List of psychological experiments on perception

Article shared by Dr. Manisha S

https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/attention/top-2-experiments-on-attention-
experimental-psychology/13199

Experiment # 1. Selection and Grouping in Perception:

Our perception of stimuli depends on a series of organizational processes. This aspect has been
studied extensively by the gestalt psychologists. The process of organization depends on a
number of factors, due to which our perception of the same stimulus elements differs on different
occasions.
The individual experiences reversible figure – ground effects, though the objective stimulus itself
remains the same. Such changes in perceptual organisation take place because of changes in the
selection and grouping of different parts of the stimulus and therefore the perceptual images are
not stable.
Problem:
To demonstrate the changes in perceptual organization accompanying changes in selection and
grouping of stimuli.
Materials Required:
Figure ‘A’ containing 13 small X marks arranged in a square pattern on a white background
(black X marks). The X marks are arranged in five parallel rows having three, two, three, two
and three X marks respectively. Figure ‘B’ has 28 X marks (black X marks on a white
background) arranged in a pyramid pattern with the base line having seven X marks, the next on
6 and the top there being only one X mark.
Procedure:
I. Figure ‘A’ is hung on the wall at a convenient height. The subject is seated at a distance of 8 to
10 feet and instructed to focus his vision on this figure.
Then as he is looking at it, the following descriptions of his experience are obtained:
1. What does the figure represent?
2. Does he experience any change in the pattern in which the dots are grouped? If so, he has to
describe whether these changes in pattern appear gradually or suddenly.
3. Whether at any moment he sees two or three patterns, i.e., whether the different parts of the
figure appear to be differently organised.
II. Take Figure ‘A’ away and after a few minutes of rest, place figure ‘B’ before the subject and
repeat the experiment.
Results:
1. Analyze the responses of the subject and note the different factors which come into play in the
grouping and organization of the stimuli.
2. Find out whether shifts in perceptual organisation are sudden or gradual.
Note:
1. Repeat the experiment with figures in which we have dissimilar elements, e.g., marks and
squares mixed.
2. Repeat the experiment with figures in which the distances among the dots in the same line are
unequal.
3. Use figures in which the dots or X marks are not arranged in a regular shape or pattern.

Experiment # 2. Mental Set and Perception:

Our perception of a stimulus is influenced not only by its properties but also by certain other
factors. Some of these are our needs, our past experiences and our present mental conditions or
sets.
For example, if we are expecting a visitor, even the noise of rain drops falling on the wooden
door is mistaken for footsteps. Again, if we are travelling in a train passing through a series of
mountain ranges visible at a distance through the window, then even a cloud is mistaken for a
hill. This illustrates influence of mental set on perception.

Problem:
To demonstrate the effect of mental set on perception.
Materials Required:
A large number of cartoon drawings falling into two categories- Category ‘A’ consisting of a
number of animal figures, Category ‘B’ consisting of a large number of human figures and an
ambiguous drawing.
Procedure:
For the purpose of this experiment, the subjects are categorised into two groups ‘A’ and ‘B’.
They are given the following instructions:
“You will be shown a series of pictures, each one for a short duration; you must judge what these
pictures represent”. The pictures may be exposed through an exposure apparatus.
Procedure for Group ‘A’:
Present each of the animal pictures and note down the response for each. Then present the
ambiguous picture. Note down the response, and ask the subject whether he sees anything else in
this picture.
Procedure for Group ‘B’:
The procedure is similar to the above except that for this group the human pictures are shown
first, followed by the ambiguous picture.
Results:
1. Count the frequency of ‘animal’ and ‘human’ responses for the ambiguous picture in group
‘A’ and group ‘B’. See whether the groups differ, significantly, in their responses to the
ambiguous picture.
2. Tabulate as follows:

3. Test the significance of difference between the two groups, with reference to ‘animal’ and
‘human’ responses computing X2(Chi- square) with the above 2X2 contingency table or by
computing CR for percentages.
Experiment # 3. Apparent Movement or Phi-Phenomenon:
When we go to see a movie, we see the objects and persons on the film moving continuously.
However, in the actual film there in no such continuity. What appears as a continuous movement
is actually a series of separate films. However, we do not see them separately and the motion has
an apparent continuity.
This phenomenon was studied in the laboratory with the help of simple light stimuli by the
German psychologist Max Wertheimer. From the results of this experiment, he developed an
elaborate theory of perception called the Gestalt theory of perception. This theory was later
extended to learning, memory and other phenomena and the supporters of this theory came to be
known as Gestalt Psychologists.
Problem:
To determine the optimal distance and time- interval for the occurrence of phi-phenomenon or
illusion of motion.
Materials Required:
The Phi-phenomenon apparatus, a metronome and a stopwatch.
Description of the Phi-Phenomenon Apparatus:
The Phi-phenomenon apparatus consists of a board on which there are two lights, kept in line
with each other. The two lights are movable, so that the distance between them can be adjusted.
There is an adjustment by which the intensities of the lights can also be varied. By connecting a
metronome (double-contact) in the circuit it is possible to regulate the time interval between the
appearances of two lights.
Procedure:
The subject is seated at a distance of 3 feet from the apparatus and the following
instructions are given to the subject:
“Focus your attention on the lights. When I switch on the light you will find one of these lights
illuminated first, and then the other. When I say ‘ready’ keep on looking at it. At one point you
will cease to see two separate lights. Instead, you will see one wave of light following along this
glass screen placed in front of the two lights. Indicate to me when this happens by raising your
hand”.
Now the experimenter sets the metronome at a speed of 60 beats per minute and conducts the
experiment after giving the subject a ‘ready’ signal. As soon as the subject indicates that s/he has
perceived a continuous moving light instead of two separate lights one after the other the
experimenter notes the time. Five such trials are given. Then, the metronome is set at a speed of
90,120 etc., and the experiment is repeated. The experiment is also repeated with the subject
seated at 6 feet and 9 feet distance.
On each occasion, give maximum time of three to four minutes for the subject to respond. If
there is no response within this period, then the response is considered negative.
Results: Tabulate the results as follows:

1. Find what speed in general the Phi-phenomenon occurs most frequently, irrespective of the
distance.
2. Find out the speed at which the least time is taken.
3. Similarly, compare the responses when the distances change.
4. Is there any particular optimal combination of speed and distance?
5. Collect the group data and study individual variations.
Experiment # 4. Optical Illusion:
In the experiment on ‘perception and mental set’, our perceptions are influenced not only by the
properties of the stimuli but also by several other factors, like the surroundings or past
experience, mental set, etc. To quote a classical example, a rope lying on the floor at night is
often mistaken for a snake.
This phenomenon of illusion or wrong perception can be demonstrated in the laboratory by a
number of experiments. Several types of illusions have been designed for experimentation in the
laboratory. Out of these, the simple and the most common ones are the ‘geometrical illusions’.
Problem:
To demonstrate the occurrence of error or illusion effect in perceiving lines.
Apparatus Required:
A Muller-Lyer illusion board and a horizontal-vertical illusion board.
Description of the Apparatus:
1. Muller-Lyer Illusion Board:
The Muller-Lyer illusion board consists of two horizontal lines, side by side. One of the lines ‘A’
has its extremities flanked by two open arrowheads; the other one ‘B’ has at its extremities two
closed arrowheads.
2. Horizontal-Vertical Illusion Board:
Here again there are two lines, one horizontal and the other vertical. The length of the vertical
line can be increased or decreased by means of a mechanical arrangement.
Procedure:
This experiment is done using two conditions in two series:
(1) With ‘A’ as standard and
(2) With ‘B’ as standard; in-
(a) Descending series and
(b) Ascending series.
(1) ‘A’ as Standard:
Give the following instructions to the subject:
“Look at this board, there are two lines. These two lines as you can see are unequal in size. I will
keep the length of this line ‘A’ constant and go on varying the length of ‘B’ in small units, either
increasing or decreasing. At every step you should tell me whether ‘B’ is equal to ‘A’ or not.
When you say, they are equal, I will stop”.
Under this condition as we have already mentioned, there are two series:
(a) Descending Series:
Here the experimenter after fixing the length of ‘A’ starts with ‘B’ perceptibly longer than ‘A’
and gradually shortens it step by step until the subject says both are of equal length. Then the
actual lengths of ‘A’ and ‘B’ are measured and the difference is noted down. [Note how much
shorter or longer ‘B’ is, put an appropriate minus (-) or plus (+) sign before the error value.]
(b) Ascending Series:
Here the experimenter starts with line ‘b’ perceptibly shorter than ‘A’ and goes on increasing its
length until the subject says ‘A’ and ‘B’ are equal. The errors are noted down as above.
(2) ‘B’ as Standard:
The procedure here is exactly the same except that the length of line ‘B’ is kept constant while
that of ‘A’ is varied. The subject is instructed to compare A’ and ‘B’ and indicate when they
appear equal.
As before, the experiment is done in both the ascending and descending series. Under each of the
two conditions, there will be ten trials in ascending series and ten in descending series
alternately. There will then be a total of 40 trials.
Results:
1. Calculate the average errors in estimation of lines for each the subjects as below:
(a) Average error in all the 40 trials (P)
(b) Average error in condition one (Q)
(c) Average error in condition two (R)
(d) Average error for all ascending series put together (S)
(e) Average error for all descending series put together (T)
2. Tabulate the results for the group as follows:

1. Discuss the individual variations in all the columns.

2. Do individuals have positive or negative values in all the columns?
3. Discuss the variation among the column averages.

Horizontal-Vertical Illusion Procedure:

Here also there are two lines. One horizontal and the other vertical. The horizontal line is fixed
and the vertical line is variable.
Hence, the subjects are given the following instructions:
‘Look at these two lines. They are unequal in size. I will go on changing the vertical line,
increasing or decreasing its length. Tell me when you find the lines equal.’
As in the case of Muller-Lyer illusion, ascending and descending trials are taken. In the
ascending series the experimenter starts keeping the vertical line perceptibly shorter and
increases the length gradually while, in the descending series, the experiment/starts with the
vertical line perceptibly longer and goes on gradually decreasing.
The errors are measured and noted with their appropriate algebraic signs.
Results:
i. Calculate the average errors for the descending and ascending series.
ii. In which series is the occurrence of error greater? Is there any difference in the positive or
negative direction of the errors?
iii. Tabulate the group results and discuss the individual differences.
Experiment # 5. Binocular Fusion:
The human eye is innately equipped to perceive visual objects only in two dimensions, i.e., in
length and width or in height and width. However, in daily life we respond to a third dimension
also namely depth, distance, etc. We perceive objects as 3-dimensional objects. The 3-
dimensional film is a classical example of this.
One of the factors which helps us in perceiving the third dimension is called retinal overlap. This
overlap takes place because of an overlapping of two slightly disparate images produced on the
two retina. This overlap takes place in a region called ‘horopter’.
This phenomenon can be illustrated by the following experiment:
Problem:
To demonstrate the phenomenon of binocular fusion.
Materials Required:
A stereoscope, a set of stereoscopic pictures, a meter rod.
Procedure:
Slide the stereoscope on the meter rod through the groove in the stereoscope and clamp the meter
rod at its two ends on two stands so that it is kept parallel to the surface of the table. Adjust the
height of the two stands so that the meter rod is at level with the eyes of the subject who is
comfortably seated on a chair.
Give the following instructions to the subject:
“Look through this stereoscope (fix one of the stereograms in the holder of the stereoscope).
Each eye will see a different picture. I will keep moving this along the scale. Tell me when you
see a single picture instead of two pictures. For example on one side of this picture now you see
a parrot, and on the other side you see a cage. At one point you will find that the parrot has gone
into the cage. Tell me when that happens. After some time this oneness will change and again, as
before, two pictures will appear. Tell me when you experience this change also.”
The experimenter makes note of the two transition points. A total of ten trials is given. For five
of the trials the experimenter starts from a point close to the eye and keeps on moving the
stereoscope away from the subject (outwards). For the other five trials the stereoscope is
originally fixed at a point far away and gradually moved nearer to the subject (inwards). The
inward and outward trials are alternated.
Results:
Tabulate the results as follows:
i. Find out the range of fusion for each trial.
ii. Is there any difference between the inward and outward trials?
Experiment # 6. Depth Perception:
One of the important problems of the psychology of vision has been the problem of perceiving
depth of distance. The earliest scientists to attempt an explanation of this were made by Galen
and Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo emphasised the importance of shadow in the depth perception.
According to him, perception of distance is mainly a mediated process, i.e., it is not an
immediate perceptual fact, but depends on factors like clarity, loss of details, etc. Helmholtz
attributed perception of distance to unconscious inferences.
One of the important facts established with regard to perception of distance is the role played by
binocular vision. The presence of two eyes makes perception of distance more efficient than
vision with one eye.
Problem:
To verify whether binocular vision enables more accurate perception of depth compared to
monocular vision.
Materials Required:
The depth perception box is an elongated box which is illuminated inside and contains three
concealed vertical rods or pins. These pins can be seen by a subject through a small window.
Two of these rods are fixed and the one in the middle is movable, resting on a pulley bottom,
wheeled on a rod running completely across the length of the box. The top of the box has a long
groove-like opening throughout the length of the box.
The movable rod projects above the box through the groove-like opening and ends in a handle.
By moving the handle the movable vertical rod can be shifted to any position along the length of
the box. A meter-scale is fixed to the groove-like opening on the top so that the exact position of
the movable rod can be read.
Procedure:
The experiment is done in two parts-monocular and binocular.
Monocular Vision:
Instructions:
Seat the subject in a convenient position by using a chin rest before the slit window so that he
has a good view of the three vertical rods. The slit window must be adjusted so that it is only
wide enough to give view of the three rods and not the rest of the box.
Blindfold the right eye of the subject. Instruct the subject as follows:
“Through the opening you will see three vertical rods. Two of them are fixed and the third one is
movable. (Demonstrate) Now, I will keep on moving this rod keeping it at different points. You
should ask me to stop moving the rod whenever you see the movable rod exactly in line with the
other two fixed rods.”
Descending Series:
Start from a position where the movable rod is very much behind or away from the two fixed
rods. Move it until the subject says that the three are in a line. Repeat the experiment about ten
times, starting from different points behind the fixed pulleys.
Ascending Series:
The procedure here is essentially the same, excepting that here the movable rod starts from a
position closer to the subject and in front of the fixed rods and is moved to a position away from
the subject. The experiment is repeated ten times.
The ascending and descending series must be alternately carried out. Repeat the experiment by
blindfolding the left eye.
Binocular Vision:
Remove the blindfold and repeat the entire experiment with both eyes open.
Results:
1. Calculate the error, positive or negative, for each series for the right and the left eye and for
binocular vision. The error is recorded in units of deviation in millimeters between the fixed and
movable rods. If the movable rod is behind the fixed rods, that is, if the movable rod is farther
than the fixed rods from the subject, the error is counted as positive, and if the movable rod is
nearer than the fixed rods to the subject, the error is counted as negative.
2. Calculate the average algebraic error for each condition-the right eye, the left eye and
binocular vision.
3. Tabulate the results as follows
4. Calculate the Mean and SD for the group for all the conditions.
5. Compare the results of monocular with those of binocular vision.
Note:
The ascending and descending series are employed to overcome certain biases which may result
if only one direction of movement is employed, called movement error.
Experiment # 7. Perceptual Constancies:
Perceptual Constancy is the tendency for a perceived object to resist change in spite of wide
variations in the conditions of observation. In other words, we can say that the perceptual
constancies influence the subject to perceive the shape, size and colour of the objects as they are,
in spite of the variations in the viewing conditions or the background of the stimuli.
Psychologists have widely studied these three phenomena viz. – Shape Constancy, Size
Constancy and the Colour Constancy. The former two of these constancies are grouped under
object constancy.
The following two experiments are used to demonstrate the phenomena of:
A. Shape Constancy, and
B. Size Constancy.
A. Shape Constancy:
Introduction:
Shape Constancy is defined as the tendency on the part of the individual to perceive the shape of
an object as having the same shape in spite of the wide variations in the conditions of viewing.
For example, we consider the shape of a circular plate as circular whether we look at it, sitting or
standing before the table or even from a corner of a room. Inspite of the image that is cast on the
retina being elliptical, we still observe it as circular and not as elliptical. This is because of the
operation of the phenomenon of Shape Constancy.
Problem:
To demonstrate the phenomenon of Shape Constancy.
Materials Required:
Shape Constancy Apparatus:
A circle is mounted on an upright rod so that the disc is in the vertical plane. In addition, several
ellipses differing in width, but of the same height as the circle are also mounted on vertical rods.
These ellipses are mounted in such a way that the long (major) axis is vertical. Provision is made
to determine the extent to which the rod and circle have been rotated by means of a pointer and
protector.
The projection of the diameter of the circle is calculated by means of the following formula:
p = d Cos θ
Where p = projection; d = diameter of the circle and θ = the angle of rotation.
Procedure:
The circle and an ellipse are placed parallel to the line of the subject’s sight at a distance of
two meters and the subject is given the following instructions:
“There are two objects mounted on the vertical rods. One of them is a circle and the other an
ellipse. I will rotate the circle till you perceive it as an ellipse. The moment the circle matches the
ellipse, ask me to stop rotating the circular disc.” After the experimenter assures herself/himself
that the instructions are clear to the subjects, he/she repeats the experiment about twenty times.
For one half of the trials the experimenter begins with the circle parallel to the line of sight and
for the other half of the trials the circle is initially perpendicular to the line of sight. The starting
positions should be alternated in random order. A new ellipse may then be substituted and the
entire experiment repeated. The results are tabulated.
The projections of the diameter of the circle (p) on each trial with different ellipses are
tabulated as shown below:
Results:
The larger the angle of rotation, the smaller the projection of the diameter of the circle needed to
match the ellipse and hence the greater the constancy. The amount of constancy may be
conveniently quantified by comparing the projection with the width of the ellipse. For this
purpose, the average of the measurements of projection are computed.
The ratio width of ellipse/Mean Projection provides us with the index of constancy. If there were
no constancy effect, the width of the ellipse and the mean projection would be equal and the ratio
would be 1. The greater the constancy, the smaller the projection and hence the greater the ratio.
B. Size Constancy:
Introduction:
One of the optical properties of the eye is that the retinal image of the size of an object decreases
as the distance of the object from the eye increases in accordance with the ‘Law of Visual
Angle’. This law states that the linear size of the optical images is inversely proportional to the
distance of the object. It is true that distant objects look smaller than the objects of similar size.
It is equally true that perceived size does not confirm the law of visual angle, according to which
a man 10 meters away should appear half as tall as he should 5 meters away. Over a considerable
range of distances, perceived size decreases much less than what would be predicted by the law
of visual angle. The failure of perceived size to decrease in proportion to the distance is known
as Size Constancy.
Problem:
To demonstrate the phenomenon of ‘Size Constancy’.
Material Required:
A square (Standard stimulus) whose sides are 10 cms each is mounted on a vertical rod. Another
square (Variable stimulus) is mounted on another vertical rod and its sides can be varied in
length with the help of a pulley attached to this square.
A meter scale to measure the distance between the subjects and the standard square.
Procedure:
The experiment should be conducted in long corridors which are relatively free of furniture and
other objects. The subject is comfortably seated and the standard stimulus (a fixed square which
is also known as a test square) is first kept at a distance of one metre directly in front of the
subject. The variable stimulus(the adjustable square which is also known as the Reference
square) is kept at a distance of one metre, towards the side of the subjects so that he has to turn
his head about 45 degrees in order to see it.
The experimenter then repeats the experiment in both ascending and descending orders. In the
ascending series, the initial size of the reference square should be perceptibly smaller than the
test square and in that of the descending series, the initial size of the reference square should be
perceptibly larger than that of the test square.
The subjects are given the following instructions:
“(Showing the test square), this is a square and its size is fixed, (showing the reference square)
and the size of this square is not fixed. That is, its size can be changed. In some trials I will keep
the initial size of the reference square very small compared to that of the fixed square. I will keep
increasing the size of the squares. In some trials I will adjust the initial size of this square such
that it appears larger than the fixed square, then I keep decreasing the size of the square. You
must ask me to stop when you perceive the sizes of the two squares as equal. I will repeat this
experiment by placing this square (showing the reference square) towards your right and left
always at a distance of one metre and I keep changing the distance of this fixed square (pointing
towards the test square) from your seat. Whatever may be the alterations I make, your job is
simply to ask me to stop whenever you perceive the sizes of the two squares as equal.”
The test square is thus successively moved to a distance of 2, 4 & 8 meters. At each of these
distances, the sizes to the reference which are perceived as equal to test square are obtained as
before. Besides, increasing the distance of the test square from the subject, it is desirable to
decrease it successively from a distance of 8 meters to 1 metre. Thus, there is a receding and
approaching series.
Results:
The lengths of the sides of the Reference Square matched to those of the Test Square are
tabulated as shown below:

Overall averages are taken by rows to give a representative value for each of the distances. These
averages obtained for each of the distances should be plotted on the same graph paper on which
the theoretical functions defined by the law of the visual angle are plotted. Then the empirical
function obtained from the experimental data may be discussed in comparison with the
theoretical function.
It is possible to isolate the effects of receding, approaching ascending and descending series of
presentation by plotting separate functions for each of these conditions.