CHAPTER 6

Road Construction
and Maintenance
WEEK 13 - 14
 Chapter 6
Content:
1. Stage of road construction
2. Quality control & safety at
construction site
3. Types of road defects & assessment
4. Repair of road defects
 Program Outcomes

• PO 3 :
Solve engineering problems
 Course Outcomes

• CO1
Explain the development, construction and
maintenance of roads and highways.
 Lesson Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, students should be

able to:

1. Describe the stage/work and equipment

involved in road construction.
2. Discuss on quality control & safety at road
construction site.
3. Identify types of road defects.
4. Recommends appropriate solution for defects
treatment.
Stage of Road Construction

1. Surveying
2. Site Clearance
3. Earthworks
4. Drainage
5. Road Paving
6. Road Furniture
 1. Surveying
• Involve measuring and computing horizontal
and vertical angles, vertical heights (elevation),
and horizontal distances.
• Used to prepare base maps with contour lines
and longitudinal cross sections.
• Surveying technique can be grouped into three
(3) general categories:
1. Ground surveys
2. Remote sensing
3. Computer graphics
• Involves four (4) phases:

a) Office study of existing information

• Examination of all available data of the area in
which the road to be constructed.
• Carried out in the office prior to any field or
photogrammetric investigation.
• Data can be obtained from existing engineering
reports, maps, aerial photographs – collected
and examined.
• Data – engineering (topography, geology,
climate, traffic volumes), social,
environmental and economic.
b) Reconnaissance survey
• Identify several feasible routes by a
stereoscopic examination of the aerial
photographs.
• Factors into consideration
– terrain & soil conditions
- serviceability of route to industrial &
population areas
- crossing of other transportation
facilities (rivers, railroads, other
highways)
- directness of route
c) Preliminary location survey
• The positions of the feasible routes are set as
closely as possible by establishing all the control
points.
• Determine preliminary vertical and horizontal
alignments – evaluate the economic &
environmental feasibility of the alternative
routes.
• Economic evaluation – to determine the future
effect of investing the resources necessary to
construct the highway: road user costs,
construction costs, maintenance costs, road
user benefits, and also disbenefits.
 • Environmental evaluation – impact of highway
construction on it surroundings: plant, animals,
human communities, social, man made
variables.

d) Final location survey

• A detailed layout of the selected route.
• Final horizontal and vertical alignments are
determined
• Final positions of structures and drainage
channels are located.
 2. Site Clearance
• Start of the work in the construction of a new road or
the improvement of an existing road - urban and rural
areas
• Site clearing in rural areas involve three (3) major
process
a) Clearing – removed all objects on the ground
(trees, bushes, plants).
b) Grubbing – hedges and roots may need to be
grubbed and excavated at least 500 mm below
the ground level.
c) Stripping of topsoil – topsoil shall be removed
from all surfaces at least to a depth of 100 mm
below the ground level : stockpiled on the site for
re-use or disposed.
• In urban areas, it may be difficult to avoid
obstructing public access – time consuming and
involve higher cost.
• Relocation of utilities and structure above and below
the ground (sanitary sewers, gas, electricity, water,
telephone, storm drainage, etc).
• All fences, buildings, structures within the limits of
the road reserve shall be demolished and removed.
• Unwanted material from clearing, grubbing and
stripping topsoil (including the demolition of
structures) shall be disposed.
 3.Earthwork

• include the excavation of all types of material,

backfilling, compaction, forming embankments and
slopes.
• necessary for the completion of the works up to the
formation levels (the top surface of the subgrade) in
accordance with the lines, grades, dimensions,
shapes and typical cross -sections shown on the
Drawings.
• Unsuitable material (organic, marine clay) shall be
excavated to such depth and over such area,
transported and disposed of in an approved manner.
• Voids created due to removal of unsuitable material
shall be backfilled with suitable material compacted
to a dry density not less than that of the surrounding
material.
• Grading – to make a flat area, accomplished in one
of three ways:
a) By cutting (removing earth) into the slope
b) By filling (adding earth) out from the slope
c) By combination of cutting & filling
• Grading operations:
a) Pushing, moving and placing soil within site
b) Importing or exporting additional soil to satisfy a
cut/fill need.
 4. Drainage
• consist of the construction of surface drains, subsoil
drains, pipe culverts, box culverts, sumps and other
drainage structures.
• A properly designed must adequately accommodate the
runoff by removing it from roadway surface.
• Pavement may be drained in one of two ways:
a) Surface drainage – remove surface water (rain&snow)
b) Subsurface drainage – remove underground water,
water permeated through cracks and result from
capillary action.
 5. Road Paving
• Subgrade

ü inorganic soil, sand, gravel, weathered or fragmented

rock, or a mixture of any of these materials,
essentially free from vegetative and other organic
matter and expansive clay minerals.
ü A maximum particle size of 75 mm or less.
ü the top 300 mm shall have been shaped and
compacted.
ü have the required shape, super-elevation, levels and
grades.
• Subbase

ü natural or prepared aggregate comprising crushed

rock, weathered or fragmented rock, gravel or
crushed gravel, sand, or a mixture of any of these
materials.
ü Each layer: 100 - 200 mm compacted thickness.
ü Throughout the placing, care shall be taken to
maintain a uniform gradation of the material and
prevent its separation into coarse and fine parts
(segregation).
• Roadbase

ü material shall be crushed rock/crushed gravel/ a mixture

of crushed and natural aggregates, which is hard,
durable, clean and essentially free from clay and other
deleterious materials.
ü Placing methods same as subbase.

• Bituminous Pavement Courses

ü Prime coat - either cut-back bitumen (50°C to 70°C) or

bitumen emulsion (25°C to 45°C).
ü Tack coat – bitumen emulsion of grade RS-1 (25°C to
45°C), rate of application at 0.25 to 0.55 litres/sq.m.
• Surface (Asphaltic Concrete)

ü Materials:
a) Aggregates – coarse, fine and mineral filler
(dust/hydrated lime).
b) Binder - penetration graded bitumen of 80-100.
c) Anti-Stripping Agent – Ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) around 2% by weight of combined aggregate.

ü Mix Design:
a) Job Mix Formula
b) Plant Trials
c) Compliance with the Job Mix Formulae
ü Construction Methods:
a) Surface preparation & cleaning
b) Aggregate handling & heating -150ºC to 170ºC.
c) Heating of bitumen - 140ºC to 160ºC.
d) Mixing Asphaltic Concrete – in batch /
continuous mix plant
e) Transportation of Asphaltic Concrete – from the
mixing plant to the site of the paving works
using tip trucks in loads of not less than 5
tonnes (temp before unloading not less than
125ºC).
f) Laying Asphaltic Concrete
- each paving layer shall have a compacted
thickness of not less than twice the nominal
maximum aggregate size of the mixture & not
more than 100 mm.
- laying shall commence along the lower side of
the carriageway and progress to the higher side.
(on superelevated sections and on
carriageways with cross-slope in one direction)
- laying shall not be carried out in a downhill
direction along any section of road.
g) Compaction of Asphaltic Concrete
- as soon after laying as the material will support
the rollers without undue displacement
- asphaltic concrete shall be not less than 110ºC.
- equipment: The steel wheeled rollers (not more
than 5 km/hr) and the pneumatic tyred rollers
(not more than 8 km/hr).
- Within 24 hours of laying and compacting the
mix, the Contractor shall cut core samples of not
less than 100 mm nominal diameter (1 sample
per 500sq.m of mix laid) to determine thickness
& density of compacted layer.
h) Finished Asphaltic Concrete
- Asphaltic concrete binder and wearing courses
shall be finished in a neat and workmanlike
manner
- the minimum thickness at any point shall be not
less than the required thickness minus 5 mm.
- The top surface of a wearing or binder course
shall have the required shape, super-elevation,
levels and grades.
i) Opening to traffic
- not less than 4 hours after the compaction.
- vehicles may be allowed to run on the work after
rolling has been completed, provided that
speeds are restricted to 30 km/hr or less and
sharp turning movements are prohibited.

• Shoulders
ü Earth, gravel or paved shoulders.
 6. Roadside Furniture

• Work involve:-
a) Installation of guardrails
b) Installation of permanent traffic signs
c) Road markings
d) Installation of street lighting
e) Installation of traffic signals / roundabouts
Stage of Road Construction
(Images)

Survey Site Clearing

Earthworks Drainage
Road Paving

Roadside Furniture
 Equipment
1) Road Cleaning Equipment
- will be required where asphaltic concrete is to be
laid on a surface which is not to receive a tack
coat.
- include a power broom and compressed air
blower

2) Asphalt Mixing Plant

- either a batch plant / a drum mix plant / a
continuous mix plant
3) Tip-Trucks

- transporting asphaltic concrete from the mixing plant

to the paving works.
- have trays with smooth, flat beds and sides, and
shall have load capacities of not less than 5 tonnes.
- inside of each truck tray shall be lightly and evenly
coated with a soap or detergent solution, to prevent
adhesion of the asphaltic concrete.
- equipped with covers of canvas or other suitable
material to protect the asphaltic concrete.
4) Asphalt Paver
- shall be self-propelled & capable of reverse as well
as forward travel.
- equipped with a hopper at the front designed to
receive the paving mixture from tip-trucks
- capable of laying the bituminous mixture in
paving widths in the range 2.5 to 3.75 m

5) Rollers
- A pneumatic tyred roller and two steel wheeled
tandem rollers
- Steel wheeled rollers shall be equipped with water
tanks, sprinkler systems and scraper blades to keep
all wheels evenly wetted and clean during operation.
Asphalt Paver
Tip-Trucks

Roller
Batch Type Asphalt Mixing Plant
Quality control & safety at construction site
Aggregate

• Weathered rocks should not be used in roads – neither

as coarse or fine aggregates nor as roadbase crusher
run.
• Typical aggregates:
a) Granite – a coarse grained igneous rock, siliceous &
susceptible to stripping
b) Basalt – a fine grained igneous rock, less silica & has
better affinity with bitumen but can be brittle.
c) Limestone – a calcerous sedimentary rock, softer than
igneous but has adequate strength for
use in roads but not for wearing course
(susceptible to polishing under traffic)
• Aggregate stockpiles:
a) Different sizes of aggregate should be kept
separated.
b) On a clean surface - avoid contaminant with soil.
c) Fine aggregates shall be kept dry using
waterproof covers.
d) Built in horizontal or gently sloping layers to
minimise segregation.
e) Proper foundation & drainage – avoid
contaminant by the surface water.
• Coarse aggregates – screened hard rocks, angular
in shape & free from dust, clay, vegetative & other
organic matter. Cleanliness of aggregates in
important for good bitumen adhesion.
• Fine aggregates – screened quarry dust/clean
natural sand/mining sand. Mining sand should be
thoroughly washed before use.
• Anti stripping agents
– OPC or lime added to the combined aggregates
serve as an anti stripping agent cum filler.
- to prevent stripping of aggregates by the action
of traffic & water.
 Bitumen

• A dark brown or black sticky substance – occur in

nature or obtained from the refining of crude oil.
• Semi-solid at room temperatures but becomes fluid
when heated.
• Available in several standard grades: 40-50, 60-70,
80-100, 120-150 and 200-300.
• In Malaysia, PEN grade 80-100 is used.
• Both bitumen and aggregates are heated to high
temperatures to liquidify the bitumen & dry the
aggregates before they are mixed together.
 Laboratory Mix design

• Aggregate gradation & bitumen content as

allowed in Table 4.8 & Table 4.9 (SPJ)
respectively.
• Five set of three Marshall specimens with
bitumen content increasing at an increment of
typically 0.5%.
• The design bitumen content – average bitumen
content which gives the max stability & density,
median flow & air voids.
 Plant Trials
• A min of 10 tonnes of mix, placed in trial areas to
demonstrate that the mixing, laying & compacting
conform to the requirements of SPJ.
• Sampling & testing of the trial mix – check for satisfactory
compliance with job mix formula & degree of compaction.

Job Mix Formula

• Mix approved for full scale production.
• The mixing, laying & compacting temperatures, the types
of rollers & no of roller passes should be consistent with
the plant trials.
 Pavement Failure
Divided into two (2):-

• Functional failure – riding quality convenience and

comfort ability of the user being affected. Ex:
irregularities in pavement surface which affect the
riding quality, loss of skid resistance, stripping of
aggregates.
• Structural failure – pavement may not be able to
sustain traffic loading anymore. Ex: sinking of
pavement, failure due to erosion, weakening of
subgrade.
Cause of pavement failure:-

1. Defects in the quality of material used

2. Defects in construction method and
quality control during construction
3. Inadequate surface or subsurface
drainage
4. Increase in the magnitude of wheel
loads/traffic volume
5. Environmental factors-heavy rainfall, soil
erosion, high water table.
Pavements Distresses/Defect

• Distress – condition of the pavement structure

that reduces serviceability or leads to a
reduction in serviceability. Cause by
environment or repeated traffic loads.
• Types of distress/defects:-
1. Fracture/cracks
2. Distortion/surface deformation
3. Disintegration/surface defects
 Cracks/Fracture: state of a pavement material that is
breaking
• Crocodile crack - Interconnected or interlaced cracks
which form a network of multi-sided blocks; each
block smaller than 300 mm in size.
• Longitudinal crack – Cracks parallel to the centre line
of the pavement.
• Transverse crack – Cracks perpendicular to the
centre line of the pavement.
• Block crack - The occurrence of cracks that divide the
bituminous surface into approximately rectangular
pieces, typically 0.1 m2 or more in size.
• Crescent-shaped crack - Half-moon or crescent in
shape; normally associated with shoving.
Types of cracks
JKR, 1992
 Surface Deformation/Distortion : - permanent change
in the shape of the pavement or pavement layer

• Depression - Localized area within pavement with

elevation lower than the surrounding area.
• Rutting - The occurrence of longitudinal surface
depression/deformation in the wheel paths.
• Corrugation - Regular transverse undulations, and
closely spaced alternative valleys and crests with
wavelengths of less than 2 meters.
• Shoving - Permanent longitudinal displacement of a
localized area of the pavement surface caused by
traffic pushing against the pavement.
Types of surface deformation
JKR, 1992
 Surface Defects/Disintegration : - breakup of the
pavement structure

• Bleeding - Identified by a film of bituminous

materials on the pavement surface that creates a
shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be
tacky to the touch.
• Delamination - Loss of a discrete and large area of
top bituminous layer.
• Polishing - Smoothening of the upper surface of the
road stone, exposing coarse aggregates, which are
glossy in appearance and smooth to the touch.
• Raveling - The wearing away of water and fine
materials under pressure through cracks under
moving loads.
Types of surface defects
JKR, 1992
 Solutions/Treatment
Cracks

• Crack filling & sealing, partial or full depth patch,

overlay or reconstruct depends on severity level.

Surface Deformation

• Depression - asphalt concrete leveling and surfacing.

• Corrugation – Remove with blade or heater planer,
asphalt concrete leveling and surfacing or scarifying
and mixing.
• Shoving - asphalt concrete leveling and surfacing or
permanent patching
Surface defects

• Bleeding – Spread blotting material, removal

and replacement of surface concrete.
• Polishing – seal coat, Remove with blade or
heater planer, asphalt concrete leveling and
surfacing
• Raveling - seal coat, Remove with blade or
heater planer.
 Pavement maintenance
• Defined as a function of preserving, repairing &
restoring a pavement. Keeping it in condition for
safe, convenient and economical use.
• Necessary because
1. To ensure safety to traffic
2. To provide longer usage of road
3. To ensure comfort & influence traffic system.
• Road maintenance activities

1. Ordinary repairs – routine activities repairs that

are required irrespective of traffic or
engineering characteristics of the road. (grass
cutting, repair to road furnishes, drain
maintenance) and recurrent activities (repair
potholes).
2. Periodical renewal – application of renewal
coat of surfacing at periodical intervals.
3. Special repairs – may arise an account of
damage by floods or natural disasters or
small geometrical improvements that can
bring forth-positive improvements in traffic
operation.
4. Urgent repairs – can’t be anticipated but
have to be carried out on immediate basis
(flood damage repairs, removal of road
blockage).