Bachelor of Science

Engineering

BSC102C: Electrical Circuit Theory and Analysis

Tutorial Answers

Topic 11
Complex Waveforms, Harmonics and Resonance

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Topics
1. General equation for a complex waveform
2. Harmonic synthesis
3. RMS, mean and form factor for complex waveforms
4. Power associated with harmonic components
5. Sources of harmonics
6. Harmonic analysis (using numerical methods from graphical/tabular
data)
7. Series resonance
8. Resonance due to harmonics
9. Q factor

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1. General Equation for a Complex Waveform

• Voltages or else currents that function at a frequency that is an integer

(whole-number) multiple of the fundamental frequency is known as
harmonics.
• The common term used to illustrate the distortion of a sinusoidal
waveform at various frequencies is harmonics.
• Also, by summing collectively a series of sine wave frequencies the non-
sinusoidal complex waveforms can be constructed.

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Harmonics and Complex Waveforms

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Harmonics and Complex Waveforms

• The complex wave waveform generated by adding the fundamental

waveform and the harmonic waveforms at different harmonic
frequencies are shown in the right side of the waveform.
• The nature of the resulting complex waveform will depend on:
− The number of harmonic frequencies present,
− Amplitude,
− The individual harmonic frequencies,
− Phase angle between the fundamental and each harmonic.

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Fundamental Voltage
• A complex waveform equation is a combination of a fundamental
waveform in addition to the harmonics each one with its individual
peak value and phase angle.
• The fundamental frequency is given by:

E = Vmax (2 ft )

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Harmonic Waveform
• The second order complex waveform equation is expressed as:

E2 = V2max (2* 2 ft ) = V2max (4 ft ) = V2max (2t )

• The third order complex waveform equation is expressed as:

E3 = V3max (3* 2 ft ) = V3max (6 ft ) = V3max (3t )

• The fourth order complex waveform equation is expressed as:

E4 = V4max (4* 2 ft ) = V4max (8 ft ) = V4max (4t )

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Equation for Complex Waveform
• The general equation for a complex waveform is given by:

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + .......E( n)

ET =V1max sin(2 ft ) + V2max sin(4 ft ) + V3max sin(6 ft )...

• Where:
− Vmax = peak value in V.
− ƒ = fundamental frequency in Hertz (Hz).

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Problem 1
• In an electrical power distribution system, the fundamental frequency is
50 Hz supply.
• It is found that it was not a pure sine wave.
• After a time to frequency transform it was found that it be can modelled
with:
− Vmax (50 Hz) = 240 V
− Vmax (100 Hz) = 220 V
− Vmax (150 Hz) = 190 V
• At time 2 s, determine the resultant combined voltage.

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Solution 1
• The general equation for a complex waveform up to third order
harmonics is given by:

ET = V1max sin(2 ft ) + V2max sin(4 ft ) + V3max sin(6 ft )

ET = 240sin(2 *50* 2) + 220sin(4 *50* 2) + 190sin(6 *50* 2)
ET = 240sin(628.32) + 220sin(1256.64) + 190sin(1884.96)
ET = −239.896 + 12.894 + 189.265
ET = −37.737V

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2. Harmonic Synthesis

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Harmonic Synthesis

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Problem 2
Create a harmonic synthesized square wave pulse train compiled of sine
wave harmonics.
You need to generate the waveform for the number of harmonics equal to;
1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 45.
Use MatLab code for waveform generation. Showing at least 4 cycles in an
array of 500 samples.

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Solution 2

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Harmonic Synthesis

N=1 N=2

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Harmonic Synthesis

N=5 N = 10

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Harmonic Synthesis

N = 25 N = 45

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3. RMS, Mean and Form Factor for Complex
Waveforms
• the term root mean square, refers to complex waveforms or time-
varying sinusoidal voltages, currents where the magnitude of the
waveform alters by time and it is not used in dc circuit investigation or
calculations where the magnitude is constant.

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Methods
The RMS voltage of a complex waveform can be found by using two basic
methods:
1. Graphical method
2. Analytical method

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Graphical Method Equation
• The rms voltage (VRMS) is the square root of the sum of the square of the
mid-ordinates of the voltage waveform to the number of mid-ordinates
and it is expressed as:

SumofMid − ordinate(voltage) 2
VRMS =
numberofMid − ordinates
V12 + V22 + V32 + ....... + V122
VRMS =
12

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Example

V12 + V22 + V32 + ....... + V122

VRMS =
12
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Problem 3
From the data given below, calculate the rms value.

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Solution 3
• The RMS voltage is expressed as:

SumofMid − ordinate(voltage) 2
VRMS =
numberofMid − ordinates
V12 + V22 + V32 + ....... + V122
VRMS = n
12
n

4.22 + 52 + 6.7 2 + 122 + 212 + 122 + 6.7 2 + 52 + 4.22

VRMS =
9
VRMS = 10.023V

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Mean

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Mean
• In order to calculate the average value of the complex waveform, we
need to determine the area underside the waveform by using the mid-
ordinate rule, trapezoidal rule or the Simpson’s rule established
generally in mathematics.
• The estimated area under every irregular waveform can be effectively
found by merely using the mid-ordinate rule.

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Mean
• The mean value is obtained by adding all the instantaneous values summed
together and then divided by the total number.
• The mean value for an ac waveform is given by:
V1 + V1 + V1 + ......... + Vn
VAverage =
n

where n = number of mid-ordinates.

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Problem 4
From the data given below , calculate the average value.

Angle 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180

Degrees
Voltage 5 6.2 8 10 13.5 16 13.5 10 8 6.2 5 ⚫ 0
(V)

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Solution 4
• The average value is given by:

V1 + V1 + V1 + ......... + Vn
VAverage =
n
5 + 6.2 + 8 + 10 + 13.5 + 16 + 13.5 + 10 + 8
VAverage = 101.4
𝑉= = 8.45 9
12
90.2
VAverage =
9
VAverage = 10.022

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Form Factor
R.M.S Value
Form Factor =
Average value
or
(0.707 X Vmax)
Form Factor =
(0.637 X Vmax)

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Problem 5
An alternating voltage of frequency 50 Hz has an RMS value of 20 volts and
an average or mean value of 12 V. Determine the form factor.

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Solution 5
• The form factor is given by:

• Note: For a pure sine wave the form factor = 1.11

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4. Power Associated with Harmonic
Components
• The fundamental voltage value is given by the expression:

E = Vm sin t
I = I m sin t

• Where:
Em is the peak voltage value
Im is the peak current value

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Equation
• Let the complex waveform voltage be expressed as:

E = V1m sin t + V2 m sin 2t + V3m sin 3t + ......... + Vnm sin nt

• Let the complex waveform current be expressed as:

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Equation
The total power delivered by a complex waveform is the sum of the
average power delivered by each harmonic component acting separately.
• Total power is given by:

P = V1m I1m cos t + V2m I 2m cos 2t + V3m I 3m cos3t...... + Vnm I nm cos nt
• The first part is the fundamental power.
• The other parts are harmonic components.
• Therefore, the total power is a sum of fundamental power and
harmonic power.

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Equation
• The fundamental power is given by:

Pfundamental = V fundamental .I fundamental .cos fundamental

• The harmonic power is given by:

Pharmonic = Vharmonic .I harmonic .cos harmonic

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Problem 6
Calculate the harmonic power and fundamental power when:
a) The fundamental voltage and current values are 50 V and 16 A.
Ifundamental is at 0 deg,
b) The harmonic voltage and current values are 12 V and 3 A. Iharmonic is at
30 deg.

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Solution 6
• The fundamental power is given by:

Pfundamental = V fundamental .I fundamental .cos  fundamental

Pfundamental = 50 *16 * cos(00 )
Pfundamental = 800W

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Solution 6 cont.
• The harmonic power is given by:

Pharmonic = Vharmonic .I harmonic .cos  harmonic

Pharmonic = 12 *3* cos(300 )
Pharmonic = 31.177W

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5. Sources of Harmonics
The sources of harmonics can be generally classified as:
1. Harmonics initiated by supply authorities at high voltages.
i) Imbalance
ii) Transformer saturation
2. Harmonics initiated by large industrial loads at medium voltages.
i) Imbalance
ii) Non linear loads
3. Harmonics initiated by consumer end at low voltages.
i) Imbalance
ii) Non linear loads

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Example - High Voltages
Sources of harmonics:
• Static VAR compensation system.
• Wind and solar power converters with interconnection.
• HVDC systems
• Back to back systems
• Capacitor bank
• Electronic energy controller
• Traction equipment
• Variable speed drives
• Arc furnaces
• Arc welding
• Thyristor controlled drives
• Induction heaters

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Example- Low Voltages
1. Compact fluorescent lights
2. Solid state devices
3. Single phase loadings
4. Domestic appliances and
5. Accessories using electric devices, electronic fluorescent chokes,
electronic fan regulator, light dimmers
6. Uninterrupted power supplier
7. Semiconducting devices

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Harmonic Analysis Fourier Series
Any wave can be expressed as a Fourier series with the equation:

a0  
f (t ) =  an cos nt +  bn sin nt
2 n =1 n −1

a0
f (t ) = + a1 cos t + a2 cos 2t + a3 cos3t + ....... + b1 sin t + b2 sin 2t + b3 sin 3t + ........
2

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Harmonic Analysis Fourier Series
• By rearranging this Fourier series, we get:

a0
f (t ) = + (a1 cos t + b1 sin t ) + (a2 cos 2t + b2 sin 2t ) + (a3 cos3t + b3 sin 3t ) + .......
2
1. Fundamental component
(a1 cos t + b1 sin t )
2. Second harmonic component
(a2 cos 2t + b2 sin 2t )
3. Third harmonic component
(a3 cos3t + b3 sin 3t )

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Odd Harmonics
• For the odd harmonics, the Fourier series is given by:
a0
f (t ) = + (a1 cos t + b1 sin t ) + (a3 cos3t + b3 sin 3t ) + (a5 cos5t + b5 sin 5t ) + .......
2
or
f (t +  ) = − f (t )

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Even Harmonics
• For the even harmonics, the Fourier series is given by:
a0
f (t ) = + (a2 cos 2t + b2 sin 2t ) + (a4 cos 4t + b4 sin 4t ) + (a6 cos 6t + b6 sin 6t ) + .......
2
or
f (t +  ) = f (t )

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Problem 7
Identify the existence of odd or even harmonics from the graph provided.

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Solution 7
The Fourier series will contain even harmonics, if f(x) = f(x+ π). And odd
harmonics if f(x) = - f(x+ π)
• The graph presented is the even harmonics, i.e. it repeats after half a
cycle.
• For the even harmonics, the Fourier series is given by:
a0
f (t ) = + (a2 cos 2t + b2 sin 2t ) + (a4 cos 4t + b4 sin 4t ) + (a6 cos 6t + b6 sin 6t ) + .......
2

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6. Harmonic Analysis Using Numerical Methods
from Graphical/Tabular Data
Harmonic analysis on data given in tabular or graphical form:
• The general Fourier series is given by:

f ( x) = a0 + a1 cos x + a2 cos 2 x + a3 cos 3x + ....

+b1 sin x + b2 sin 2 x + b3 sin 3 x + .....


f ( x ) = a0 +  ( an cos nx + bn sin nx )
n =1

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Harmonic Analysis Using Numerical Methods from
Graphical/Tabular Data
• and the Fourier coefficients are given by:
 2
1 1
a0 =
2 
−
f ( x)dx =
2 
0
f ( x)dx

= the mean value of f(x) in the range –π to π or 0 to 2π.

 2
1 1
an =
 
−
f ( x) cos nxdx =
 
0
f ( x) cos n( x)dx

= twice the mean value of f(x)cosnx in the range 0 to 2π.

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Harmonic Analysis Using Numerical Methods from
Graphical/Tabular Data
and
 2
1 1
bn =
 
−
f ( x) sin nxdx =
  0
f ( x) sin nxdx

= twice the mean value of f(x)sinnx in the range 0 to 2π.

Mean value = (area) / (length of base)
1  2 p
 1 p
= 
2  p

k =1
y k  =
 p
yk =1
k

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Harmonic Analysis Using Numerical Methods from
Graphical/Tabular Data

1 p
a0 =  yk
p k =1

2 p
an =  yk cos nxk
p k =1

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Harmonic Analysis Using Numerical Methods from
Graphical/Tabular Data

2 p
bn =  yk sin nxk
p k =1

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Problem 8
Determine the Fourier series to represent the periodic function given by the table of values,
up to and including the third harmonic and each coefficient correct to 2 decimal places. Use
13 co-ordinates.

Angle 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
(θ ̊)

Voltage 4 2 -3 7 13 15 18 16 12 -8 4 2 3
(V)

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 Solution 8 – Computational Table
θ ̊ V cosθ Vcosθ sinθ Vsinθ cos2θ Vcos2θ sin2θ Vsin2θ cos3θ Vcos3θ sin3θ Vsin3θ

0 4 1 4 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 4 0 0
30 2 0.866 1.732 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.866 1.732 0 0 1 2
60 -3 0.5 -1.5 0.866 -2.598 -0.5 1.5 0.866 2.598 -1 3 0 0
90 7 0 0 1 7 -1 -7 0 0 0 0 -1 -7
120 13 -0.5 -6.5 0.866 11.258 -0.5 -6.5 -0.866 -11.258 1 13 0 0

150 15 -0.866 -12.99 0.5 7.5 0.5 7.5 -0.866 -12.99 0 0 1 15

180 18 -1 -18 0 0 1 18 0 0 -1 -18 0 0

210 16 -0.866 -13.856 -0.5 -8 0.5 8 0.866 13.856 0 0 -1 -16

240 12 -0.5 -6 -0.866 -10.392 -0.5 -6 0.866 10.392 1 12 0 0

270 -8 0 0 -1 8 -1 8 0 0 0 0 1 -8
300 4 0.5 2 -0.866 -3.464 -0.5 -2 -0.866 -3.464 -1 -4 0 0

330 2 0.866 1.732 -0.5 -1 0.5 1 -0.866 -1.732 0 0 -1 -2

360 3 1 3 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 3 0 0
SUM A B C D E F G

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Solution 8 – Calculate Sums of Columns

• Calculate the sums of each of the columns in the previous table:

13
A v
k =1
k = 85
13
B v
k =1
k cos  k = −46.382
13
C v
k =1
k sin  k = 9.304
13
D v
k =1
k cos 2 k = 30.5
13

E v
k =1
k sin 2 k = −0.866
13

F v
k =1
k cos 3 k = 13
13

G v
k =1
k sin 3 k = −16

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Solution 8 - Calculate Coefficients
1 p 1
ao =  vk = (85) = 6.538
p k =1 13
2 p
an =  vk cos  k
p k =1
Therefore,
2
a1 = ( −46.382) = −7.136
13
2
a2 = (30.5) = 4.692
13
2
a3 = (13) = 2
13
2 p
bn =  vk sin  k
p k =1
2
b1 = (9.304) = 1.431
13
2
b2 = ( −0.866) = −0.133
13
2
b3 = ( −16) = −2.462
13
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Solution 8 cont.
• Substitute these values in the Fourier series:

f ( x ) = a0 +  ( an cos nx + bn sin nx )
n =1

y = 6.538 − 7.136cos  + 4.692cos 2 + 2cos3 + 1.431sin  − 0.133sin 2 − 2.462sin 3

or
y = 6.538 − 7.136cos  + 1.431sin  + 4.692cos 2 − 0.133sin 2 + 2cos3 − 2.462sin 3

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Electrical Resonance
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZYgFuUl9_Vs
• Variable capacitance in series with an inductor which can be varied by sliding
the iron core.
• Connected to ac mains through a light bulb
• The bulb glows brightly at resonance = minimum impedance.

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7. Series Resonance
Problem 9:
Find the resonant frequency for the series RLC circuit shown below where
L = 0.5 H, C = 1 μF?

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Solution 9
• Given resonant frequency:

1
fr =
2 π LC

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8. Harmonic Resonance
• Resonance due to harmonics occurs when the inductive reactance equals the
capacitive reactance of the power system, i.e.:

X L = XC
1
2 fL =
2 fC

• The inductive reactance increases with frequency while the capacitive

reactance decreases. Therefore, the order of the harmonics frequency hR
increases.

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Harmonic Resonance
• The order of harmonic that causes resonance is given by the equation:

MVASC
hR =
MVARCAP

hR is parallel resonant frequency harmonic order

MVAsc is the source apparent power rating .
MVARcap is the reactive power drawn by the capacitors.

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Problem 10
A 50 MVAR capacitance is joined across a source of 9000 MVA, determine
the order of harmonic which causes resonance.

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Solution 10
• The order of harmonic that causes resonance is given by the equation:

MVASC
hR =
MVARCAP
9000
hR =
50
hR = 180
hR = 13.416
• There will be a condition of harmonic resonance at the 13th harmonic.

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9. Q Factor
Problem 11:
For the circuit at resonance shown below, find the quality factor Q with the
mentioned parameters in the circuit?

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Solution 11
• Quality factor for a parallel resonance circuit:

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References
• Elements of Electrical Engineering by M. Maria Louis
• Circuit Theory by Bakshi
• http://www.electricaltechnology.org
• Circuit Theory by A. Chakrabarti
• http://www.electronics4u.com/

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