Adapted from notes by

ECE 5317-6351
Prof. Jeffery T. Williams

Microwave Engineering
Fall 2019
Prof. David R. Jackson
Dept. of ECE

Notes 2
Transmission Lines
Part 1: TL Theory

1
 Transmission-Line Theory

We need transmission-line theory whenever the length of a line

is significant compared to a wavelength.

2
 Transmission Line
2 conductors

4 per-unit-length parameters:

C = capacitance/length [F/m]
L = inductance/length [H/m]
R = resistance/length [Ω/m]
∆z
G = conductance/length [ /m or S/m]
Ω

3
 Transmission Line (cont.)
i ( z, t )

B x x x +++++++
----------
v ( z, t )

∆z
i ( z, t ) R ∆z L∆z i ( z + ∆z , t )

+ +

v ( z, t ) G ∆z C ∆z v ( z + ∆z , t )

- -
z

Note: There are equal and opposite currents on the two conductors.
(We only need to work with the current on the top conductor, since we have chosen to put all of the series elements there.)
4
 Transmission Line (cont.)

i ( z, t ) R ∆z L∆z i ( z + ∆z , t )

+ +

v ( z, t ) G ∆z C ∆z v ( z + ∆z , t )

- -
z

∂i ( z , t )
v( z ,= t ) v( z + ∆z , t ) + i ( z , t ) R∆z + L∆z
∂t
∂v( z + ∆z , t )
i ( z , t=) i ( z + ∆z , t ) + v( z + ∆z , t ) G∆z + C ∆z
∂t
5
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Hence

v( z + ∆z , t ) − v( z , t ) ∂i ( z , t )
= − Ri ( z , t ) − L
∆z ∂t
i ( z + ∆z , t ) − i ( z , t ) ∂v( z + ∆z , t )
= −Gv( z + ∆z , t ) − C
∆z ∂t

Now let ∆z → 0:

∂v ∂i
=− Ri − L
∂z ∂t “Telegrapher’s
Equations”
∂i ∂v
=− Gv − C
∂z ∂t
6
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
To combine these, take the derivative of the first one with
respect to z:

∂v
2
∂i ∂  ∂i 
−R − L  
=
∂z 2
∂z ∂z  ∂t  Switch the order of the
derivatives.
∂i ∂  ∂i 
−R − L  
=
∂z ∂t  ∂z 
 ∂v   ∂v ∂ v 2

− R  −Gv − C  − L  −G − C
=
 ∂t   ∂t ∂t  2

∂i ∂v
− Gv − C
=
∂z ∂t

7
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

∂v
2
 ∂v   ∂v ∂ v 2

− R  −Gv − C  − L  −G − C
=
∂z 2
 ∂t   ∂t ∂t  2

Hence, we have:

∂v
2
∂v ∂ v
2

− ( RG ) v − ( RC + LG ) − LC  =0
∂z 2
∂t  ∂t 
2

The same differential equation also holds for i.

Note: There is no exact solution in the time domain, in the lossy case.
8
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
∂
Time-Harmonic Waves: → jω
∂t

∂v 2
∂v ∂ v
2

− ( RG ) v − ( RC + LG ) − LC  =0
∂z 2
∂t  ∂t 
2

dV
2

− ( RG )V − ( RC + LG ) jωV − LC (−ω )V =
0 2

dz 2

9
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
dV2

= ( RG )V + jω ( RC + LG )V − (ω 2
LC )V
dz 2

Note that

RG + jω ( RC + LG ) − ω LC =( R + jω L)(G + jω C )
2

Z= R + jω L = series impedance / unit length

Y= G + jωC = parallel admittance / unit length

dV2

Then we can write: = ( ZY )V

dz 2

10
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
γ ≡ ZY d V (z)
2

= γ V (z)
2
Define Then 2

dz 2

Solution: ( z ) Ae + Be
V= −γ z +γ z

γ is called the “propagation constant”.

We have: [( R jω L)(G + jωC )]

γ =+
1/2

Question: Which sign of the square root is correct?

11
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
[( R jω L)(G + jωC )]
γ =+
1/2

We choose the principal square root.

Principal square root: z = re jθ

z = r e jθ /2 −π < θ ≤ π (Note the square-root (“radical”) symbol here.)

Examples :
Re ( z)≥0 41/ 2 =
±2, 4 =
2
 1+ j  1+ j
j1/ 2 =
±  , j =
 2  2
Hence

γ=( R + jω L)(G + jωC ) Re γ ≥ 0

12
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

γ=( R + jω L)(G + jωC )

Denote: γ= α + j β

γ = propagation constant [1/m ] β = phase constant [ rad/m ]

α = attenuation contant [np/m]

α Re γ ≥ 0
=

13
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Im Im
R + jω L G + jωC

Re Re

γ=( R + jω L)(G + jωC )

There are two possible locations for the complex square root:
Im
γ The principal α = Re γ
square root must
be in the first
β = Im γ
Re quadrant.
Hence:

α ≥ 0, β ≥ 0
−γ
14
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Wave traveling in +z direction:

( z ) Ae
V= = −γ z
Ae −α z e − j β z ( γ= α + j β )

Wave is attenuating as it propagates.

Wave traveling in -z direction:

( z ) Ae
V= = +γ z
Ae +α z e + j β z ( γ= α + j β )

Wave is attenuating as it propagates.

15
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Attenuation in dB/m: V ( z ) = Ae −α z e − j β z

 Vout 
Attenuation in dB = −20 log10 
 V 
 in 
 A e −α z 
= −20 log10 
 A 
 
= −20 ( 0.4343)( −α z )
= 8.686α z

Note: log10 ( x ) = 0.4343 ln ( x )

Attenuation in dB/m = 8.686α

16
 Wavenumber Notation

( z ) Ae
V= = −γ z
Ae −α z e − jβ z γ= α + j β

V ( z ) Ae
= = − jk z z
Ae −α z e − jβ z k=
z β − jα

γ = jk z

γ=( R + jω L)(G + jωC ) "propagation constant"

− j ( R + jω L)(G + jωC )
kz = "propagation wavenumber"

17
 TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Forward travelling wave (a wave traveling in the positive z direction):

+ −γ z + −α z − j β z
V + ( z ) V=
= 0 e V0 e e

{
v + ( z, t ) = Re (V0+ e −α z e − jβ z ) e jωt }
= Re {(( V 0
+
) ) }
e jφ e −α z e − jβ z e jωt

= V0+ e −α z cos (ωt − β z + φ )

The wave “repeats” when:
βλg = 2π
λg t =0
V0+ e −α z
Hence:
2π
z β=
λg

“snapshot” of wave
18
 Phase Velocity
Let’s track the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point of constant
phase), e.g., the crest of the wave.

vp (phase velocity)

v + ( z , t ) V0 + e −α z cos(ωt − β z + φ )
=

19
 Phase Velocity (cont.)

Set ωt − β z =
constant
dz
ω−β = 0
dt
dz ω
=
dt β

ω In expanded form:
Hence v = ω
p
β v =
p
Im { R + jω L)(G + jωC }
20
 Characteristic Impedance Z0
I + (z)

+
V + (z)
−
z

Assumption: A wave is traveling in the positive z direction.

V + ( z)
Z0 ≡ +
I ( z)

V0+
V + ( z ) = V0+ e −γ z so Z0 = +
I0
I + ( z ) = I 0+ e −γ z
(Note: Z0 is a number, not a function of z.)

21
 Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)
Use first Telegrapher’s Equation:

∂v ∂i
=− Ri − L
∂z ∂t
so
dV
− RI − jω LI =
= − ZI
dz

V + ( z ) = V0+ e −γ z
Recall:
I + ( z ) = I 0+ e −γ z

+ −γ z + −γ z
Hence −γ V e
0 − ZI e
= 0
22
Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)
+
From this we have: Z=
V Z Z
0
0
= =
I0+
γ ZY

Use:
Z= R + jω L
Both are in the first quadrant
Y= G + jωC

γ
⇒= ZY ∈ first quadrant
Z 0 Z / ZY ∈ right - half plane
⇒=
⇒ Re Z 0 ≥ 0

Z
Z0 = (principal square root)
Y
23
Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

Hence, we have

Z R + jω L
Z0
= =
Y G + jωC

Re Z 0 ≥ 0

24
 General Case (Waves in Both Directions)
V ( z ) V0+ e −γ z + V0− e + γ z
=
jφ + −α z − j β z jφ −
= V e e 0
+
e + V e e +α z e + j β z
0
−

Wave in +z
Wave in -z
direction
direction

In the time domain:

v ( z , t ) = Re {V ( z ) e jωt }
= V0+ e −α z cos (ωt − β z + φ + )
+ V0− e +α z cos (ωt + β z + φ − )

25
 Backward-Traveling Wave
I − (z)

+
V −
(z)
−
z

A wave is traveling in the negative z direction.

V − ( z) V − ( z)
= Z0 so = −Z0
−I ( z)
−
I ( z)
−

Note:
The reference directions for voltage and current are chosen the
same as for the forward wave.

26
 General Case
I (z)

+
V (z)
−
z

Most general case: A general superposition of forward and

backward traveling waves:

V ( z ) V0 + e −γ z + V0 − e + γ z
=
1
=I ( z) V0 + e −γ z − V0 − e + γ z 
Z0

27
 Summary of Basic TL formulas
I (z)

+ V (z)
−

V ( z ) = V0+ e −γ z + V0− e + γ z
+ −
Guided wavelength:
V −γ z V + γ z
I ( z) = e −
0
e 0
2π
Z0 Z0 λg = [ m]
β
γ =α + j β = ( R + jω L )( G + jωC )
R + jω L Phase velocity:
Z0 =
G + jωC ω
v p = [m/s]
β
Attenuation in dB/m = 8.686α
28
 Lossless Case
=R 0,=
G 0

γ =α + j β = ( R + jω L)(G + jωC )
= jω LC

α =0 ω
so
vp =
β
β = ω LC

R + jω L L 1
Z0 = Z0 = vp =
G + jωC C LC
(real and independent of freq.) (independent of freq.)

29
 Lossless Case (cont.)
1
vp =
LC
If the medium between the two conductors is lossless and homogeneous
(uniform) and is characterized by (ε, µ), then (proof given later):

LC = µε (proof given later)

1
The speed of light in a dielectric medium is cd =
µε
Hence, we have that: v p = cd

and β= ω LC= ω µε= k= k0 ε r µr

In the lossless case the phase velocity does not depend on the frequency, and it
is always equal to the speed of light (in the material).
30
 Terminated Transmission Line
V + ( z) V − ( z) Terminating impedance (load)

I (z)

V ( z) V e
= 0
+ −γ z
0
− +γ z
+V e +
V (z) ZL
−
z
z=0
Amplitude of voltage wave
propagating in positive z
direction at z = 0.
Amplitude of voltage wave
propagating in negative z
V + ( 0 ) = V0+
direction at z = 0.
V − ( 0 ) = V0−

Where do we assign z = 0 ?
The usual choice is at the load.

31
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)

V ( z ) V0+ e −γ z + V0− e + γ z
= I (z)

+
V (z) ZL
−
Can we use z = z0 as z
a reference plane? z = z0 z=0

V + ( z0 ) = V0+ e −γ z0 V − ( z0 ) = V0− e +γ z0

V + ( z0 ) e +γ z0
⇒ V0+ = V − ( z0 ) e −γ z0
⇒ V0− =

Hence

V ( z ) V + ( z0 ) e ( + V − ( z0 ) eγ (
−γ z − z0 ) z − z0 )
=
32
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)

I (z)

+
V (z) ZL
−
z
z = z0 z=0

Compare:

V ( z ) V + ( 0 ) e −γ z + V − ( 0 ) e + γ z
=

V ( z ) V + ( z0 ) e + V − ( z0 ) e
− γ ( z − z0 ) γ ( z − z0 )
=

This is simply a change of reference plane, from z = 0 to z = z0.

33
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)

What is V(-d) ? I ( −d )

+
V ( −d ) ZL
V ( z ) V0+ e −γ z + V0− e + γ z
= −
z
z = −d z=0
V ( −d=
) V e +V e
0
+ γd
0
− −γ d

Propagating Propagating
forwards backwards

The current at z = -d is then:

V0+ γ d V0− −γ d
I ( −=
d) e − e d ≡ distance away from load
Z0 Z0 (This does not necessarily have to be the length of the entire line.)

34
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
I ( −d )

+
V ( −d ) ZL
−
z
z = −d z=0
Γ(-d) = reflection coefficient at z = -d

 V −
−2 γ d 
V ( −d=
) V0 e + V0 e = V0 e  1 + + e 
+ γd − −γ d + γd 0

 V0 
or
( ) 0 ( L )
V=− d V + γd
e 1 + Γ e −2 γ d ΓL ≡ load reflection coefficient

V0−
ΓL ≡ +
Similarly, V0
V0+ γ d
I ( −d )
= e (1 − Γ L e −2γ d ) Γ ( −d ) =Γ L e −2γ d
Z0
35
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Z(-d) = impedance seen “looking” towards load at z = -d.

I ( −d )
Note:
If we are at the
+
V ( −d ) ZL beginning of the line,
− we will call this the
z
“input impedance”.
Z ( −d ) z = −d z=0

( −d ) V0+ eγ d (1 + Γ L e−2γ d )
V=
V0+ γ d
I ( −d )
= e (1 − Γ L e −2γ d )
Z0

V ( −d )  1 + Γ L e −2 γ d   1 + Γ ( −d ) 
Z ( −=
d) = Z0  = Z0 
−2 γ d  
I ( −d )  1 − Γ Le   1 − Γ ( −d ) 
36
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

At the load (d = 0):

 1 + ΓL  Z L − Z0
=Z ( 0) Z0   ≡ ZL ⇒ ΓL =
 1 − ΓL  Z L + Z0

At any point on the line(d > 0): Γ ( −d ) =Γ L e −2γ d

37
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

Recall

 1 + Γ ( −d )   1 + Γ L e −2 γ d 
Z ( −d ) Z 0  =
=  Z0  −2 γ d 
 1 − Γ ( − d )   1 − Γ L e 

Thus,
  Z L − Z 0  −2 γ d 
1+   e 
  Z L + Z0  
Z ( −d ) =
Z0
  Z L − Z 0  −2 γ d 
1−   e 
  Z L + Z0  

38
 Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Simplifying, we have:
  Z L − Z 0  −2 γ d 
1+  e 
=Z ( −d ) Z 0  =  Z L + Z 0   Z  ( Z L + Z 0 ) + ( Z L − Z 0 ) e −2 γ d

−2 γ d 
  Z L − Z 0  −2 γ d  0
(
 L Z + Z ) − ( Z − Z ) e 
1− 
0 0
 e 
L

  Z L + Z0  
 ( Z L + Z 0 ) e + γ d + ( Z L − Z 0 ) e −γ d 
= Z0  −γ d 
(
 L Z + Z 0 ) e +γ d
− ( Z L − Z 0 ) e 
 Z L cosh (γ d ) + Z 0 sinh (γ d ) 
= Z0  
Z
 0 cosh ( γ d ) + Z L sinh ( γ d ) 

Hence, we have

 Z L + Z 0 tanh (γ d ) 
Z ( −d ) =
Z0  
 Z 0 + Z L tanh (γ d ) 
39
 Terminated Lossless Transmission Line

Lossless: γ =α + j β =j β

V ( −d ) V0+ e j β d (1 + Γ L e −2 j β d )
=
V0+ j β d
I ( −d )
= e (1 − Γ L e −2 j β d )
Z0 Impedance is periodic with period λg/2:
The tan function repeats when
 1 + Γ L e −2 j β d  β ( d 2 − d1 ) =
Z ( −d ) =
Z0  −2 j β d 
π
 1 − Γ L e  2π
( d 2 − d1 ) =
π
 Z L + jZ 0 tan ( β d )  λg
Z ( −d ) =
Z0   λg / 2
⇒ d 2 − d1 =
 Z 0 + jZ L tan ( β d ) 

tanh (γ d ) tanh
Note: = = ( jβ d ) j tan ( β d )
40
Summary for Lossy Transmission Line

I ( −d )

+
V ( −d ) ZL
−
z
Z ( −d ) z = −d z=0

Z L − Z0
 1 + Γ Le 
−2γ d ΓL =
Z ( −d ) =
Z0  −2γ d 
Z L + Z0
 1 − Γ e 
L
2π
 Z L + Z 0 tanh ( γ d )  λg =
= Z 0  
β
Z
 0 + Z L tanh ( γ d )  ω
vp =
β
γ =α + j β = ( R + jω L)(G + jωC )

41
Summary for Lossless Transmission Line

I ( −d )

+
V ( −d ) ZL
−
z
Z ( −d ) z = −d z=0

Z L − Z0
 1 + Γ Le −2 j β d
 ΓL =
Z ( −d ) =
Z0  −2 j β d 
Z L + Z0
 1 − Γ e 
L
2π 2π
 Z L + jZ 0 tan ( β d )  λ=
g = = λd
= Z0  
β k
Z
 0 + jZ L tan ( β d )  ω
v=
p = cd
β
=β ω=
LC ω=
µε k

42
 Matched Load (ZL=Z0)

I ( −d )

+
V ( −d ) ZL
−
z
Z ( −d ) z = −d z=0

Z L − Z0
=
ΓL = 0
Z L + Z0
No reflection from the load

 1 + Γ L e −2γ d 
Z ( −d ) =
Z0  −2γ d 
⇒ Z ( −d ) =
Z 0 for any z
 1 − Γ L e 
43
 Short-Circuit Load (ZL=0)

Lossless Case
I ( −d )

Z − Z0 +
ΓL = L V ( −d )
Z L + Z0 −
z
Z ( −d ) z = −d z=0
Γ L =−1

 Z L + jZ 0 tan ( β d ) 
Z ( −d ) =
Z0  
 Z 0 + jZ L tan ( β d ) 

Z ( −d ) =jZ 0 tan ( β d ) Always imaginary!

44
 Short-Circuit Load (ZL=0)
Lossless Case
Z ( −d ) =jZ 0 tan ( β d )

Z ( −d ) =jX sc

X sc = Z 0 tan ( β d )

X sc
d
Inductive Note: β d = 2π
λg
λg = λd
d / λg
0 1/ 4 1/ 2 3/ 4 (lossless )

Capacitive
S.C. can become an O.C. with a
λg/4 transmission line.

45
 Open-Circuit Load (ZL=∞)
Lossless Case

Z − Z0 I ( −d )
ΓL = L
Z L + Z0 +
V ( −d )
1 − Z0 / Z L −
z
=ΓL →1
1 + Z0 / Z L Z ( −d ) z = −d z=0

Γ L =+1

 Z L + jZ 0 tan ( β d )   1 + j ( Z 0 / Z L ) tan ( β d ) 
Z ( −d ) =
Z0   or Z ( −d ) =
Z0  
Z
 0 + jZ L tan ( )
β d (
 0 LZ / Z ) + j tan ( β d ) 

Z ( −d ) =− jZ 0 cot ( β d ) Always imaginary!

46
 Open-Circuit Load (ZL=∞)

Lossless Case
Z ( −d ) =− jZ 0 cot ( β d )

Z ( −d ) =jX oc

X oc = − Z 0 cot ( β d )

X oc d
Inductive
Note: β d = 2π
λg
λg = λd
d / λg
0 1/ 4 1/ 2 (lossless )

Capacitive
O.C. can become a S.C. with a
λg/4 transmission line.
47
Using Transmission Lines to Synthesize Loads
We can obtain any reactance that we want from a short or open transmission line.

This is very useful in microwave engineering.

A microwave filter constructed from microstrip line.

48
 Voltage on a Transmission Line
Find the voltage at any point on the line.

I (z)
+ Z Th
+
VTh Z0 , γ V (z) ZL
− −

Z in z=0

At the input:
 Z in  Z Th
V ( −l ) =
VTh   +
Z + Z +
 in Th 
VTh V ( −l ) Z in
−
 Z L + Z 0 tanh ( γ l )  −
Z in = Z ( −l ) = Z 0  
Z
 0 + Z L tanh ( γ l ) 
49
 Voltage on a Transmission Line (cont.)

V ( z) = V e 0
+ −γ z
(1 + Γ e ) L
+2γ z Z − Z0
ΓL = L
Z L + Z0

Incident (forward) wave (not the same as the initial wave from the source!)

At z = -l :
 Z in 
( −l ) V e (1 + Γ L=
V= 0
+ γl
e ) VTh  −2γ l

 Z in + ZTh 

 Z in  −γ l  1 
⇒ 0
+
V = VTh  e  −2γ l 
Z
 in + Z Th   1 + Γ L e 
Hence

 Z in  −γ (l + z )  1 + Γ L e +2γ z 
V ( z ) = VTh  e  −2γ l 
 Z in + ZTh   1 + Γ Le 
50
Voltage on a Transmission Line (cont.)
Let’s derive an alternative form of the previous result.

 1 + Γ L e −2γ l 
Start with: Z in = Z ( −l ) = Z 0  −2γ l 
 1 − Γ L e 

 1 + Γ L e −2γ l 
Z0 
Z in 

1 − Γ L e −2γ l  Z 0 (1 + Γ L e −2γ l )
⇒= =
Z in + ZTh  1 + Γ L e −2γ l  Z 0 (1 + Γ L e −2γ l ) + ZTh (1 − Γ L e −2γ l )
Z0  −2γ l 
+ ZTh
 1 − Γ L e 
Z 0 (1 + Γ L e −2γ l )
=
( ZTh + Z 0 ) + Γ L e−2γ l ( Z 0 − ZTh )
 Z0 
=
(1 + Γ L e −2γ l )

Z
 Th + Z 0   Z − ZTh 
1 + Γ L e −2γ l  0 
 ZTh + Z 0 
 Z0 
=
(1 + Γ L e −2γ l )

 ZTh + Z 0  1 − Γ e −2γ l  ZTh − Z 0 
L  
 ZTh + Z 0 
51
 Voltage on a Transmission Line (cont.)
Hence, we have
Z in  Z 0   1 + Γ L e −2γ l 
=  
Z in + ZTh  Z 0 + ZTh   1 − Γ s Γ L e −2γ l 

Z Th − Z 0
where Γs ≡ (source reflection coefficient)
Substitute
Z Th + Z 0

Recall:
 Z in  −γ (l + z )  1 + Γ L e +2γ z 
V ( z ) = VTh  e  −2γ l 
Z
 in + Z Th   1 + Γ L e 

Therefore, we have the following alternative form for the result:

 Z 0  −γ (l + z )  1 + Γ L e +2γ z 
V ( z ) = VTh  e  −2γ l 
Z
 0 + Z Th   1 − Γ Γ
s L e 
52
 Voltage on a Transmission Line (cont.)

I (z)

+ Z Th
+
VTh Z0 , γ V (z) ZL
−
−

Z in z=0

 Z 0  −γ ( z −( − l ))  1 + Γ L e +2γ z 
V ( z ) = VTh  e  −2γ l 
 Z 0 + ZTh   1 − ΓsΓ Le 

This term accounts for the multiple (infinite) bounces.

The “initial” voltage wave that would exist if there were no reflections from the load
(we have a semi-infinite transmission line or a matched load).
53
 Voltage on a Transmission Line (cont.)

+ Z Th
+
VTh V ( −l ) Z0 , γ ZL
−
−

Z in z=0

Wave-bounce method (illustrated for z = -l):

We add up all of the bouncing waves.

1 + Γ L e −2γ l + ( Γ L e −2γ l ) Γ s 
 Z 0   
V ( −l ) VTh   + ( Γ L e ) Γ s  ( Γ L e ) + ( Γ L e ) Γ s ( Γ L e )  Γ s 
−2γ l −2γ l −2γ l −2γ l
=
 Z 0 + ZTh   
 + 
 

54
 Voltage on a Transmission Line (cont.)
1 + Γ L e −2γ l + ( Γ L e −2γ l ) Γ s 
 Z 0   
V ( −l ) VTh   + ( Γ L e ) Γ s  ( Γ L e ) + ( Γ L e ) Γ s ( Γ L e )  Γ s 
−2γ l −2γ l −2γ l −2γ l
=
 Z 0 + ZTh   
 + 
 

Group together alternating terms:

1 + ( Γ Γ e −2γ l ) + ( Γ Γ e −2γ l )2 +  
 L S L S

 Z0   
 ( L S ) ( L S )  
−2γ l  −2γ l 2 
=V ( −l ) VTh   + Γ L e 1 + Γ Γ e −2γ l
+ Γ Γ e + 
Z
 0 + Z Th   
 +  
 

Geometric series:
∞
1
∑ z n =1 + z + z 2 +  =
n =0 1− z
, z <1 z ≡ Γ L Γ s e −2γ l

55
 Voltage on a Transmission Line (cont.)
Hence
 1 
 −2γ l 
 Z 0  1 − Γ L Γ s e 
V ( −l ) =
VTh  
Z
 0 + Z Th  −2γ d  1 
 + Γ Le  −2γ l 
  1 − Γ Γ
L s e  
or
 Z 0   1 + Γ L e −2γ l 
V ( −l ) =
VTh   −2γ l 
Z
 0 + Z Th   1 − Γ Γ
L s e 

This agrees with the previous result (setting z = -l).

 Z 0  −γ (l + z )  1 + Γ L e +2γ z 
Previous (alternative) result : V ( z ) = VTh  e  −2γ l 
Z
 0 + Z Th   1 − ΓsΓ Le 

The wave-bounce method is a very tedious method – not recommended.

56
 Time-Average Power Flow
I (z)

+
P(z) = power flowing in + z direction V (z) ZL
−
z
At a distance d from the load: z z=0

1
P ( z ) = Re {V ( z ) I * ( z )} =V ( z ) V0+ e −γ z (1 + Γ L e +2γ z )
2 +
V
V+ 2  = I ( z) 0
e −γ z (1 − Γ L e +2γ z )
1  0
Re
2  Z 0*
e −2α z
( L ) L
1 + Γ e +2γ z
1 (
− Γ * +2γ * z 
e

) γ= α + j β
Z0

 
V+ 2  V+ 2 
1  0
Re
2  Z0 *
e −2α z
(
1− ΓL e
2 +4α z
)
1
 + Re 
 2  Z0
0
*
e −2α z
( +2 γ z
Γ Le − Γ Le* +2 γ *
z 

)
   
Note:
If Z0 ≈ real (low-loss transmission line): *
Γ L e +2γ z − Γ*L e +2γ z

+ 2
1V
( ) =Γ L e +2γ z − ( Γ L e +2γ z )
*
P( z) ≈
0 2
e −2α z 1 − Γ L e +4α z (please see the note)
2 Z0 = pure imaginary
57
 Time-Average Power Flow (cont.)
I (z)

+
Low-loss line V (z) ZL
−
z
+ 2
1V
P( z) ≈
2 Z0
0 2
(
e −2α z 1 − Γ L e +4α z ) z z=0

+ 2 + 2
1V 0 1V 02
= e −2α z − Γ L e +2α z
2 Z0 2 Z0
  Note:
Power in forward-traveling wave Power in backward-traveling wave
For a very lossy
line, the total
power is not the
Lossless line (α = 0) difference of the
two individual
2
+ powers.
1 V0
P( z)
=
2 Z0
1− ΓL
2
( )
58
 Quarter-Wave Transformer
Lossless line

 Z L + jZ 0T tan β d  ZL
Z in = Z 0T   Z0 Z 0T
Z
 0T + jZ L tan β d 
Z in d = λg / 4
λg 2π λg π
β d β=
= =
4 λg 4 2
Matching condition
 jZ  Γin= 0 ⇒ Z in= Z 0
⇒ Z in =
Z 0T  0T 
 jZ L  Z 02T
⇒ Z0 =
ZL
so (This requires ZL to be real.)

2
Z 0T Hence
Z in =
ZL Z 0T = Z 0 Z L
59
 Quarter-Wave Transformer (cont.)
Example

Match a 100 Ω load to a 50 Ω transmission line at a given frequency.

2π 2π 2π λ0
λ=
g = = = = λd
β k k0 ε r εr
Lossless line c
λ0 =
f
50 Ω Z 0T Z L 100 [ Ω ]
=

λg / 4
Note
= : β ω=
LC ω=
µε k

Z 0T
= 100 × 50
= 70.7 Z=
0T 70.7 Ω
60
 Voltage Standing Wave
Lossless Case I (z)

+
V (z) ZL
V ( z) V e
= 0
+ − jβ z
(1 + Γ e )
L
+2 j β z −
z
= V0+ e − jβ z (1 + Γ e e )
L
jφL +2 j β z
z z=0

V (=
z ) V0+ 1 + Γ L e jφL e + j 2 β z 1+ Γ L
V ( z)
1 V0+

0 (1 + Γ L )
+
V=
max V
1- Γ L

V
=min V0+ (1 − Γ L ) ∆z =λ / 2
g
z
z=0

2 β ∆=
z 2π ⇒ ∆=
z λg / 2

Note: The voltage repeats every λg. The magnitude repeats every λg /2.

Note: The voltage changes by a minus sign after λg /2.

61
 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
Vmax
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( VSWR ) ≡
Vmin

I (z)

+
V (z) ZL
−
z

V=
max V0+ (1 + Γ L ) z z=0

0 (1 − Γ L )
+
V
=min V 1+ Γ L
V ( z)
1 V0+

1 + ΓL 1- Γ L
VSWR =
1 − ΓL ∆z =λg / 2
z=0
z

62
Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory

At high frequency, discontinuity effects can become important.

Transmitted

Incident

Bend

Reflected

The simple TL model does not account for the bend.

Z Th

+
− Z0 ZL

63
Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

At high frequency, radiation effects can also become important.

We want energy to travel from the generator to the load, without radiating.

Z Th

+
− Z0 ZL

When will radiation occur?

This is explored next.

64
 Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

Coaxial Cable

The coaxial cable is a perfectly shielded system – there is never any radiation at
any frequency, as long as the metal thickness is large compared with a skin depth.

The fields are confined

to the region between
the two conductors.
εr a
b
z

65
 Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The twin lead is an open type of transmission

line – the fields extend out to infinity.

+ − The extended fields may cause interference

with nearby objects.
(This may be improved by using “twisted pair”.)

Having fields that extend to infinity is not the same thing as having radiation, however!

66
 Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

The infinite twin lead will not radiate by itself, regardless of how far
apart the lines are (this is true for any transmission line).

1 * 
Pt
= ∫S  2
Re  ( E × H )  ⋅ ρˆ=
dS 0
Reflected
S
Incident

+ -
h

No attenuation on an infinite lossless line

The incident and reflected waves represent an exact solution to

Maxwell’s equations on the infinite line, at any frequency.

67
 Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)
A discontinuity on the twin lead will cause radiation to occur.

Incident wave
Pipe

Obstacle h

Reflected wave

Note:
Radiation effects usually increase as Incident wave
the frequency increases.

Bend h Bend

Reflected wave
68
Limitations of Transmission-Line Theory (cont.)

To reduce radiation effects of the twin lead at discontinuities:

1) Reduce the separation distance h (keep h << λ).

2) Twist the lines (twisted pair).

CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)
69