base
current as the controlling variable...................................................................................13
Figure 10: CE Configuration...........................................................................................13
Figure 11: Input characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor...............................14
Figure 12: Output characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor............................14
Figure 13: The equivalent diode circuitry of the Experiment set up...............................15
Figure 14: Actual circuit connection...............................................................................15
Figure 15: The equivalent transistor circuitry of the Experiment set up.........................16
Figure 16: Actual circuit connection...............................................................................16
Figure 17: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for LED
diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 2.0 V...................................................17
Figure 18: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4007
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.......................................17
Figure 19: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for Zener
diode. It is estimated that the reverse voltage is -1.2 V and current flows in opposite
direction...........................................................................................................................18
Figure 20: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for
Germanium diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.5 V...............................19
Figure 21: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4148
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.......................................19
Figure 22: Graph of resistance (Ω) across each diode against voltage applied (mV).....20
Figure 23: Graph of Ic (µA) against Vce (mV) under different Ib (µA)............................21
Figure 24: Graph of amplification factor, β against voltage, Vcc (V) under different Ib
(µA).................................................................................................................................21
Figure 25: Graph of amplification factor, β against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc
(V)....................................................................................................................................22
Figure 26: Graph of current gain, α against voltage, Vcc (V) under different Ib (µA)....22
Figure 27: Graph of current gain, α against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc (V)....23
Figure 28: Data sheet for LED diode..............................................................................27
Figure 29: Data sheet for 1N4007 silicon diode..............................................................27
Figure 30: Data sheet for Zener diode.............................................................................28
Figure 31: Data sheet for Germanium diode...................................................................28
Figure 32: Data sheet for 1N4148 silicon diode..............................................................29

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Data table for LED diode operates in forward biased.......................................29
Table 2: Data table for LED diode operates in reverse biased........................................31
Table 3: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in forward biased......................33
Table 4: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.......................34
Table 5: Data table for Zener diode operates in forward biased.....................................35
Table 6: Data table for Zener diode operates in reverse biased......................................37
Table 7: Data table for Germanium diode operates in forward biased............................38
Table 8: Data table for Germanium diode operates in reverse biased.............................39
Table 9: Data table for 1N4148 Silicon diode operates in forward biased.....................40
Table 10: Data table for 1N4148 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.....................42
Table 11: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=20 μA .. . .43
Table 12: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=40 μA .. . .44
Table 13: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=70 μA.. . .44
Table 14: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=110 μA ...45
Table 14: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=160 μA .. 45

ABSTRACT
In the part A of this experiment, we investigate five different types of diodes and
their behaviors which are LED, 1N4007, Zener, Germanium, and 1N4148 diodes. it is
found that LED, 1N4007, Germanium, and 1N4148 diodes allow current to flow in
forward biased direction while Zener diode allow current to flow in both directions but
specialize in current flowing in reverse. In the part B of this experiment to investigate
NPN common emitter transistor, Ic will be increases drastically and saturated with the
increases in Vce. It is also discovered experimentally that there is I c drop prior entering
saturation region for a transistor. Besides, it is determined that β is generally directly
proportional to Vcc and saturated at certain value. On the other hand, β is inversely
proportional to Ib and the effect of “β hump” is more significant at higher V cc. Lastly, it
is observed that α increases drastically and approaches one when V cc increases.
However, α decreases slowly with the increase in Ib.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: DIODES AND TRANSISTORS

Semiconductor devices play a pivotal role in modern electronics, serving as the


fundamental building blocks for a myriad of electronic circuits and systems. Among
these devices, diodes and transistors stand out as essential components that enable the
manipulation and control of electrical signals. Operating within the realm of
semiconductor physics, these devices harness the unique properties of semiconducting
materials to regulate the flow of electric current with precision and efficiency.

Diodes, as semiconductor devices, exhibit the distinctive property of allowing


current to flow in one direction while restricting it in the opposite direction. This
unidirectional conductance is achieved through the formation of a pn-junction, where p-
type and n-type semiconductor materials are seamlessly integrated. Diodes find
widespread use in rectification, signal demodulation, and voltage regulation, forming
the backbone of power supply circuits and electronic systems.

Transistors, on the other hand, represent a more sophisticated class of


semiconductor devices, offering active control over the amplification and switching of
electrical signals. Comprising three layers of semiconductor material – emitter, base,
and collector – transistors leverage the manipulation of charge carriers to regulate signal
amplification. The ability to amplify weak signals and act as electronic switches makes
transistors indispensable in a plethora of applications, including amplifiers, oscillators,
and digital logic circuits.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

1. Investigate the characteristics curves for semiconductor diodes and transistors.

2. Be familiar with the setup and application of electronic circuit involving


semiconductors.
2.0 THEORY

2.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

A semiconductor diode isa structure containing a PN junction that, within its voltage
and current rates, allows the conduction of current only in one direction. If the P region
experiences a higher potential compared with the region N, the diode is said to be
forward-biased, and a current can flow through the diode. On the other hand, if the
region N experiences a higher voltage compared with the region P, the diode is said to
be reversed-biased. In this case, no current flows through the diode. Figure 1 shows a
simplified illustration of such a diode structure.

The regions P and N are united by a metallurgical connection. When a negative


voltage is applied between the PN junctions, this voltage appears at the depletion area
due to the fact that this area presents higher resistance compared with the rest of the
structure. Such voltage makes the electrons in the N region to travel to the P region and
vice versa, creating a so-called potential barrier, which, in turn, defines the size of the
depletion area. The potential barrier opposes the electron and hole movements across
the junction. The potential is approximately 0.7 and 0.3 V for silicon and germanium
diodes, respectively, and it is defined as threshold voltage.

When a positive voltage higher than the threshold is applied between the PN
junctions, the potential barrier is reduced, minimizing the depletion area, and the
carriers are free to conduct through the regions, leading the diode to be forward-biased.

Figure 1: Simplified illustration of a junction diode structure.

Figure 2: The symbol used for a diode and its current and voltage references.
2.1.1 Static Characteristics

The static characteristic of an ideal diode is portrayed in Figure 3. For voltages VAK > 0,
the diode conducts with current IF under null voltage. Consequently, the diode can be
represented as a short circuit. For voltages V AK < 0, the diode holds a negative voltage,
and it does not conduct any current. Therefore, the diode can be represented by an open
circuit. The use of an ideal diode in analyzing circuits is accepted in power electronic
applications, since it is necessary only to know if the diode is forward- or reversed-
biased. However, in applications where a deeper analysis is required, it is necessary to
consider the diode real features. Figure 4 presents the static characteristic of a real
diode. The characteristic curve is not on scale for better visualization. The first quadrant
is the region where the diode is forward-biased. In this case, the diode is in ON state.
The third quadrant is the region of reverse bias. Thus, the diode is in OFF state.

Figure 3: Static characteristic of an ideal diode.

Figure 4: Static characteristic of a real diode.

 Forward voltage, VF
The voltage drop across the diode, from terminal A to K, at a specific current
when the diode is forward-biased.

 Breakdown voltage, VB
The maximum reverse voltage across the diode before the diode starts reverse
conduction and gets severe damaged. The point at Vb is also known as avalanche
point.
 Reverse current IR
The current at a particular reverse volt-age. This current is usually in the range
of μA and hardly taken into account in analysis of power electronic circuits.

 Conduction resistance RON


The equivalent resistance presented by the diode when forward-biased and
conducting current. The inverse of this resistance is the slope of the curve in
forward region. This characteristic is more relevant in high-voltage devices in
which the semiconductor length is larger.

2.2 POWER BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

Bipolar junction transistors (BJT) are used to be the traditional component for driving
several of those industrial applications. However, insulated gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT) and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)technology
have progressed so that they are viable replacements for the BJT. However, BJTs still
have performance areas in which they may be preferably used, especially when the cost
is the main concern.

The BJT consists of a three-region structure of N-type and P-type semiconductor


materials. It can be constructed as NPN and PNP. Figure 5 shows the physical structure
of a planar NPN BJT. The operation is closely related to that of a junction diode where
in normal conditions the PN junction between the base and emitter is forward-biased
(VBE > 0) causing electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base. Since the base
region is thin, the electrons travel across it arriving at the reverse-biased base-collector
junction (VBC < 0) where there is an electric field (depletion region). Upon arrival at this
junction, the electrons are pulled across the depletion region and draw into the collector.
These electrons flow through the collector region and out the collector contact. Because
electrons are negative carriers, their motion constitutes positive current flowing into the
external collector terminal. Even though the forward-biased base-emitter junction
injects holes from base to emitter, they do not contribute to the collector current, but
result in a net current flow component into the base from the external base terminal.
Therefore, the emitter current is composed of those two components: electrons destined
to be injected across the base-emitter junction and holes injected from the base into the
emitter.
Figure 5: Structure of a planar bipolar junction transistor.
The emitter current is exponentially related to the base-emitter voltage according
to Equation 1.

Equation 1:
V BE
ηVr
I E =I E 0 ( e −1)

where IE is the saturation current of the base-emitter junction that is a function of the
doping levels, temperature, and the area of the base-emitter junction; V T is the thermal
voltage Kt/q; and η is the emission coefficient. The electron current arriving at the
collector junction can be expressed as a fraction α of the total current crossing the base-
emitter junction as shown in Equation 2.

Equation 2:
I C =α I E

Since the transistor is a three-terminal device, I E is equal to IC + IB; hence, the base
current can be expressed as the remaining fraction, given by Equation 3.

Equation 3:
I β =(1−α ) I E

The collector and base currents are thus related by the ratio given in Equation 4.

Equation 4:
IC α
= =β
I β (1−α )

The values of α and β for a given transistor depend primarily on the doping densities in
the base, collector, and emitter regions and on the device geometry. Carrier
recombination and temperature also affect the values for both parameters. A power
transistor requires a large blocking voltage in the OFF state and a high-current
capability in the ON state. A vertically oriented four-layer structure as shown in Figure
6 is preferable because it maximizes the cross-sectional area through which the current
flows, reducing the on-state resistance and power dissipation in the device. There is an
intermediate collector region with moderate doping. The emitter region is controlled so
as to have a homogenous electric field.
Figure 6: Power transistor vertical structure.
From a circuit point of view,Equation 4: Equation 1 and Equation 4 are used to
relate the variables of the BJT input port (formed by base and emitter) to the output port
(collector and emitter). The circuit symbols are shown in Figure 7. Most of the power
electronic applications use NPN transistor because electrons move faster than holes, and
therefore, NPN transistors have considerable faster commutation times compared with
the equivalent PNP transistors.

2.2.1 Static Characteristics

The static ratings determine the maximum allowable limits of current and voltage. The
absolute voltage limit mechanism is concerned to the avalanche such that thermal
runaway does not occur. Forward current ratings are specified at which the junction
temperature does not exceed a rated value. Figure 8 shows the base current IB plotted as
a function of the base-emitter voltage V BE. The Vf voltage is around 0.7 V for silicon
BJTs.

Figure 9 depicts the collector current I C as a function of the collector-emitter


voltage VCE with IB as the controlling variable. The curves are distinguished each other
by the value of the base current. A small base current drives the flow of a much larger
current between collector and emitter; such gain called beta (Equation 4) depends upon
temperature, VCE, and IC.

The active region is defined where flat, horizontal portions of voltage-current


curves show “constant” IC current, because the collector current does not change
significantly with VCE for a given IB. Those portions are used for transistors operating as
linear amplifiers. In this region, as the voltage and current can present high values, the
dissipated power is high. Switching power electronic systems on the other hand requires
transistors to operate either in the saturation region where VCE is small or in the cutoff
region where the current is zero and the voltage is uphold by the device. In both
situations, the dissipated power is low. The crossing of the active region must be as fast
as possible to minimize the losses and the consequent temperature increase. The
saturation region is characterized by the forward-biased of base-collector junction, and
it occurs when VCE < 0.7V.
Figure 7: Circuit symbols, (A) NPN transistor and (B) PNP transistor.

Figure 8: Base current plotted as a function of the base-emitter voltage.

Figure 9: Collector current as a function of the collector-emitter voltage with the base
current as the controlling variable.

2.3 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

2.3.1 Common-Emitter Configuration

It is called common-emitter configuration since: emitter is common or reference to both


input and output terminals. Emitter is usually the terminal closest to or at ground
potential. Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for
current and voltage. Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for
CE; input (base terminal) and output (collector terminal) parameters. Proper Biasing
common-emitter configuration in active region.
Figure 10: CE Configuration.

Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different
values.

Figure 11: Input characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor.

Figure 12: Output characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor.


Relationship analysis between α and β

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP

Figure 13: The equivalent diode circuitry of the Experiment set up.
Figure 14: Actual circuit connection.
The experiment is set up as shown in the figures above. The LED diode is
installed in direction that it is forward biased. Before the experiment started, the initial
reading at channel 1, 2, and 4 are recorded. Then, the voltage applied is increased in
step of 0.1 V to a range of 5.0 V. The readings on channel 1, 2, and 4 are recorded for
each time increment in voltage. Once the forward biased is done, the diode is then
installed reverse biased direction. All the channels reading are taken as previously. The
experiment is repeated with different diodes such as 1N4007 silicon diode, Zener diode,
Germanium diode and lastly 1N4148 silicon diode. The resistance across the diodes is
calculated and graphs are plotted to analyse these diodes.

3.2 PART B: NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP


Figure 15: The equivalent transistor circuitry of the Experiment set up.

Figure 16: Actual circuit connection.

The experiment is set up as shown in the figures above. The initial I b is set to
20 μA . All the initial readings on channel 1 to 4 are recorded prior to the experiment.
The voltage is increased slowly initially due to the drastic change in I c and increasing in
voltage interval when the increases in I c slows down. The experiment is repeated with
different values of I b which are 40 μA , 70 μA , 110 μA , and 160 μA . The values of α and
β are calculated. Graphs are plotted to analyse the characteristics of the transistor used.

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP

All the channels reading and calculations are done using Excel and can be found in
APPENDIX.

4.1.1 Diode Current when different diodes are used

When LED diode is used,


8000
7000

Current across diode (µA)


R² = 0.997205754249156 6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)

Figure 17: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for LED
diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 2.0 V.
Based on Figure 28: Data sheet for LED diode. in APPENDIX,

Theoretical forward voltage = 2.0 V


Experimental forward voltage = 2.0 V
Percentage of discrepancy = 0 %

Theoretical reverse voltage = 5.0 V. Since voltage applied ≤ 5.0 V, we do not observe
voltage breakdown.

When 1N4007 silicon diode is used,

10000.0
Current across diode (µA)

R² = 0.996997221859849 8000.0

6000.0

4000.0

2000.0

0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)

Figure 18: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4007
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.
Based on Figure 29: Data sheet for 1N4007 silicon diode. in APPENDIX,

Theoretical forward voltage = 1.0 V


Experimental forward voltage = 1.0 V
Percentage of discrepancy = 0 %

Theoretical reverse voltage = 35 V. Since voltage applied ≤ 35 V, we do not observe


voltage breakdown.

When Zener diode is used,


10000.0

Current across diode (µA)


R² = 0.993816935242114 8000.0

6000.0

4000.0

2000.0

0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)

Figure 19: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for Zener
diode. It is estimated that the reverse voltage is -1.2 V and current flows in opposite
direction.
Based on Figure 30: Data sheet for Zener diode. in APPENDIX,

Theoretical reverse voltage = -1.2 V


Experimental reverse voltage = -1.2 V
Percentage of discrepancy = 0 %

Theoretical forward voltage = 4.7 V


Experimental forward voltage = 4.8 V
Percentage of discrepancy = 2.13 %

Zener diode allows current to travel in opposite direction as compared to normal diode.
When voltage applied ≥ 4.7 V, there is a small voltage breakdown.

When Germanium diode is used,


10000.0

Current across diode (µA)


R² = 0.99881858010597 8000.0

6000.0

4000.0

2000.0

0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)

Figure 20: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for
Germanium diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.5 V.
Based on Figure 31: Data sheet for Germanium diode. in APPENDIX,

Theoretical forward voltage = 1.5 V


Experimental forward voltage = 1.6 V
Percentage of discrepancy = 6.67 %

Theoretical reverse voltage = 30 V. Since voltage applied ≤ 3.0 V, we do not observe


voltage breakdown.

When 1N4148 silicon diode is used,

10000.0
Current across diode (micro

R² = 0.997951244517452 8000.0

6000.0
A)

4000.0

2000.0

0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)

Figure 21: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4148
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.
Based on Figure 32: Data sheet for 1N4148 silicon diode. in APPENDIX,

Theoretical forward voltage = 1.0 V


Experimental forward voltage = 1.2 V
Percentage of discrepancy = 20.0 %

Theoretical reverse voltage = 75 V. Since voltage applied ≤ 75 V, we do not observe


voltage breakdown.

4.1.2 Resistance (Ω) Across Each Diode with Respect to Voltage Applied (mV)
60

50

Resistance of the diode (Ω) 40

30

20

10

0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000

Voltage applied (mV)

LED 1N4007 Zener Germanium 1N4148


Figure 22: Graph of resistance (Ω) across each diode against voltage applied (mV).
*For reverse biased of LED, 1N4148, Germanium diodes, the current is so small that
the apparatus is not sensitive enough to detect it. Thus, no value for resistance across
diode for them.

When current flows across LED, 1N4007, 1N4148, Germanium diodes in forward
biased direction while reverse biased for Zener diode, the resistance of the diode
ascends in the order of:
Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode < 1N4148 silicon diode < LED diode <
Zener diode.
Hence, it can be deduced that the thickness of the depletion region ascends in the order
of:

Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode < 1N4148 silicon diode < LED diode <
Zener diode.

*This deduction might not be accurate considering other factors constraint by


experiment limitation.

4.2 NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP


All the channel readings are recorded and calculated in APPENDIX. Based on the data
in PART B: NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP in APPENDIX,
the graphs are plotted as shown in followed sections.

4.2.1 I c (µA) Reading of Transistor Varies with V ce (mV) under Different I b (µA).

80000
70000
60000
50000
Ic (µA)

40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Vce (mV)

20 micro A 40 micro A 70 micro A


110 micro A 160 micro A
Figure 23: Graph of Ic (µA) against Vce (mV) under different Ib (µA).
4.2.2 Amplification Factor, β in the Function of Base Current, Ib and Vcc.

500.000
450.000
400.000
Amplification factor, B

350.000
300.000
250.000
200.000
150.000
100.000
50.000
0.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Voltage, Vcc (V)

20 micro A 40 micro A 70 micro A


110 micro A 160 micro A
Figure 24: Graph of amplification factor, β against voltage, Vcc (V) under different Ib
(µA).
500
450
400

Amplification factor, B
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Base current, Ib (µA)

0V 1V 2V 3V 4V 5V
Figure 25: Graph of amplification factor, β against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc
(V).
4.2.3 Current Gain, α in the Function of Base Current, Ib and Vcc.

1.2000

1.0000

0.8000
Current gain, α

0.6000

0.4000

0.2000

0.0000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Voltage, Vcc (V)

20 micro A 40 micro A 70 micro A


110 micro A 160 micro A
Figure 26: Graph of current gain, α against voltage, Vcc (V) under different Ib (µA).
1.2

0.8

Current gain, α
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Base current, Ib (micro A)

0V 1V 2V 3V 4V 5V
Figure 27: Graph of current gain, α against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc (V).
5.0 DISCUSSIONS
In the first part of experiment, it is observed that all the five diodes only allow
current to flow in certain direction. For LED, 1N4007, Germanium, and 1N4148 diodes,
current can travel through the diodes when the voltage applied more than forward
voltage and they are placed in forward biased direction. From their respective graphs, it
is found that when negative voltage is applied none of the current can flow through. In
reverse biased conditions, the diode's p-type material becomes negatively charged and
the n-type material becomes positively charged. This creates a depletion region at the
junction between the two materials, which acts as a barrier to the flow of current in the
reverse direction. The width of the depletion region increases as the reverse voltage
across the diode increases, which further reduces the flow of current in the reverse
direction. As a result, the diode effectively prevents the flow of current in the reverse
direction. On the other hand, Zener diode allow current to flow in both directions but
specialize in current flowing in reverse. From Figure 19, it is observed that current pass
through easily when negative voltage is applied. When positive voltage is applied,
current in the diode stays zero and only a small increment is detected after a voltage
applied is bigger than 4.8 V. The main mechanism responsible for reverse current flow
in Zener diodes is Zener effect. When a high reverse voltage is applied, the electric field
across the p-n junction becomes extremely strong. This intense field causes electrons to
"tunnel" directly from the valence band in the p-type region to the conduction band in
the n-type region, even though they don't have enough energy to overcome the bandgap
in normal conditions. This sudden influx of free charge carriers allows a significant
current to flow through the diode in the reverse direction.

Besides, a graph of resistance (Ω) across each diode against voltage applied
(mV) is plotted in Figure 22 too. From the graph, it can be observed that when the
diodes allow current to pass through the diode the resistance across diode ascends in the
order of Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode < 1N4148 silicon diode < LED
diode < Zener diode. This can give us some insight although not entirely accurate about
their depletion region thickness. Hence, we may deduce that the depletion region
thickness ascends in the same order as Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode <
1N4148 silicon diode < LED diode < Zener diode. There are other factors such as
concentration of mobile electrons affecting the thickness of depletion region but this
result still anyway offers some insights. Furthermore, it is also observed that the
resistance across diode when reverse biased is significantly higher than that of forward
biased. This observation can explain why current cannot pass through for reverse biased
except for Zener diode.

In the part B of the experiment, graph of I c (µA) against Vce (mV) under
different Ib (µA) is plotted in Figure 23. From the graph, the collector current, I c
initially increases drastically until it achieved a maximum value. Then, the I c drops
sharply just before it enters the saturation region. The magnitude in which the I c drops
is directly proportional to the base current, I b. Such a phenomenon differs than that of
theory which does not has the drop in I c prior entering saturation region. The significant
drop in I c for a transistor before it enters saturation can be attributed to the Early effect.
As the collector-emitter voltage (Vce) increases, the depletion region surrounding the
collector-base junction widens. This widening effectively reduces the base width,
consequently decreasing the base current (I b). Since Ic is directly proportional to I b
through the relationship Ic = β * Ib, a decrease in Ib leads to a proportional decrease in I c.
This effect becomes more pronounced at higher V ce values, causing Ic to drop before the
transistor reaches saturation. Besides, channel length modulation can cause the I c to
drop too. When Vce increases, the depletion region at the collector-emitter junction also
extends towards the channel (the conducting path between source and drain). This
effectively shortens the channel length. A shorter channel offers less resistance to
current flow, causing the drain current to rise. However, due to the constant gate voltage
and limited carrier mobility, an increase in I d leads to a decrease in V ds to maintain a
constant channel voltage (Vgs - Vt, where Vgs is the gate-source voltage and V t is the
threshold voltage). The decrease in Vds translates to a lower Vce (Vce = Vcc - Vds), which
in turn reduces the base current and consequently the collector current.

In Figure 25 graph of amplification factor, β against I b (µA) under different


voltage, Vcc (V), B decreases when Ib increases. However, when Vcc is increased and
experiment is repeated, we will observe that β will decreases to a local minimum point
before it increases back to a local maximum point and finally decreases as usual. The
higher the Vcc the more obvious it is. Such observation is an interesting and well-known
phenomenon observed in bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). It's commonly referred to
as the "β hump" or "β bump" phenomenon. This initial decrease is the typical behavior
and aligns with our understanding of β. As I b increases, the base region becomes
flooded with minority carriers (holes in an NPN transistor), reducing the effectiveness
of further injection into the collector. This leads to a proportional decrease in I c and
consequently, β. As Vcc increases, the Vce also rises. This higher Vce widens the collector
depletion region, effectively narrowing the base width. This narrowing concentrates the
injected minority carriers in the base, increasing their effectiveness in influencing the
collector current. This will result in a temporary rise in β, exceeding its initial value at
lower Ib. This "hump" in the β vs. Ib curve becomes more pronounced with higher Vcc
because the increased Vce has a stronger impact on the base width and carrier injection
efficiency. Beyond the β hump, further increase in I b again leads to a decrease in β due
to base flooding as explained earlier. Additionally, at very high V cc and Ib, other factors
like second breakdown and thermal runaway can contribute to a more rapid decline in β.

In Figure 26: Graph of current gain, α against voltage, Vcc (V) under different
Ib (µA). current gain, α is directly proportional to Vcc (V). When a small V cc (V) is
applied, α increases drastically and approaches one when Vcc (V) increases. When Vcc is
low, the narrowing base in a transistor amplifies current flow while limited carrier
injection restricts gain. As Vcc increases, this narrowing overcomes injection limitations,
allowing the gain to skyrocket and approach unity. In essence, a smaller base act like a
superhighway for carriers at high voltages, unlocking the transistor's full potential. On
the other hand, Figure 27: Graph of current gain, α against Ib (µA) under different
voltage, Vcc (V). shows that slow decreases in α with increasing Ib. As Ib in a npn
transistor increases, the current gain (α) slowly dips. This happens because some
injected electrons recombine with holes in the base instead of reaching the collector,
reducing collector current and therefore gain. This effect becomes more pronounced at
higher base currents, but the decrease in α happens gradually rather than sharply.
6.0 CONCLUSION

In the first part of the experiment, it is found that LED, 1N4007, Germanium,
and 1N4148 diodes allow current to flow in forward biased direction while Zener diode
allow current to flow in both directions but specialize in current flowing in reverse. In
the second half of the experiment to investigate NPN common emitter transistor, I c will
be increases drastically and saturated with the increases in V ce. It is also discovered
experimentally that there is Ic drop prior entering saturation region for a transistor.
Besides, it is determined that β is generally directly proportional to V cc and saturated at
certain value. On the other hand, β is inversely proportional to I b and the effect of “β
hump” is more significant at higher Vcc. Lastly, it is observed that α increases drastically
and approaches one when Vcc increases. However, α decreases slowly with the increase
in Ib due to injected electrons recombine with holes in the base.

7.0 REFERENCES
1. Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Walker, J. (2020) Principles of Physics (11th ed.). Wiley.
2. Korneff, T. (1966). Introduction to Physics (1st ed.). Academic Press.
3. Brophy, J. J. (1990). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. McGraw-Hill.
4. Mitchell, F. H. (1969). Concept of Physics. Addison-Wesley.
5. R.Shankar. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics: Mechanics, Relativity, and
Thermodynamics. Yale University Press.
APPENDIX

MICROSOFT EXCEL GUIDELINES

Here are some examples of formulae may use:


• Reference: type =B12 to always show what is shown in cell B12.
• Add/Subtract:type =B1+B2 or B1-B2 to add/subtract the cells B1 and B2.
• Multiply: type =J53*I53 to multiply the cells J53 × I53.
• Divide: type =1/B11 to get 1 B11.
• Exponents: type =1.0E-34 to get 1.0 × 10−34.
• Power: type =2.5^2 to get 2.5 2.
• Average: type =AVERAGE(D25:D26)to get an average value for cells D25 to D26.
• Square Root: type =SQRT(D31^2+D23^2) to get √D312 + D232.
• Absolute: type =ABS(-4.5) to get |−4.5|.
• Std. Dev.: type =STDEV.S(D1,D4) to get the standard deviation of cells D1 and D4.

DATA SHEET FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES

LED diode:

Figure 28: Data sheet for LED diode.


1N4007 silicon diode:

Figure 29: Data sheet for 1N4007 silicon diode.


Zener diode:

Figure 30: Data sheet for Zener diode.


Germanium diode:

Figure 31: Data sheet for Germanium diode.


1N4148 silicon diode:
Figure 32: Data sheet for 1N4148 silicon diode.

PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP

LED diode

LED diode in forward biased,

Table 1: Data table for LED diode operates in forward biased.

Channel 4, Channel 3, Diode Resistance of


Actual Voltage Voltage across Current ( diode (Ω )
Applied (mV) Diode (mV) μA )
Voltage Applied (V)
145.3 145.6 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1
238.0 239.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.2
331.0 332.6 0.0 Irrelevant
0.3
459.0 461.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.4
564.0 566.7 0.0 Irrelevant
0.5
669.0 671.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.6
773.0 777.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.7
843.0 837.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.8
948.0 952.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.9
1075.0 1079.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.0
1134.0 1139.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.1
1274.0 1279.0 0.2 63.9500
1.2
1309.0 1314.0 0.4 32.8500
1.3
1483.0 1479.0 18.8 0.7867
1.4
1507.0 1496.0 28.9 0.5176
1.5
1635.0 1563.0 138.7 0.1127
1.6
1774.0 1600.0 319.0 0.0502
1.7
1868.0 1616.0 456.0 0.0354
1.8
1937.0 1626.0 560.0 0.0290
1.9
2010.0 1636.0 686.0 0.0238
2.0
2120.0 1647.0 851.0 0.0194
2.1
2200.0 1655.0 985.0 0.0168
2.2
2300.0 1663.0 1152.0 0.0144
2.3
2390.0 1670.0 1303.0 0.0128
2.4
2500.0 1677.0 1475.0 0.0114
2.5
2600.0 1684.0 1649.0 0.0102
2.6
2720.0 1690.0 1842.0 0.0092
2.7
2800.0 1704.0 2310.0 0.0074
2.8
2920.0 1711.0 2540.0 0.0067
2.9
3080.0 1719.0 2860.0 0.0060
3.0
3140.0 1722.0 2980.0 0.0058
3.1
3210.0 1725.0 3130.0 0.0055
3.2
3300.0 1729.0 3320.0 0.0052
3.3
3420.0 1734.0 3550.0 0.0049
3.4
3520.0 1738.0 3770.0 0.0046
3.5
3630.0 1743.0 3980.0 0.0044
3.6
3760.0 1747.0 4240.0 0.0041
3.7
3850.0 1751.0 4430.0 0.0040
3.8
3880.0 1752.0 4510.0 0.0039
3.9
4020.0 1757.0 4790.0 0.0037
4.0
4120.0 1760.0 4980.0 0.0035
4.1
4210.0 1763.0 5170.0 0.0034
4.2
4340.0 1767.0 5430.0 0.0033
4.3
4410.0 1770.0 5580.0 0.0032
4.4
4500.0 1772.0 5760.0 0.0031
4.5
4640.0 1777.0 6050.0 0.0029
4.6
4720.0 1779.0 6220.0 0.0029
4.7
4850.0 1783.0 6480.0 0.0028
4.8
4930.0 1785.0 6650.0 0.0027
4.9
5070.0 1789.0 6940.0 0.0026
5.0

LED diode in reverse biased,

Table 2: Data table for LED diode operates in reverse biased.

Channel 4, Channel 3, Diode Resistance of


Actual Voltage Voltage across Current ( diode (Ω )
Applied (mV) Diode (mV) μA )
Voltage Applied (V)
122.0 112.8 0 Irrelevant
0.1
203.0 188.1 0 Irrelevant
0.2
389.0 359.5 0 Irrelevant
0.3
470.0 434.6 0 Irrelevant
0.4
564.0 520.6 0 Irrelevant
0.5
659.0 608.8 0 Irrelevant
0.6
762.0 703.0 0 Irrelevant
0.7
843.0 778.0 0 Irrelevant
0.8
913.0 842.0 0 Irrelevant
0.9
1076.0 992.0 0 Irrelevant
1.0
1146.0 1056.0 0 Irrelevant
1.1
1263.0 1164.0 0 Irrelevant
1.2
1309.0 1207.0 0 Irrelevant
1.3
1460.0 1346.0 0 Irrelevant
1.4
1518.0 1400.0 0 Irrelevant
1.5
1693.0 1561.0 0 Irrelevant
1.6
1728.0 1593.0 0 Irrelevant
1.7
1879.0 1733.0 0 Irrelevant
1.8
1961.0 1808.0 0 Irrelevant
1.9
2060.0 1905.0 0 Irrelevant
2.0
2150.0 1990.0 0 Irrelevant
2.1
2220.0 2055.0 0 Irrelevant
2.2
2330.0 2151.0 0 Irrelevant
2.3
2430.0 2248.0 0 Irrelevant
2.4
2510.0 2323.0 0 Irrelevant
2.5
2660.0 2463.0 0 Irrelevant
2.6
2730.0 2527.0 0 Irrelevant
2.7
2870.0 2656.0 0 Irrelevant
2.8
2980.0 2752.0 0 Irrelevant
2.9
3060.0 2827.0 0 Irrelevant
3.0
3150.0 2913.0 0 Irrelevant
3.1
3230.0 2989.0 0 Irrelevant
3.2
3340.0 3084.0 0 Irrelevant
3.3
3400.0 3138.0 0 Irrelevant
3.4
3570.0 3299.0 0 Irrelevant
3.5
3650.0 3374.0 0 Irrelevant
3.6
3760.0 3470.0 0 Irrelevant
3.7
3820.0 3524.0 0 Irrelevant
3.8
3900.0 3599.0 0 Irrelevant
3.9
4040.0 3731.0 0 Irrelevant
4.0
4140.0 3824.0 0 Irrelevant
4.1
4200.0 3878.0 0 Irrelevant
4.2
4300.0 3974.0 0 Irrelevant
4.3
4420.0 4082.0 0 Irrelevant
4.4
4510.0 4168.0 0 Irrelevant
4.5
4590.0 4243.0 0 Irrelevant
4.6
4690.0 4328.0 0 Irrelevant
4.7
4870.0 4500.0 0 Irrelevant
4.8
4940.0 4565.0 0 Irrelevant
4.9
5010.0 4629.0 0 Irrelevant
5.0
1N4007 Silicon Diode

When 1N4007 silicon diode in forward biased,

Table 3: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in forward biased.

Channel 4, Channel 3, Diode Resistance of


Actual Voltage Voltage across Current ( diode (Ω )
Applied (mV) Diode (mV) μA )
Voltage Applied (V)
1.4 1.3 0.0 Irrelevant
0.0
169.1 168.9 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1
286.9 286.2 0.8 0.040
0.2
297.6 296.8 1.1 0.037
0.3
438.5 418.6 34.7 0.868
0.4
531.3 465.7 115.2 2.304
0.5
624.9 495.2 227.0 3.783
0.6
742.0 520.0 389.0 5.557
0.7
847.0 536.1 546.0 6.825
0.8
951.0 548.7 708.0 7.867
0.9
1033.0 557.0 837.0 8.370
1.0
1115.0 564.1 968.0 8.800
1.1
1232.0 573.0 1157.0 9.642
1.2
1314.0 578.4 1292.0 9.938
1.3
1466.0 587.3 1545.0 11.036
1.4
1559.0 592.0 1699.0 11.327
1.5
1687.0 597.9 1914.0 11.963
1.6
1757.0 609.4 2420.0 14.235
1.7
1839.0 612.7 2590.0 14.389
1.8
1909.0 615.3 2730.0 14.368
1.9
2014.0 619.1 2950.0 14.750
2.0
2131.0 622.9 3190.0 15.190
2.1
2224.0 625.8 3380.0 15.364
2.2
2318.0 628.6 3570.0 15.522
2.3
2457.0 632.4 3860.0 16.083
2.4
2563.0 635.0 4080.0 16.320
2.5
2680.0 637.9 4330.0 16.654
2.6
2844.0 641.5 4670.0 16.679
2.8
3099.0 646.7 5200.0 17.333
3.0
3263.0 649.7 5540.0 17.313
3.2
3449.0 653.0 5930.0 17.441
3.4
3612.0 655.6 6270.0 17.417
3.6
3857.0 659.4 6780.0 17.842
3.8
4032.0 661.0 7150.0 17.875
4.0
4266.0 665.0 7640.0 18.190
4.2
4464.0 667.0 8060.0 18.318
4.4
4698.0 670.0 8550.0 18.587
4.6
4826.0 671.0 8820.0 18.375
4.8
5060.0 674.0 9310.0 18.620
5.0

When 1N4007 silicon diode in reverse biased,

Table 4: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.

Voltage Channel 4, Actual Diode


Applied Voltage Applied Channel 3, Voltage Current Resistance
(V) (mV) across Diode (mV) (μA) of diode (Ω)
0.0 1.3 1.2 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1 180.7 180.6 0.0 Irrelevant
0.2 285.8 285.8 0.0 Irrelevant
0.3 344.2 344.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.4 484.5 484.4 0.0 Irrelevant
0.5 589.0 589.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.6 651.0 650.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.7 718.0 718.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.8 905.0 905.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.9 1034.0 1034.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.0 1127.0 1127.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.1 1221.0 1221.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.2 1291.0 1291.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.3 1314.0 1314.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.4 1454.0 1454.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.5 1536.0 1536.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.6 1630.0 1629.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.7 1711.0 1711.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.8 1840.0 1840.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.9 1968.0 1969.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.0 2074.0 2074.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.1 2144.0 2144.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.2 2239.0 2239.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.3 2366.0 2366.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.4 2471.0 2471.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.5 2518.0 2518.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.6 2623.0 2623.0 0.1 0.000385
2.7 2775.0 2775.0 0.1 0.000370
2.8 2880.0 2880.0 0.1 0.000357
2.9 2950.0 2950.0 0.1 0.000345
3.0 3032.0 3032.0 0.1 0.000333
3.1 3114.0 3114.0 0.1 0.000323
3.2 3242.0 3242.0 0.1 0.000313
3.3 3394.0 3394.0 0.1 0.000303
3.4 3464.0 3464.0 0.1 0.000294
3.5 3546.0 3545.0 0.1 0.000286
3.6 3651.0 3651.0 0.1 0.000278
3.7 3756.0 3756.0 0.1 0.000270
3.8 3884.0 3884.0 0.2 0.000526
3.9 3954.0 3954.0 0.2 0.000513
4.0 4036.0 4036.0 0.2 0.000500
4.1 4154.0 4154.0 0.2 0.000488
4.2 4316.0 4316.0 0.2 0.000476
4.3 4426.0 4426.0 0.2 0.000465
4.4 4538.0 4538.0 0.2 0.000455
4.5 4638.0 4638.0 0.2 0.000444
4.6 4632.0 4632.0 0.2 0.000435
4.7 4807.0 4807.0 0.3 0.000638
4.8 4843.0 4843.0 0.3 0.000625
4.9 4994.0 4994.0 0.3 0.000612
5.0 5088.0 5088.0 0.3 0.000600

Zener Diode

When Zener diode in forward biased,

Table 5: Data table for Zener diode operates in forward biased.

Voltage Channel 4, Actual Diode


Applied Voltage Applied Channel 3, Voltage Current Resistance
(V) (mV) across Diode (mV) (μA) of diode (Ω)
0.0 1.4 1.3 0.1 0.13
0.1 136.1 136.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.2 192.5 192.4 0.0 Irrelevant
0.3 365.1 356.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.4 438.1 438.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.5 507.9 507.9 0.0 Irrelevant
0.6 636.7 636.8 0.0 Irrelevant
0.7 765.0 765.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.8 823.0 823.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.9 976.0 976.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.0 1068.0 1068.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.1 1197.0 1197.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.2 1221.0 1221.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.3 1361.0 1361.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.4 1454.0 1454.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.5 1583.0 1583.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.6 1620.0 1620.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.7 1770.0 1770.0 0.1 177
1.8 1899.0 1899.0 0.1 189.9
1.9 1945.0 1945.0 0.2 97.25
2.0 2020.0 2020.0 0.3 67.33333
2.1 2156.0 2155.0 0.5 43.1
2.2 2214.0 2214.0 0.7 31.62857
2.3 2378.0 2377.0 1.5 15.84667
2.4 2483.0 2481.0 2.2 11.27727
2.5 2588.0 2586.0 3.5 7.388571
2.6 2635.0 2632.0 4.0 6.58
2.7 2752.0 2748.0 6.0 4.58
2.8 2857.0 2852.0 8.7 3.278161
2.9 2966.0 2959.0 12.9 2.293798
3.0 3090.0 3080.0 18.6 1.655914
3.1 3102.0 3091.0 19.3 1.601554
3.2 3289.0 3270.0 33.6 0.973214
3.4 3452.0 3422.0 52.8 0.648106
3.6 3636.0 3591.0 85.5 0.42
3.8 3861.0 3779.0 143.9 0.262613
4.0 4094.0 3960.0 235.0 0.168511
4.2 4270.0 4083.0 328.0 0.124482
4.4 4421.0 4178.0 426.0 0.098075
4.6 4667.0 4312.0 622.0 0.069325
4.8 4853.0 4398.0 799.0 0.055044
5.0 5099.0 4493.0 1064.0 0.042227

When Zener diode in reverse biased,

Table 6: Data table for Zener diode operates in reverse biased.


Voltage Channel 4, Actual Diode
Applied Voltage Applied Channel 3, Voltage Current Resistance
(V) (mV) across Diode (mV) (μA) of diode (Ω)
0.0 1.5 1.5 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1 157.5 157.5 0.0 Irrelevant
0.2 274.3 274.3 0.0 Irrelevant
0.3 309.4 309.3 0.0 Irrelevant
0.4 402.9 402.6 0.5 8.0520
0.5 543.2 534.9 13.7 0.3904
0.6 648.4 604.2 75.6 0.0799
0.7 765.0 643.7 207.0 0.0311
0.8 893.0 667.0 388.0 0.0172
0.9 940.0 673.0 457.0 0.0147
1.0 1056.0 685.0 636.0 0.0108
1.1 1185.0 694.0 838.0 0.0083
1.2 1267.0 700.0 969.0 0.0072
1.3 1395.0 706.0 117.7 0.0600
1.4 1454.0 709.0 1272.0 0.0056
1.5 1536.0 712.0 1407.0 0.0051
1.6 1664.0 717.0 1618.0 0.0044
1.7 1711.0 719.0 1697.0 0.0042
1.8 1816.0 722.0 1872.0 0.0039
1.9 1956.0 733.0 2600.0 0.0028
2.0 2026.0 735.0 2750.0 0.0027
2.1 2108.0 737.0 2920.0 0.0025
2.2 2283.0 740.0 3290.0 0.0022
2.3 2341.0 742.0 3410.0 0.0022
2.4 2493.0 744.0 3730.0 0.0020
2.5 2563.0 746.0 3880.0 0.0019
2.6 2680.0 748.0 4130.0 0.0018
2.7 2796.0 749.0 4370.0 0.0017
2.8 2855.0 750.0 4500.0 0.0017
2.9 2959.0 752.0 4720.0 0.0016
3.0 3064.0 753.0 4940.0 0.0015
3.2 3251.0 756.0 5330.0 0.0014
3.4 3437.0 758.0 5730.0 0.0013
3.6 3647.0 760.0 6180.0 0.0012
3.8 3831.0 762.0 6560.0 0.0012
4.0 4009.0 764.0 6940.0 0.0011
4.2 4231.0 766.0 7420.0 0.0010
4.4 4417.0 767.0 7810.0 0.0010
4.6 4639.0 769.0 8280.0 0.0009
4.8 4861.0 770.0 8760.0 0.0009
5.0 5036.0 772.0 9120.0 0.0008

Germanium Diode
When Germanium diode in forward biased,

Table 7: Data table for Germanium diode operates in forward biased.

Voltage Channel 4, Actual Diode


Applied Voltage Applied Channel 3, Voltage Current Resistance
(V) (mV) across Diode (mV) (μA) of diode (Ω)
0.0 1.3 1.4 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1 157.3 119.4 67.1 0.01779
0.2 239.1 157.9 143.7 0.01099
0.3 309.1 184.5 219.0 0.00842
0.4 438.0 224.4 375.0 0.00598
0.5 519.6 246.2 480.0 0.00513
0.6 648.2 276.7 653.0 0.00424
0.7 718.0 291.9 749.0 0.00390
0.8 880.0 308.6 864.0 0.00357
0.9 917.0 330.9 1030.0 0.00321
1.0 1010.0 347.7 1165.0 0.00298
1.1 1162.0 373.3 1387.0 0.00269
1.2 1221.0 382.7 1473.0 0.00260
1.3 1337.0 400.2 1647.0 0.00243
1.4 1408.0 411.4 1751.0 0.00235
1.5 1548.0 431.7 1963.0 0.00220
1.6 1676.0 482.4 2540.0 0.00190
1.7 1746.0 492.8 2660.0 0.00185
1.8 1828.0 504.8 2820.0 0.00179
1.9 1934.0 519.7 3010.0 0.00173
2.0 2039.0 534.3 3200.0 0.00167
2.1 2167.0 551.8 3440.0 0.00160
2.2 2261.0 564.2 3610.0 0.00156
2.3 2355.0 576.3 3790.0 0.00152
2.4 2458.0 589.6 3980.0 0.00148
2.5 2588.0 606.0 4230.0 0.00143
2.6 2694.0 618.9 4420.0 0.00140
2.7 2763.0 627.4 4550.0 0.00138
2.8 2829.0 635.2 4680.0 0.00136
2.9 2933.0 647.5 4880.0 0.00133
3.0 3044.0 660.0 5080.0 0.00130
3.1 3125.0 676.0 5240.0 0.00129
3.2 3230.0 682.0 5440.0 0.00125
3.3 3324.0 692.0 5610.0 0.00123
3.4 3452.0 706.0 5860.0 0.00120
3.5 3581.0 721.0 6100.0 0.00118
3.6 3627.0 726.0 6200.0 0.00117
3.7 3779.0 742.0 6480.0 0.00115
3.8 3849.0 749.0 6620.0 0.00113
3.9 3943.0 759.0 6800.0 0.00112
4.0 4059.0 772.0 7020.0 0.00110
4.1 4156.0 781.0 7200.0 0.00108
4.2 4270.0 793.0 7420.0 0.00107
4.3 4351.0 801.0 7580.0 0.00106
4.4 4445.0 811.0 7760.0 0.00105
4.5 4527.0 819.0 7920.0 0.00103
4.6 4620.0 828.0 8100.0 0.00102
4.7 4738.0 840.0 8330.0 0.00101
4.8 4831.0 849.0 8510.0 0.00100
4.9 4947.0 860.0 8730.0 0.00099
5.0 5017.0 867.0 8860.0 0.00098

When Germanium diode in reverse biased,

Table 8: Data table for Germanium diode operates in reverse biased.

Voltage Channel 4, Actual Diode


Applied Voltage Applied Channel 3, Voltage Current Resistance
(V) (mV) across Diode (mV) (μA) of diode (Ω)
0.0 1.4 1.4 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1 145.7 145.6 0.0 Irrelevant
0.2 262.7 262.5 0.0 Irrelevant
0.3 309.3 309.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.4 414.4 414.3 0.0 Irrelevant
0.5 590.0 589.8 0.0 Irrelevant
0.6 671.0 671.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.7 788.0 788.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.8 824.0 823.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.9 953.0 952.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.0 1059.0 1058.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.1 1174.0 1174.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.2 1274.0 1274.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.3 1361.0 1361.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.4 1431.0 1431.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.5 1513.0 1512.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.6 1642.0 1641.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.7 1735.0 1735.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.8 1875.0 1875.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.9 1992.0 1992.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.0 2062.0 2062.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.1 2121.0 2121.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.2 2238.0 2237.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.3 2332.0 2332.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.4 2460.0 2460.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.5 2541.0 2541.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.6 2635.0 2635.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.7 2717.0 2716.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.8 2869.0 2869.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.9 2950.0 2950.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.0 3067.0 3067.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.1 3125.0 3125.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.2 3242.0 3242.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.3 3359.0 3359.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.4 3487.0 3487.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.5 3522.0 3522.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.6 3639.0 3639.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.7 3791.0 3791.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.8 3896.0 3896.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.9 3955.0 3954.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.0 4036.0 4036.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.1 4130.0 4129.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.2 4258.0 4258.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.3 4387.0 4386.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.4 4480.0 4480.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.5 4538.0 4538.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.6 4656.0 4655.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.7 4761.0 4760.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.8 4854.0 4854.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.9 4936.0 4936.0 0.0 Irrelevant
5.0 5076.0 5076.0 0.0 Irrelevant

1N4148 Silicon Diode

When 1N4148 Silicon diode in forward biased,

Table 9: Data table for 1N4148 Silicon diode operates in forward biased.

Voltage Channel 4, Actual Diode


Applied Voltage Applied Channel 3, Voltage Current Resistance
(V) (mV) across Diode (mV) (μA) of diode (Ω)
0.0 1.4 1.5 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1 110.6 110.7 0.0 Irrelevant
0.2 286.0 285.5 0.1 57.10000
0.3 367.7 365.0 2.3 1.58696
0.4 438.1 428.0 25.2 0.16984
0.5 551.0 497.9 94.2 0.05286
0.6 683.0 543.0 246.0 0.02207
0.7 742.0 556.1 326.0 0.01706
0.8 823.0 570.5 444.0 0.01285
0.9 917.0 583.5 586.0 0.00996
1.0 1022.0 595.1 750.0 0.00793
1.1 1139.0 605.6 937.0 0.00646
1.2 1223.0 612.0 1073.0 0.00570
1.3 1326.0 619.0 1243.0 0.00498
1.4 1478.0 627.7 1494.0 0.00420
1.5 1525.0 630.2 1572.0 0.00401
1.6 1641.0 635.8 1767.0 0.00360
1.7 1747.0 640.5 1944.0 0.00329
1.8 1840.0 653.3 2530.0 0.00258
1.9 1992.0 659.0 2840.0 0.00232
2.0 2075.0 661.0 3020.0 0.00219
2.1 2156.0 664.0 3180.0 0.00209
2.2 2249.0 667.0 3380.0 0.00197
2.3 2319.0 669.0 3520.0 0.00190
2.4 2459.0 673.0 3810.0 0.00177
2.5 2530.0 675.0 3960.0 0.00170
2.6 2658.0 679.0 4230.0 0.00161
2.7 2752.0 681.0 4430.0 0.00154
2.8 2868.0 684.0 4670.0 0.00146
2.9 2985.0 686.0 4910.0 0.00140
3.0 3090.0 689.0 5140.0 0.00134
3.1 3184.0 691.0 5330.0 0.00130
3.2 3254.0 692.0 5480.0 0.00126
3.3 3335.0 694.0 5650.0 0.00123
3.4 3452.0 696.0 5900.0 0.00118
3.5 3534.0 698.0 6070.0 0.00115
3.6 3651.0 700.0 6310.0 0.00111
3.7 3753.0 702.0 6530.0 0.00108
3.8 3884.0 704.0 6800.0 0.00104
3.9 3978.0 705.0 7000.0 0.00101
4.0 4069.0 707.0 7170.0 0.00099
4.1 4153.0 708.0 7370.0 0.00096
4.2 4235.0 710.0 7550.0 0.00094
4.3 4328.0 711.0 7740.0 0.00092
4.4 4422.0 712.0 7940.0 0.00090
4.5 4585.0 715.0 8280.0 0.00086
4.6 4632.0 716.0 8380.0 0.00085
4.7 4807.0 718.0 8750.0 0.00082
4.8 4866.0 719.0 8880.0 0.00081
4.9 4936.0 720.0 9020.0 0.00080
5.0 5019.0 721.0 9200.0 0.00078
When 1N4148 silicon diode in reverse biased,

Table 10: Data table for 1N4148 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.

Voltage Channel 4, Actual Diode


Applied Voltage Applied Channel 3, Voltage Current Resistance
(V) (mV) across Diode (mV) (μA) of diode (Ω)
0.0 1.4 1.4 0.0 Irrelevant
0.1 111.0 111.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.2 274.3 274.3 0.0 Irrelevant
0.3 297.7 297.7 0.0 Irrelevant
0.4 438.1 438.1 0.0 Irrelevant
0.5 543.3 543.3 0.0 Irrelevant
0.6 636.0 636.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.7 742.0 742.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.8 882.0 882.0 0.0 Irrelevant
0.9 987.0 987.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.0 1057.0 1057.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.1 1150.0 1150.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.2 1222.0 1222.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.3 1396.0 1396.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.4 1466.0 1466.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.5 1536.0 1536.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.6 1676.0 1676.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.7 1758.0 1758.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.8 1864.0 1864.0 0.0 Irrelevant
1.9 1946.0 1946.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.0 2097.0 2098.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.1 2156.0 2156.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.2 2284.0 2284.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.3 2343.0 2343.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.4 2437.0 2437.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.5 2576.0 2576.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.6 2635.0 2635.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.7 2799.0 2799.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.8 2881.0 2881.0 0.0 Irrelevant
2.9 2939.0 2939.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.0 3021.0 3021.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.1 3173.0 3173.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.2 3266.0 3266.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.3 3348.0 3347.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.4 3487.0 3487.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.5 3569.0 3569.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.6 3651.0 3651.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.7 3791.0 3791.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.8 3838.0 3838.0 0.0 Irrelevant
3.9 3943.0 3943.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.0 4025.0 4025.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.1 4184.0 4184.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.2 4305.0 4305.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.3 4352.0 4352.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.4 4422.0 4422.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.5 4551.0 4550.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.6 4691.0 4691.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.7 4796.0 4796.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.8 4866.0 4866.0 0.0 Irrelevant
4.9 4959.0 4959.0 0.0 Irrelevant
5.0 5030.0 5030.0 0.0 Irrelevant
PART B: NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP

When I b=20 μA ,

Table 11: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=20 μA .

Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 -5.1 0.6 563 -0.255 -0.3423
0 104.7 5.6 568.4 5.235 0.8396
0 258 11.6 573.8 12.900 0.9281
0.1 327 14 575.8 16.350 0.9424
0.1 429 17.1 578.8 21.450 0.9555
0.1 557 20.8 581.8 27.850 0.9653
0.1 712 24.6 585.3 35.600 0.9727
0.2 996 31.1 590.5 49.800 0.9803
0.2 1032 31.9 591 51.600 0.9810
0.2 1143 34 593.7 57.150 0.9828
0.2 1191 35 593.6 59.550 0.9835
0.3 1204 35 593.9 60.200 0.9837
0.4 1691 43.9 600.1 84.550 0.9883
0.5 3840 72.1 617.9 192.000 0.9948
1 8100 137.2 635.6 405.000 0.9975
1.5 8330 661 635.8 416.500 0.9976
2 8730 1082 620.5 436.500 0.9977
2.5 8700 1619 616.7 435.000 0.9977
3 8750 2107 615.3 437.500 0.9977
3.5 8810 2573 614.2 440.500 0.9977
4 8900 3089 612.7 445.000 0.9978
4.5 9020 3599 622.6 451.000 0.9978
5 9060 4033 609.2 453.000 0.9978

When I b=4 0 μA,

Table 12: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=4 0 μA .

Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 10 0.4 585 0.250 0.2000
0 225 5.6 589.6 5.625 0.8491
0 540 11.5 594.8 13.500 0.9310
0.1 640 13 596.1 16.000 0.9412
0.1 1020 19.1 601 25.500 0.9623
0.1 1240 22.1 603.4 31.000 0.9688
0.1 1330 23.4 604.5 33.250 0.9708
0.2 1610 26.1 607.5 40.250 0.9758
0.2 1960 29.9 610.3 49.000 0.9800
0.2 2130 31.8 611.7 53.250 0.9816
0.2 2270 33.2 612.8 56.750 0.9827
0.3 2620 36.5 615.2 65.500 0.9850
0.4 3660 45.6 621.5 91.500 0.9892
0.5 4790 54.2 627 119.750 0.9917
1 9020 81 641.6 225.500 0.9956
1.5 13410 113.4 651.2 335.250 0.9970
2 17480 196.6 656.9 437.000 0.9977
2.5 17280 714 656.5 432.000 0.9977
3 16210 1404 620.3 405.250 0.9975
3.5 15420 1897 619.2 385.500 0.9974
4 15690 2346 619 392.250 0.9975
4.5 16430 2862 616.8 410.750 0.9976
5 15910 3350 610.4 397.750 0.9975

When I b=7 0 μA ,

Table 13: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=7 0 μA .

Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 -10 0.5 602.8 -0.143 -0.1667
0 330 4.6 606.6 4.714 0.8250
0 580 7.3 608.9 8.286 0.8923
0.1 720 8.6 610 10.286 0.9114
0.1 1070 12 612.9 15.286 0.9386
0.1 1350 14.4 614.9 19.286 0.9507
0.1 1520 15.8 616.1 21.714 0.9560
0.2 1780 18.1 617.7 25.429 0.9622
0.2 1850 18.7 618.2 26.429 0.9635
0.2 2170 21.1 620.1 31.000 0.9688
0.2 2320 22.2 621 33.143 0.9707
0.3 3110 27.6 625.1 44.429 0.9780
0.4 3800 31.8 628.3 54.286 0.9819
0.5 4800 37.5 632.3 68.571 0.9856
1 9350 57.8 646.2 133.571 0.9926
1.5 14150 77.4 655.8 202.143 0.9951
2 18740 96.6 662 267.714 0.9963
2.5 23700 123 668 338.571 0.9971
3 27600 155.3 672 394.286 0.9975
3.5 31300 353 673 447.143 0.9978
4 25100 1746 600 358.571 0.9972
4.5 21200 2275 588 302.857 0.9967
5 21600 2820 584 308.571 0.9968

When I b=110 μA ,

Table 14: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=110 μA .

Vcc Ic Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) Amplification factor, Current gain, α


(µA) β
0 -10 0.5 618 -0.091 -0.1000
0 360 3.2 620 3.273 0.7660
0 510 4.2 621 4.636 0.8226
0.1 720 5.6 622 6.545 0.8675
0.1 860 6.5 623 7.818 0.8866
0.1 1050 7.7 624 9.545 0.9052
0.1 1210 8.7 625 11.000 0.9167
0.2 1770 11.9 627 16.091 0.9415
0.2 2000 13.2 629 18.182 0.9479
0.2 2160 14.1 629 19.636 0.9515
0.2 2280 14.7 630 20.727 0.9540
0.3 3140 19 633 28.545 0.9662
0.4 3790 22.1 636 34.455 0.9718
0.5 4860 26.7 639 44.182 0.9779
1 9380 43.5 650 85.273 0.9884
1.5 14200 58.6 659 129.091 0.9923
2 18720 71.9 666 170.182 0.9942
2.5 23500 86.3 672 213.636 0.9953
3 27500 99 676 250.000 0.9960
3.5 33000 115.2 681 300.000 0.9967
4 37100 132.9 684 337.273 0.9970
4.5 41500 159.4 687 377.273 0.9974
5 45900 209.5 688 417.273 0.9976
5.5 49200 379 688 447.273 0.9978
6 26400 377 552.8 240.000 0.9959
6.5 28300 449 545.8 257.273 0.9961
7 28800 526 546 261.818 0.9962

When I b=1 6 0 μA,

Table 15: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=1 6 0 μA.

Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 0 0 630.4 0.000 0.0000
0 370 2.5 632.7 2.313 0.6981
0 650 3.7 633.8 4.063 0.8025
0.1 710 4 634.1 4.438 0.8161
0.1 970 5.2 635.2 6.063 0.8584
0.1 1290 6.6 636.3 8.063 0.8897
0.1 1560 7.7 637.3 9.750 0.9070
0.2 1710 8.3 637.8 10.688 0.9144
0.2 1820 8.8 638.2 11.375 0.9192
0.2 2160 10.1 639.3 13.500 0.9310
0.2 2350 10.9 640 14.688 0.9363
0.3 3270 14.4 642.7 20.438 0.9534
0.4 4150 17.4 645.1 25.938 0.9629
0.5 5200 21 647.8 32.500 0.9701
1 9560 33.9 656.9 59.750 0.9835
1.5 14030 45.3 664 87.688 0.9887
2 18890 56.8 670 118.063 0.9916
2.5 23500 67.4 676 146.875 0.9932
3 27800 77.3 680 173.750 0.9943
3.5 33000 89.2 684 206.250 0.9952
4 37900 101.4 688 236.875 0.9958
4.5 41900 112.2 691 261.875 0.9962
5 46800 125.9 693 292.500 0.9966
5.5 51600 143.8 696 322.500 0.9969
6 55800 164.4 699 348.750 0.9971
6.5 60400 205.7 700 377.500 0.9974
7 65100 275.4 701 406.875 0.9975
7.5 68900 327.1 701 430.625 0.9977
8 34200 324.4 496.2 213.750 0.9953
8.5 34500 328.7 484.5 215.625 0.9954
9 34700 328.4 473.8 216.875 0.9954

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