Unit No-3

Quantum Physic
WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY

WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY

Introduction
The wave theory of light successfully explained the optical phenomenon like
reflection, refraction, interferences, diffraction, and polarization but it failed to explain the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect and Compton Effect. These phenomena were explained
on the basis of quantum theory. According to quantum theory a beam of light of a
frequency v consist of small packets each having energy hv called photon or quanta. These
photons behave like particles. Thus light possesses dual nature. Sometime it behaves like a
wave and sometime like a corpuscle.i.e.Particle.
In short, to explain the photoelectric effect and Compton Effect we must treat
electromagnetic radiation as particle. Even though it is essential to assign both wave and
particle aspect to electromagnetic radiation, in any experimental situation one model can be
applied. Never both! Accordingly, In 1928 Neil Bohr started the principle of
complementarily. The wave and particle aspects of electromagnetic radiation are
complementarily. Bohr's principle of complementarily is applicable to the dual nature wave
and particle of material particles such as electrons, photons and others. The measurement of
elm and other characteristics of cathode ray clearly established the particle aspects of the
electrons.
Whereas electrons or any other material particles nmust be assigned wave of de
Broglie wavelength in order to explain the diffraction of material particles. When we speak of
photons we know that it is the electromagnetic wave that is associated with them. In case of
material particles, we know their wavelength from the de-Broglie hypothesis, but we do not
know the nature of these waves. The wave, which guide the motion of particles, are called
Matter wave.

De Broglie Hypothesis

According to de Broglie, a moving particle whatever its nature, has wave associated
with it. De Broglie postulated that a free particle with rest mass m' moving with non
relativistic speed y' has a wave associated with it. The wavelength of such a wave is given
by
h
my
where 'h' isPlank's constant.

De Broglie Wavelength by Analogy with Radiation

By Planck'squantum theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by,

E= hu .......1)
where h isPlanck's constant and v is the frequency of radiation.
According to Einstein's theory of relativity,
E= me ....2)

ZCOER STUDY MEDIA

 where E is the energy equivalence of mass 'm' and c is the velocity of light.
From equations (1) and (2), we have

hu = me²
C
But
hc = me

h
.......(3)
mC
If p is the momentum of a photon, then
p = mc
From equation (3), we get,

=
......(4)
P

De Broglie carried these consideration over to the dynamics of a particle, and said that
the wavelength of the wave associated witha moving particle having a momentum mv is
given by

h h
•......(5)
my

From above equation (5) we see that the wavelength of radiation is related to the momentum
of photon through plank constant. De-Brogile put forward an outstanding idea in 1924
that nature must have a fundamental symmetry and hence above equation (5) must be
true for photon as well as material particle.

Question: State de-Broglie hypothesis (2M)

De Broglie Wavelength in terms of Kinetic Energy

If the particle of mass 'm' is moving with speed 'v', its kinetic energy is given by,

E=mv .....1)

1
Or E= m'y2
2m

E=
p (p= mv)
2m

p'= 2mE

p= /2mE .....2)
The de Broglie wavelength associated with a moving particle is given by

h
......3)

From (2) and (3), we get,

=
V2mE
.....3)

De-Broglie Wavelength of an Electron

If a charged particle say an electron is accelerated through a potential difference of V

volts then the kinetic energy of the electron is
E= eV ......(1)
The wavelength of an electron in terms of kinetic energy is

h
V2mE

Or =
V2meV
If m, is the rest mass of electron, then
h
= .......(2)
V2moeV

Now, h=6.625 X 10** Js

m, = 9.1X 10 Kg
e= 1.6X 10 C

Hence, putting these values in equation (2), we get,

-A° .....3)

Question:
1.State de-Broglie hypothesis of Matter wave. Show that de-Broglie wavelength
of a charged particle is inversely proportional to the square root of the
accelerating potential. (6M)
2. State de-Broglie hypothesis of Matter wave. Derive an expression for de
Broglie wavelength in term of Kinetic Energv. (6M)
CONCEPT OF PHASE VELOCITY AND GROUP VELOCITY

Phase Velocity
The speed with which the phase (a crestor a trough) of a wave, is propagate called the
phase velocity of de Broglie waves. It is also known as wave velocity yp

A single (infiite) wave is desceribed by the expression or

sin-)|
cos(wt -kx) or equivalent. The pattern travels with a velocity is called Phase or Wave
velocity.

A particle of mass m' moving with velocity v has a wave associated with it given
by
= h
my
......(1)
Let E be the total energy of the particle, and v be the frequency of the associated
wave. Equating the quantum expression E = hv with the relativistic formula for total
energy, we get,
hu =
me

mc“
......2)
h
The equation of a plane wave of frequency v and wavelength in the positive x
direction is given by
y=a sin (ot – kx)
where
2t
The wave moves with a phase velocity,
Vp= ....3)

Putting the values ofo and k in equation(3), we get

X
V,=27U
2
.......4)
Substituting equations (1) and (2) in equations (4), we get
mo? h
Vp= X
mV

......4)

For any particle V is less than C, the speed of light, we see that the phase
speed comes to be greater than C! Which is an unexpected result? Another
 argument is that, if de-Broglie wave is associated with a moving a particle
then wave must have speed same as that of a particle. Thus we have the
inadequacy in equation (4) to represent a wave associated with a material
particle. The difficulty raised above can be overcome by understanding the
wave group and group velocity.
We can represent a wave in a simple form

Y
2rv.X
=a.sin 27v
---(5)

but
V, =va
1

V 2
Equation (5) become
27.X
Y= a.sin 27.v.t
--(6)

We have two important quantity

Angular frequency W=2.rv ---(7)

27 --(8)
Propagation constant K=

From (7) and (8) Equation (6) become

Y = a.sin(wt -kx) --(9)

from (7) and (8)

21
V=
2
and 2 =
k

V, =va=
277
W
-X
27 (10) --
K K
We encounter two difficulties with equation (10). One of the features that distinguish
a wave from aparticle is that a wave has continuity in space and hence is unlocalised
i.e. it is spread out, while material particle is always localized. Therefore if a wave
given by equation (10) is associated with a moving body then probability density
/y will be proportional to a´ which is constant. But this is not correct. Because if a
body of finite size moves with a velocity V then probability of finding it at a given
instant maximumn at its center of mass and probability should rapidly deceases on
both side of the center of mass. Such wave can be shown as in fig (1). Which is called
a wave group or wave packet? Wave packet is obtained by combing many waves of
different frequencies and amplitude so that resultant has a high value of amplitude
near the vicinity of the particle and zero elsewhere.
 Group Velocity

Superposition of waves having slightly different frequencies and amplitudes gives rise
to a wave packet or a wave group. The velocity with which a wave group travels is
called the group velocity vg.

Ax
Fig. 1: Wave packet

Consider a wave packet formed by superposition of two waves of equal amplitude A

with different angular frequencies and propagation constants.
Let the two waves be,
y = A sin (ot – kx) .....1)
and y2 = A sin (ot - kx) ....2)

The resultant displacement y at any time t' and any position x is given by
y = y+ y2

= A [sin (ojt- kx) + sin (aot - kx)]

y = 2A cos

.: sin A + sin B=2sin A+B A- B

COS
2 2
Comparing this equation with the standard wave displacement equation,
y A sin (ot - kx),
=

the resultant amplitude is

A= 2a cos

and the angular frequency is

2

The amplitude of the wave group is modulated both in space and time. Hence the
velocity of the wave group v. is given by

do
Vg= -
k, k, dk
...4)

This is the expression for the group velocity.

To show that group velocity vg. is equal to particle velocity v.

Consider a particle of mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v' whose kinetic energy is
given by

(p=mv)......)
2m
Also E= hu

E= ho
.0 =
2au and h= .2)
27
The de Broglie wavelength is given by,

h h 2a
p=
2 2

p= hk .....3)
Using equations (2) and (3) in equations (1), we get

E=
p
2m

2m
hk?
2m

Differentiating, we get,
hkdk
do=
m
do hk
.....4)
dk m
do
But Vg
dk
hk
Vg
m

Or Vg P fp= hk}
m

Vg
m

Vg =v .....5)
Thus, group velocity Vg is equal to the particle velocity.
 Question:
1. What is the difference between Phase Velocity and Group Velocity? Show
that de-Broglie wave group associated with a moving particle travels with the
same velocity as the particle. (6M)
2. Explain group velocity and Phase Velocity. Derive expression for group
velocity with which a wave group travels? (6M)

PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES

The properties of matter waves are stated as

(1) Lighter is the particle,greater is the wavelength associated with it, since
h
2=
mV
(2) Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength.

(3) When velocity is zero, =0, i.e. wave becomes indeterminate and it
implies that matter waves are produced by moving particles. But for
v=0, becomes zero.
(4) The velocityof matter waves is greater than that velocity of light since

Vg
V

(5) The velocity of matter wave depends on the velocity of material particle and
is not constant.
(6)The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in its location.

Question:
1.Discuss any three properties of de-Broglie wave? (2M)
HEISENBERG'S UNCERTAINITY PRINCIPLE
Heisenberg proposed a very interesting principle of far reaching importance known as
the uncertainty principle. This principle is a direct consequence of the dual nature of matter.
Classically a moving particle has a definite momentum and occupies a definite position in
space and it is possible to determine exactly itsposition and momentum simultaneously. This

approximation is adequate for the objects of appreciable size, but this does not describe
satisfactorily the behavior of the particle of atom ic dimensions. In wave mechanics, a
particle can be described by a wave packet (fig.3), which represent all about the particle and
move with group velocity. From Max born probability interpretation, the particle may be
found anywhere within the wave packet. This suggests that the position of the particle is
uncertain within the limits of the wave packets. Moreover, the wave packet has a velocity
spread and hence there is uncertainty about the velocity or momentum of the particle. This
means it is impossible to know where within the wave packet particle is and what its exact
momentum is its momentum.

Heisenberg's uncertainty state that the product of uncertainties in

principle
determining the position and momentum of the particle is equal to plank's constant h

AP.AX - (1)
=h---------.

Where AP= uncertainty in momentum

AX= uncertainty in position.

ILLUSTARATION OF ELECTRON DIFFRACTIONATA SINGLE SLIT

Consider a beam of electrons traveling towards a narrow slit a width Ay. This beam gets
diffracted on passing through the slit and a diffraction pattern is obtained.

A
Screen

Sit

OXaxis

The condition for a minimum in a single slit diffraction pattern is,

a sin 0 = m, m=1,2,3... ...(1)
Here is slit width and in the experiment a = slit width = Ay.
a
 Equation (1) becomes,
Ay sin 0 =
m

...(2)

Ay (::m= minima)
1
for 1
..(3)
sin
Before entering the slit, the electrons have a definite momentum p = mv. After
passing through the slit, the electrons get deflected and acquire a momnentum along
OA and OB.
Due to deviation in the path of electrons, the momentumn of such an electron has a
non-zero y component between -h -sin 0 and
+h
-sin 0. Thus, the uncertainty in the y

components of momentum is
-
Apy = -sin0 -sino

2h
Apy -sin 0 ...(4)
From equations (3) and (4), we have,

2h = 2h
Ay. Apy= X sin
sin
Ay. Apy> h

This gives experimental support to Heisenberg'suncertainty principle.

Questions
1. State Heisenberg'suncertainty principle and illustrate it by experiment on
diffraction at a single slit.(6M)
2. What is Heisenberg'sprinciple? Give one experiment to prove its validity.(6M
CONCEPT OF VWAVE FUNCTION & PROBABILITY INTERPRITATION

The matter wave in the form of a wave packet is represented as a function of space
and time given by w( x,y, z, t). This is called the wave function. The value of the wave
function (x, y, z, t) associated with a moving particle is related to he probability of finding
the particle at point (x, y, z) at time 't'.
However, y is usually a complex quantity. It has no direct physical significance as it
is not an observable quantity. As probability is always real and positive, y(x, y, z, t) cannot
be directly related to the probability of getting different values of a physical variable.
But the quantityyy' (where y* is the complex conjugate of y) is a positive real
number. Hence, it can be assigned some physical significance.

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF

In 1926, Max Born, a German physicist gave a physical interpretation of the wave
function y. He suggested that u= y a point (x, y, z) at time t gives the probability

of finding the particle at that point, at that instance, in a given volume element.
If dy = dx dy dz is a small volume element surrounding the point (x,y, z ), then the
probability of finding the particle in that volume element is given by
P= 'dv
Where is called the probability density.
If the particle exists then the probability of finding the particle somewhere in space is
unity.
= 1
fvdv
dx dydz = 1
...(1)

A wave function y satisfying this relation is called a normalized wave function and
the condition is known as the normalization condition. The wave function y should satisfy
the following conditions:
1. y should be a normalized wave function
2. The probability P can have only one value at a given point i.e. must be single
valued.
y
3. should be a normalized wave function.
4.y and its partial derivatives should be continuous.
5. As infinite probability has no meaning, y must be finite.

A wave function satisfying these conditions is said to be a well behaved function.

Question
1. Explain the physical significance of wave functiony andy² (6M)
2. Explain the physical significance of wave function and (6M)
 SCHROEDINGER'S WAVEEQUATIONS
The mathematical representation of matter waves associated with a moving particle is
known as Schroedinger's wave equation.

The equation is of two types:

(1) Time independent wave equation
(2) Time dependent wave equation.

Schroedinger's Time Independence Wave Equation

Consider a particle of mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v'. The position of the particle
is represented by (x,y, z ) in time t'.
According to De-Broglie's hypothesis, the wavelength of a particle associated with a
wave is given by,
h h

where, p= mv isthe momentum of the particle.

Let, y(x, y, z, t) be the wave function corresponding to matter wave of a
particle of
mass 'm' and velocity v'.

The usual wave equation is Cartesian coordinates is given by

+ ...(1)
The solution of this equation is
-iot
y=yoe ...(2)

Where y o represents the amplitude of the wave associated with the moving particle.
Differentiating equation (2) twice the respect to 't', we get,
= -)- 0y oe =-0y ...(3)
Substituting this value in equation (1 ),
+ ...(4)
u

Taking +

V'y =
u'
Vy +V =0 ...(5)
Here o =2v and u=
4z2

Equations (5)becomes
 v'y + 47?
=0 ...(6)

or
4rp =0 ..(7)

The total energy E of the particle is the sum of its kinetic and potential energies.
1
+
E=-mv V
(V= P.E.)
2
E= m'y' +V
2m

E=
p'
2m
p'=2m (E -V) ...(8)
Putting value of in equation (7).
472 x -
2m(E V)=0
27
(E - V)=0 ...(9)
h
where h =
27
Equation (9) is known as Schroedinger'stime independent wave equation.

Schroedinger's Time Dependent Wave Equation

The wave function y is given by
y=y oe ior ..(1)
Differentiating with respect to 't',
o e -iot
-ioy

...(2)
ot
E
Now o=20 and v
h
-(2n) E

Ey

Ey =ih ot
...(3)
h
where h =
2

Schroedinher's time independent wave equation is

2m
(E-)=0 ...(4)
Putting value of Ey in equation (4),
 2m +
+ ih Vy =0

Multiplying both sides by we have,

2m
y'y -ihy+ Vy =0
2m

-V'y+ Vy = ih ..(5)
2m ôt

This equation is known as Schroedinger's time dependent wave equation.

Questions
1.Derive Schrödinger'stime independent wave equation. (6M)
2. State Schrödinger's time independent and time dependent equations and
state any one difference between them. What are the basic regquirements for
solution of the Schrödinger's equation to be acceptable? (6M

APPLICATIONS OF SCHROEDINGER'S TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE

EQUATION

Particle in a Rigid Box (infinite Potential Well)

Consider a quantum particle confined in a one-dimensional region of space between x
= andx = L. This particle is trapped in this box bounded by infinitely rigid walls. Such a
0

box is called a rigid box or an infinite potential well.

V0

Figure 1. Infinite potential well

Classical Predictions:
The particle can have any energy including zero.
In probability of finding the particle anywhere in the box is equal.
 The potential energy V of the particle is infinite on both sides of the box. The
potential energy V can be assumed to be zero inside the box.
Thus. V =0 for 0 <x<L
V= o for x < 0 and x > L
The particle cannot exist outside the box and so its wave function y is zero outside the
box.
i.e. =0 for x < 0 and x > L
Schroedinger'stime independent equation is

2rm
V'y + (E - V) =0 ...(1)

Within the box, the equation becomes,

Oy, 2m Ey
=0 (::V=0) ..(2)
2mE =
Putting k', the equation becomes,

k'y= 0 ...(3)
The general solution for equation (3) is given by
y (x) =A sin kx + B cos kx ...4)

Using the boundary conditions to find constants A and B in equations (4), we have,
y =0 at X=0
B=0
.". Equation (4) is written as,
sin kx
=A ..(5)
Also =0 at x=L
A sin kL=0
As A # 0, sin kL =0
or kL=nT
....
k= ,n=1,2, 3, ...(6)

nn
Thus, V.(x) = a sin X ...()
L
and the energy of the particle is given by,

E, =
2m

m
87
En =
n'h' nn
...(8)
8nL' LJ
Thus, from equation (8), it is seen that a particle inside the box can have only discrete
energy values excluding zero. These are known as energy eigen values.

Quantum Prediction:
The particle can take only discrete energy values given by,
 n'h? .....
E,= n=1,2, 3,
8m'
The lowest energy of the particle Ej is non-zero. The energy levels of electron in a
rigid box
of width 1
A° are as
shown in
Fig. 2.
n3 E342 ev

Figure 2: Energy level diagram

Wave Function of the Particle inside a Rigid Box

The wave function y of the particle inside the rigid box is given by,
y=A sin kx
nX
Or y=A sin k= ...(1)
L L
The wave function y, corresponding to each energy eigen value E, is called the eigen
function.
Toevaluate the constant A in equation (1), we use the normalization condition.
X=L 2

Jw. dx = 1
...2)
X=0

sin nu
A² dx = 1

x=0
L

1-cos2nx/ L
ldx =1
2
X=0
L
A
which gives 2=1
The normalization constant is
 A = ..(3)
Hence the normalized wave function of the particle is given by,

2sin nX ...(4)
L

The normalized wave functions Vi, V2, and ys and its corresponding probability densities
ware
|2
plotted as shown in Fig. 3 (a) and (b) respectively.

AAA

x
xL
(a) Wave function (0) Probabliy density

Figure.3:wave function and probability density curve.

Wave function may be negative, but | W, is always positive. Thus, | V I gives the
probability of finding the particle at a certain place within the well.
Ata particular point in the box, the probability of the particle to be present is different
for different quantum numbers. For n=1,the probability density is largest in the middle i.e. at
L
x=L/2. For n =
2, the probability density is zero at the center, but maximum at x = and x
4

||
3L
4
Classical theory predicts the same probability for the particle to be present
anywhere in the box.

Question
1. Derive an expression for the energy levels of particle enclosed within an infinite
deep potential well. Show necessary waveforms. (6M)
2. Obtain an expression for energy and wave function of a particle trapped in a rigid
box. (6M)

Particle in a Non-Rigid Box (Finite Potential well)

 Consider aquantum particle confined in aone-dimensional region of space between x
=0 and X=L. The particle is thus trapped in a box by finite energy walls of energy V, at x=
0and x
=L. such a box is called a non-rigid box or a finite potential well. Assume the energy
E of the particle to be less than Vo.

Figure 4 particle in finite potential well

Classical Prediction:
The particle can have any energy including zero.
The probability of finding the particle at any point inside the box is equal.
The particle with energy E < V, cannot exist outside the box

Schroedinger's time independent equation for a particle in one dimension is

a'y 2m (E -
Ox?
V) =0 ...(1)

Consider the three regions I, II and III separately and y1, 2, V3 be the wave functions
in the regions respectively.
For region I,
Oy 2m (E - V) Vi =0 (:*s0) ...(2)
For region II,
0u2mE Uu =0 (:0<x<L) ...3)
Ox?
For region III,

2m
(E - V,)VI =0 (:x>L) ..(4)
Let,
2mE
2mE-Vo)
k (as E< V)
Then equations (2), (3) and (4)can be written as,

...(5)

...(6)

L- k' VIu
=0 ...(7)
The solutions for these equations are .
VI = Ae + Be-k* x<0 ...(8)
.
Uu = Pe'+ Oe ,-ikx
0<x<L ...(9)
/m = Cek + De-k'r. ...(10)
As x to,y should not beconme infinite. Hence, B andC are treated as zero
B=C =0 gives
VI = Aekt ...(11)
Vu = Pe+ Qeik 0<x<L ...(12)
WI = Cek + De-k*. x>0 ..(13)
The constant A, P,Q, and D are determined by applying boundary conditions.
The wave function y and its derivative should be continuous.
Vi (0) =Vu (0)
d,| dy
|r-0
dx dx
=
Vu (L) Vu (L)

d
dx dx
Using these conditions, four equations are obtained from which the four constants are
determined. Thus the wave functions giving complete information of particle in regions (I),
(I) and (III) are obtained.
Fig. 5 (a) and (b) show the first three wave functions and probability densities plotted
against x.
 (a) Wave functions (b Probability densities inside the non-rigid ba

Quantum Predictions:
The energy levels of the particle are discrete but finite.
The lowest energy E, is non-zero.
Probability of finding the particle at different points in the box is different and varies
with n.
There is a small non-zero probability of finding the particle outside the box. This is
called tunneling.

******* *k *****************k ************* *** ********** ** ** *********