2ss7 Characteristics Curves of Semiconductor
2ss7 Characteristics Curves of Semiconductor
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PARTICULARS
Name: LUAY CHEE YI
Matric no.: 161864
Group: W6
Expt. Code: 2TS1
Expt. Title: CHARACTERISTICS CURVES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Lecturer in charge: DR YAM FONG KWONG
Report due date: 10 January, 2024
By
LUAY CHEE YI
2024
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES...........................................................................................................4
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................5
ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................6
1.0 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................7
1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: DIODES AND TRANSISTORS......................7
1.2 OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................7
2.0 THEORY.....................................................................................................................8
2.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE.................................................................................8
2.1.1 Static Characteristics........................................................................................9
2.2 POWER BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR.....................................................................10
2.2.1 Static Characteristics......................................................................................12
2.3 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER...................................................................13
2.3.1 Common-Emitter Configuration....................................................................13
3.0 METHODOLOGY....................................................................................................15
3.1 PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP.......................................15
3.2 PART B: NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP..................16
4.0 RESULTS..................................................................................................................17
4.1 PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP.......................................17
4.1.1 Diode Current when different diodes are used...............................................17
4.1.2 Resistance (Ω) Across Each Diode with Respect to Voltage Applied (mV). 20
4.2 NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP..................................21
4.2.1 Ic (µA) Reading of Transistor Varies with Vce (mV) under Different Ib
(µA).........................................................................................................................21
4.2.2 Amplification Factor, β in the Function of Base Current, Ib and Vcc..............21
4.2.3 Current Gain, α in the Function of Base Current, Ib and Vcc..........................22
5.0 DISCUSSIONS.........................................................................................................24
6.0 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................26
7.0 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................26
APPENDIX.....................................................................................................................27
MICROSOFT EXCEL GUIDELINES........................................................................27
DATA SHEET FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF DIODES..........................................27
PART A: DIODE RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP.............................................29
LED diode...............................................................................................................29
1N4007 Silicon Diode.............................................................................................33
Zener Diode.............................................................................................................35
Germanium Diode...................................................................................................38
1N4148 Silicon Diode.............................................................................................40
PART B: NPN TRANSISTOR RELATED EXPERIMENT SET UP........................43
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Simplified illustration of a junction diode structure..........................................8
Figure 2: The symbol used for a diode and its current and voltage references.................8
Figure 3: Static characteristic of an ideal diode................................................................9
Figure 4: Static characteristic of a real diode....................................................................9
Figure 5: Structure of a planar bipolar junction transistor..............................................10
Figure 6: Power transistor vertical structure...................................................................11
Figure 7: Circuit symbols, (A) NPN transistor and (B) PNP transistor..........................12
Figure 8: Base current plotted as a function of the base-emitter voltage........................13
Figure 9: Collector current as a function of the collector-emitter voltage with the base
current as the controlling variable...................................................................................13
Figure 10: CE Configuration...........................................................................................13
Figure 11: Input characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor...............................14
Figure 12: Output characteristics for common-emitter npn transistor............................14
Figure 13: The equivalent diode circuitry of the Experiment set up...............................15
Figure 14: Actual circuit connection...............................................................................15
Figure 15: The equivalent transistor circuitry of the Experiment set up.........................16
Figure 16: Actual circuit connection...............................................................................16
Figure 17: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for LED
diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 2.0 V...................................................17
Figure 18: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4007
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.......................................17
Figure 19: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for Zener
diode. It is estimated that the reverse voltage is -1.2 V and current flows in opposite
direction...........................................................................................................................18
Figure 20: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for
Germanium diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.5 V...............................19
Figure 21: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4148
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.......................................19
Figure 22: Graph of resistance (Ω) across each diode against voltage applied (mV).....20
Figure 23: Graph of Ic (µA) against Vce (mV) under different Ib (µA)............................21
Figure 24: Graph of amplification factor, β against voltage, Vcc (V) under different Ib
(µA).................................................................................................................................21
Figure 25: Graph of amplification factor, β against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc
(V)....................................................................................................................................22
Figure 26: Graph of current gain, α against voltage, Vcc (V) under different Ib (µA)....22
Figure 27: Graph of current gain, α against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc (V)....23
Figure 28: Data sheet for LED diode..............................................................................27
Figure 29: Data sheet for 1N4007 silicon diode..............................................................27
Figure 30: Data sheet for Zener diode.............................................................................28
Figure 31: Data sheet for Germanium diode...................................................................28
Figure 32: Data sheet for 1N4148 silicon diode..............................................................29
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Data table for LED diode operates in forward biased.......................................29
Table 2: Data table for LED diode operates in reverse biased........................................31
Table 3: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in forward biased......................33
Table 4: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.......................34
Table 5: Data table for Zener diode operates in forward biased.....................................35
Table 6: Data table for Zener diode operates in reverse biased......................................37
Table 7: Data table for Germanium diode operates in forward biased............................38
Table 8: Data table for Germanium diode operates in reverse biased.............................39
Table 9: Data table for 1N4148 Silicon diode operates in forward biased.....................40
Table 10: Data table for 1N4148 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.....................42
Table 11: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=20 μA .. . .43
Table 12: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=40 μA .. . .44
Table 13: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=70 μA.. . .44
Table 14: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=110 μA ...45
Table 14: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under Ib=160 μA .. 45
ABSTRACT
In the part A of this experiment, we investigate five different types of diodes and
their behaviors which are LED, 1N4007, Zener, Germanium, and 1N4148 diodes. it is
found that LED, 1N4007, Germanium, and 1N4148 diodes allow current to flow in
forward biased direction while Zener diode allow current to flow in both directions but
specialize in current flowing in reverse. In the part B of this experiment to investigate
NPN common emitter transistor, Ic will be increases drastically and saturated with the
increases in Vce. It is also discovered experimentally that there is I c drop prior entering
saturation region for a transistor. Besides, it is determined that β is generally directly
proportional to Vcc and saturated at certain value. On the other hand, β is inversely
proportional to Ib and the effect of “β hump” is more significant at higher V cc. Lastly, it
is observed that α increases drastically and approaches one when V cc increases.
However, α decreases slowly with the increase in Ib.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES: DIODES AND TRANSISTORS
1.2 OBJECTIVES
A semiconductor diode isa structure containing a PN junction that, within its voltage
and current rates, allows the conduction of current only in one direction. If the P region
experiences a higher potential compared with the region N, the diode is said to be
forward-biased, and a current can flow through the diode. On the other hand, if the
region N experiences a higher voltage compared with the region P, the diode is said to
be reversed-biased. In this case, no current flows through the diode. Figure 1 shows a
simplified illustration of such a diode structure.
When a positive voltage higher than the threshold is applied between the PN
junctions, the potential barrier is reduced, minimizing the depletion area, and the
carriers are free to conduct through the regions, leading the diode to be forward-biased.
Figure 2: The symbol used for a diode and its current and voltage references.
2.1.1 Static Characteristics
The static characteristic of an ideal diode is portrayed in Figure 3. For voltages VAK > 0,
the diode conducts with current IF under null voltage. Consequently, the diode can be
represented as a short circuit. For voltages V AK < 0, the diode holds a negative voltage,
and it does not conduct any current. Therefore, the diode can be represented by an open
circuit. The use of an ideal diode in analyzing circuits is accepted in power electronic
applications, since it is necessary only to know if the diode is forward- or reversed-
biased. However, in applications where a deeper analysis is required, it is necessary to
consider the diode real features. Figure 4 presents the static characteristic of a real
diode. The characteristic curve is not on scale for better visualization. The first quadrant
is the region where the diode is forward-biased. In this case, the diode is in ON state.
The third quadrant is the region of reverse bias. Thus, the diode is in OFF state.
Forward voltage, VF
The voltage drop across the diode, from terminal A to K, at a specific current
when the diode is forward-biased.
Breakdown voltage, VB
The maximum reverse voltage across the diode before the diode starts reverse
conduction and gets severe damaged. The point at Vb is also known as avalanche
point.
Reverse current IR
The current at a particular reverse volt-age. This current is usually in the range
of μA and hardly taken into account in analysis of power electronic circuits.
Bipolar junction transistors (BJT) are used to be the traditional component for driving
several of those industrial applications. However, insulated gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT) and metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)technology
have progressed so that they are viable replacements for the BJT. However, BJTs still
have performance areas in which they may be preferably used, especially when the cost
is the main concern.
Equation 1:
V BE
ηVr
I E =I E 0 ( e −1)
where IE is the saturation current of the base-emitter junction that is a function of the
doping levels, temperature, and the area of the base-emitter junction; V T is the thermal
voltage Kt/q; and η is the emission coefficient. The electron current arriving at the
collector junction can be expressed as a fraction α of the total current crossing the base-
emitter junction as shown in Equation 2.
Equation 2:
I C =α I E
Since the transistor is a three-terminal device, I E is equal to IC + IB; hence, the base
current can be expressed as the remaining fraction, given by Equation 3.
Equation 3:
I β =(1−α ) I E
The collector and base currents are thus related by the ratio given in Equation 4.
Equation 4:
IC α
= =β
I β (1−α )
The values of α and β for a given transistor depend primarily on the doping densities in
the base, collector, and emitter regions and on the device geometry. Carrier
recombination and temperature also affect the values for both parameters. A power
transistor requires a large blocking voltage in the OFF state and a high-current
capability in the ON state. A vertically oriented four-layer structure as shown in Figure
6 is preferable because it maximizes the cross-sectional area through which the current
flows, reducing the on-state resistance and power dissipation in the device. There is an
intermediate collector region with moderate doping. The emitter region is controlled so
as to have a homogenous electric field.
Figure 6: Power transistor vertical structure.
From a circuit point of view,Equation 4: Equation 1 and Equation 4 are used to
relate the variables of the BJT input port (formed by base and emitter) to the output port
(collector and emitter). The circuit symbols are shown in Figure 7. Most of the power
electronic applications use NPN transistor because electrons move faster than holes, and
therefore, NPN transistors have considerable faster commutation times compared with
the equivalent PNP transistors.
The static ratings determine the maximum allowable limits of current and voltage. The
absolute voltage limit mechanism is concerned to the avalanche such that thermal
runaway does not occur. Forward current ratings are specified at which the junction
temperature does not exceed a rated value. Figure 8 shows the base current IB plotted as
a function of the base-emitter voltage V BE. The Vf voltage is around 0.7 V for silicon
BJTs.
Figure 9: Collector current as a function of the collector-emitter voltage with the base
current as the controlling variable.
Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different
values.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
Figure 13: The equivalent diode circuitry of the Experiment set up.
Figure 14: Actual circuit connection.
The experiment is set up as shown in the figures above. The LED diode is
installed in direction that it is forward biased. Before the experiment started, the initial
reading at channel 1, 2, and 4 are recorded. Then, the voltage applied is increased in
step of 0.1 V to a range of 5.0 V. The readings on channel 1, 2, and 4 are recorded for
each time increment in voltage. Once the forward biased is done, the diode is then
installed reverse biased direction. All the channels reading are taken as previously. The
experiment is repeated with different diodes such as 1N4007 silicon diode, Zener diode,
Germanium diode and lastly 1N4148 silicon diode. The resistance across the diodes is
calculated and graphs are plotted to analyse these diodes.
The experiment is set up as shown in the figures above. The initial I b is set to
20 μA . All the initial readings on channel 1 to 4 are recorded prior to the experiment.
The voltage is increased slowly initially due to the drastic change in I c and increasing in
voltage interval when the increases in I c slows down. The experiment is repeated with
different values of I b which are 40 μA , 70 μA , 110 μA , and 160 μA . The values of α and
β are calculated. Graphs are plotted to analyse the characteristics of the transistor used.
4.0 RESULTS
All the channels reading and calculations are done using Excel and can be found in
APPENDIX.
Figure 17: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for LED
diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 2.0 V.
Based on Figure 28: Data sheet for LED diode. in APPENDIX,
Theoretical reverse voltage = 5.0 V. Since voltage applied ≤ 5.0 V, we do not observe
voltage breakdown.
10000.0
Current across diode (µA)
R² = 0.996997221859849 8000.0
6000.0
4000.0
2000.0
0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)
Figure 18: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4007
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.
Based on Figure 29: Data sheet for 1N4007 silicon diode. in APPENDIX,
6000.0
4000.0
2000.0
0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)
Figure 19: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for Zener
diode. It is estimated that the reverse voltage is -1.2 V and current flows in opposite
direction.
Based on Figure 30: Data sheet for Zener diode. in APPENDIX,
Zener diode allows current to travel in opposite direction as compared to normal diode.
When voltage applied ≥ 4.7 V, there is a small voltage breakdown.
6000.0
4000.0
2000.0
0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)
Figure 20: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for
Germanium diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.5 V.
Based on Figure 31: Data sheet for Germanium diode. in APPENDIX,
10000.0
Current across diode (micro
R² = 0.997951244517452 8000.0
6000.0
A)
4000.0
2000.0
0.0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
Applied Voltage (mV)
Figure 21: Graph of current across diode (µA) against applied voltage (mV) for 1N4148
silicon diode. It is estimated that the forward voltage is 1.0 V.
Based on Figure 32: Data sheet for 1N4148 silicon diode. in APPENDIX,
4.1.2 Resistance (Ω) Across Each Diode with Respect to Voltage Applied (mV)
60
50
30
20
10
0
-6000 -4000 -2000 0 2000 4000 6000
When current flows across LED, 1N4007, 1N4148, Germanium diodes in forward
biased direction while reverse biased for Zener diode, the resistance of the diode
ascends in the order of:
Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode < 1N4148 silicon diode < LED diode <
Zener diode.
Hence, it can be deduced that the thickness of the depletion region ascends in the order
of:
Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode < 1N4148 silicon diode < LED diode <
Zener diode.
4.2.1 I c (µA) Reading of Transistor Varies with V ce (mV) under Different I b (µA).
80000
70000
60000
50000
Ic (µA)
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Vce (mV)
500.000
450.000
400.000
Amplification factor, B
350.000
300.000
250.000
200.000
150.000
100.000
50.000
0.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Amplification factor, B
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0V 1V 2V 3V 4V 5V
Figure 25: Graph of amplification factor, β against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc
(V).
4.2.3 Current Gain, α in the Function of Base Current, Ib and Vcc.
1.2000
1.0000
0.8000
Current gain, α
0.6000
0.4000
0.2000
0.0000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.8
Current gain, α
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0V 1V 2V 3V 4V 5V
Figure 27: Graph of current gain, α against Ib (µA) under different voltage, Vcc (V).
5.0 DISCUSSIONS
In the first part of experiment, it is observed that all the five diodes only allow
current to flow in certain direction. For LED, 1N4007, Germanium, and 1N4148 diodes,
current can travel through the diodes when the voltage applied more than forward
voltage and they are placed in forward biased direction. From their respective graphs, it
is found that when negative voltage is applied none of the current can flow through. In
reverse biased conditions, the diode's p-type material becomes negatively charged and
the n-type material becomes positively charged. This creates a depletion region at the
junction between the two materials, which acts as a barrier to the flow of current in the
reverse direction. The width of the depletion region increases as the reverse voltage
across the diode increases, which further reduces the flow of current in the reverse
direction. As a result, the diode effectively prevents the flow of current in the reverse
direction. On the other hand, Zener diode allow current to flow in both directions but
specialize in current flowing in reverse. From Figure 19, it is observed that current pass
through easily when negative voltage is applied. When positive voltage is applied,
current in the diode stays zero and only a small increment is detected after a voltage
applied is bigger than 4.8 V. The main mechanism responsible for reverse current flow
in Zener diodes is Zener effect. When a high reverse voltage is applied, the electric field
across the p-n junction becomes extremely strong. This intense field causes electrons to
"tunnel" directly from the valence band in the p-type region to the conduction band in
the n-type region, even though they don't have enough energy to overcome the bandgap
in normal conditions. This sudden influx of free charge carriers allows a significant
current to flow through the diode in the reverse direction.
Besides, a graph of resistance (Ω) across each diode against voltage applied
(mV) is plotted in Figure 22 too. From the graph, it can be observed that when the
diodes allow current to pass through the diode the resistance across diode ascends in the
order of Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode < 1N4148 silicon diode < LED
diode < Zener diode. This can give us some insight although not entirely accurate about
their depletion region thickness. Hence, we may deduce that the depletion region
thickness ascends in the same order as Germanium diode < 1N4007 silicon diode <
1N4148 silicon diode < LED diode < Zener diode. There are other factors such as
concentration of mobile electrons affecting the thickness of depletion region but this
result still anyway offers some insights. Furthermore, it is also observed that the
resistance across diode when reverse biased is significantly higher than that of forward
biased. This observation can explain why current cannot pass through for reverse biased
except for Zener diode.
In the part B of the experiment, graph of I c (µA) against Vce (mV) under
different Ib (µA) is plotted in Figure 23. From the graph, the collector current, I c
initially increases drastically until it achieved a maximum value. Then, the I c drops
sharply just before it enters the saturation region. The magnitude in which the I c drops
is directly proportional to the base current, I b. Such a phenomenon differs than that of
theory which does not has the drop in I c prior entering saturation region. The significant
drop in I c for a transistor before it enters saturation can be attributed to the Early effect.
As the collector-emitter voltage (Vce) increases, the depletion region surrounding the
collector-base junction widens. This widening effectively reduces the base width,
consequently decreasing the base current (I b). Since Ic is directly proportional to I b
through the relationship Ic = β * Ib, a decrease in Ib leads to a proportional decrease in I c.
This effect becomes more pronounced at higher V ce values, causing Ic to drop before the
transistor reaches saturation. Besides, channel length modulation can cause the I c to
drop too. When Vce increases, the depletion region at the collector-emitter junction also
extends towards the channel (the conducting path between source and drain). This
effectively shortens the channel length. A shorter channel offers less resistance to
current flow, causing the drain current to rise. However, due to the constant gate voltage
and limited carrier mobility, an increase in I d leads to a decrease in V ds to maintain a
constant channel voltage (Vgs - Vt, where Vgs is the gate-source voltage and V t is the
threshold voltage). The decrease in Vds translates to a lower Vce (Vce = Vcc - Vds), which
in turn reduces the base current and consequently the collector current.
In Figure 26: Graph of current gain, α against voltage, Vcc (V) under different
Ib (µA). current gain, α is directly proportional to Vcc (V). When a small V cc (V) is
applied, α increases drastically and approaches one when Vcc (V) increases. When Vcc is
low, the narrowing base in a transistor amplifies current flow while limited carrier
injection restricts gain. As Vcc increases, this narrowing overcomes injection limitations,
allowing the gain to skyrocket and approach unity. In essence, a smaller base act like a
superhighway for carriers at high voltages, unlocking the transistor's full potential. On
the other hand, Figure 27: Graph of current gain, α against Ib (µA) under different
voltage, Vcc (V). shows that slow decreases in α with increasing Ib. As Ib in a npn
transistor increases, the current gain (α) slowly dips. This happens because some
injected electrons recombine with holes in the base instead of reaching the collector,
reducing collector current and therefore gain. This effect becomes more pronounced at
higher base currents, but the decrease in α happens gradually rather than sharply.
6.0 CONCLUSION
In the first part of the experiment, it is found that LED, 1N4007, Germanium,
and 1N4148 diodes allow current to flow in forward biased direction while Zener diode
allow current to flow in both directions but specialize in current flowing in reverse. In
the second half of the experiment to investigate NPN common emitter transistor, I c will
be increases drastically and saturated with the increases in V ce. It is also discovered
experimentally that there is Ic drop prior entering saturation region for a transistor.
Besides, it is determined that β is generally directly proportional to V cc and saturated at
certain value. On the other hand, β is inversely proportional to I b and the effect of “β
hump” is more significant at higher Vcc. Lastly, it is observed that α increases drastically
and approaches one when Vcc increases. However, α decreases slowly with the increase
in Ib due to injected electrons recombine with holes in the base.
7.0 REFERENCES
1. Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Walker, J. (2020) Principles of Physics (11th ed.). Wiley.
2. Korneff, T. (1966). Introduction to Physics (1st ed.). Academic Press.
3. Brophy, J. J. (1990). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. McGraw-Hill.
4. Mitchell, F. H. (1969). Concept of Physics. Addison-Wesley.
5. R.Shankar. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics: Mechanics, Relativity, and
Thermodynamics. Yale University Press.
APPENDIX
LED diode:
LED diode
Table 3: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in forward biased.
Table 4: Data table for 1N4007 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.
Zener Diode
Germanium Diode
When Germanium diode in forward biased,
Table 9: Data table for 1N4148 Silicon diode operates in forward biased.
Table 10: Data table for 1N4148 silicon diode operates in reverse biased.
When I b=20 μA ,
Table 11: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=20 μA .
Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 -5.1 0.6 563 -0.255 -0.3423
0 104.7 5.6 568.4 5.235 0.8396
0 258 11.6 573.8 12.900 0.9281
0.1 327 14 575.8 16.350 0.9424
0.1 429 17.1 578.8 21.450 0.9555
0.1 557 20.8 581.8 27.850 0.9653
0.1 712 24.6 585.3 35.600 0.9727
0.2 996 31.1 590.5 49.800 0.9803
0.2 1032 31.9 591 51.600 0.9810
0.2 1143 34 593.7 57.150 0.9828
0.2 1191 35 593.6 59.550 0.9835
0.3 1204 35 593.9 60.200 0.9837
0.4 1691 43.9 600.1 84.550 0.9883
0.5 3840 72.1 617.9 192.000 0.9948
1 8100 137.2 635.6 405.000 0.9975
1.5 8330 661 635.8 416.500 0.9976
2 8730 1082 620.5 436.500 0.9977
2.5 8700 1619 616.7 435.000 0.9977
3 8750 2107 615.3 437.500 0.9977
3.5 8810 2573 614.2 440.500 0.9977
4 8900 3089 612.7 445.000 0.9978
4.5 9020 3599 622.6 451.000 0.9978
5 9060 4033 609.2 453.000 0.9978
Table 12: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=4 0 μA .
Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 10 0.4 585 0.250 0.2000
0 225 5.6 589.6 5.625 0.8491
0 540 11.5 594.8 13.500 0.9310
0.1 640 13 596.1 16.000 0.9412
0.1 1020 19.1 601 25.500 0.9623
0.1 1240 22.1 603.4 31.000 0.9688
0.1 1330 23.4 604.5 33.250 0.9708
0.2 1610 26.1 607.5 40.250 0.9758
0.2 1960 29.9 610.3 49.000 0.9800
0.2 2130 31.8 611.7 53.250 0.9816
0.2 2270 33.2 612.8 56.750 0.9827
0.3 2620 36.5 615.2 65.500 0.9850
0.4 3660 45.6 621.5 91.500 0.9892
0.5 4790 54.2 627 119.750 0.9917
1 9020 81 641.6 225.500 0.9956
1.5 13410 113.4 651.2 335.250 0.9970
2 17480 196.6 656.9 437.000 0.9977
2.5 17280 714 656.5 432.000 0.9977
3 16210 1404 620.3 405.250 0.9975
3.5 15420 1897 619.2 385.500 0.9974
4 15690 2346 619 392.250 0.9975
4.5 16430 2862 616.8 410.750 0.9976
5 15910 3350 610.4 397.750 0.9975
When I b=7 0 μA ,
Table 13: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=7 0 μA .
Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 -10 0.5 602.8 -0.143 -0.1667
0 330 4.6 606.6 4.714 0.8250
0 580 7.3 608.9 8.286 0.8923
0.1 720 8.6 610 10.286 0.9114
0.1 1070 12 612.9 15.286 0.9386
0.1 1350 14.4 614.9 19.286 0.9507
0.1 1520 15.8 616.1 21.714 0.9560
0.2 1780 18.1 617.7 25.429 0.9622
0.2 1850 18.7 618.2 26.429 0.9635
0.2 2170 21.1 620.1 31.000 0.9688
0.2 2320 22.2 621 33.143 0.9707
0.3 3110 27.6 625.1 44.429 0.9780
0.4 3800 31.8 628.3 54.286 0.9819
0.5 4800 37.5 632.3 68.571 0.9856
1 9350 57.8 646.2 133.571 0.9926
1.5 14150 77.4 655.8 202.143 0.9951
2 18740 96.6 662 267.714 0.9963
2.5 23700 123 668 338.571 0.9971
3 27600 155.3 672 394.286 0.9975
3.5 31300 353 673 447.143 0.9978
4 25100 1746 600 358.571 0.9972
4.5 21200 2275 588 302.857 0.9967
5 21600 2820 584 308.571 0.9968
When I b=110 μA ,
Table 14: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=110 μA .
Table 15: Data sheet for NPN common emitter transistor working under I b=1 6 0 μA.
Ic Amplification factor,
Vcc (µA) Vce (mV) Vbe (mV) β Current gain, α
0 0 0 630.4 0.000 0.0000
0 370 2.5 632.7 2.313 0.6981
0 650 3.7 633.8 4.063 0.8025
0.1 710 4 634.1 4.438 0.8161
0.1 970 5.2 635.2 6.063 0.8584
0.1 1290 6.6 636.3 8.063 0.8897
0.1 1560 7.7 637.3 9.750 0.9070
0.2 1710 8.3 637.8 10.688 0.9144
0.2 1820 8.8 638.2 11.375 0.9192
0.2 2160 10.1 639.3 13.500 0.9310
0.2 2350 10.9 640 14.688 0.9363
0.3 3270 14.4 642.7 20.438 0.9534
0.4 4150 17.4 645.1 25.938 0.9629
0.5 5200 21 647.8 32.500 0.9701
1 9560 33.9 656.9 59.750 0.9835
1.5 14030 45.3 664 87.688 0.9887
2 18890 56.8 670 118.063 0.9916
2.5 23500 67.4 676 146.875 0.9932
3 27800 77.3 680 173.750 0.9943
3.5 33000 89.2 684 206.250 0.9952
4 37900 101.4 688 236.875 0.9958
4.5 41900 112.2 691 261.875 0.9962
5 46800 125.9 693 292.500 0.9966
5.5 51600 143.8 696 322.500 0.9969
6 55800 164.4 699 348.750 0.9971
6.5 60400 205.7 700 377.500 0.9974
7 65100 275.4 701 406.875 0.9975
7.5 68900 327.1 701 430.625 0.9977
8 34200 324.4 496.2 213.750 0.9953
8.5 34500 328.7 484.5 215.625 0.9954
9 34700 328.4 473.8 216.875 0.9954