LECTURE NOTES ON

MECHATRONICS

SRI SATYA NARAYAN TRIPATHY,

LECTURER
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
UCP ENGINEERING
SCHOOL,BERHAMPUR, 760010

1
 Contents
1) Introduction to Mechatronics…...
2) Sensors and Transducers
3) Actuators-Mechanical, Electrical
4) Programmable logic controllers
5) Elements of CNC Machines
6) Robotics

2
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS

1.1 Definition of mechatronics

1.2 Advantages & disadvantages of Mechatronics
1.3 Application of Mechatronics
1.4 Scope of Mechatronics in Industrial Sector
1.5 Components of a Mechatronics System
1.6 Importance of mechatronics in automation

3
1.1 Definition of mechatronics;

* Mechatronics, also called mechatronics engineering, is

an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that focuses on
the integration of mechanical, electronic and electrical
engineering systems, and also includes a combination
of robotics, electronics, computer
science, telecommunications, systems, control,
and product engineering.

* It is the extension and the completion of mechanical

systems with sensors and microcomputers which is the
most important aspect .

4
1.2 Advantages & disadvantages of Mechatronics
Advantages of Mechatronics

● High level of integration.

● Increased functionality and better design.
● More use of electronics and software instead of
mechanical function.
● Assumes responsibility for process and operation with
little interference of operators.
● Uses artificial intelligence and intelligent process
control.
● High reliability and safety.
● Improved and less expensive controls.

Disadvantages of Mechatronics :
● The initial cost is very high.
● The complicated design and system.
● The repair and maintenance is complex.
● Its replacement is so difficult, that it is difficult to
change the old system to the new system.

5
 1.3 Application of Mechatronics;
✧ Electronic home appliances
✧ Electronic entertainment products
✧ Engine systems (cars)
✧ Large scale application
✧ Automotive mechanics .
✧ VCRs and CD players.
✧ Document scanner.

6
1.4 Scope of Mechatronics in Industrial Sector:
✧ Better design of products.
✧ Better process planning.
✧ Reliable and quality oriented manufacturing.
✧ Intelligent process control.

1.5 Components of a Mechatronics System

Physically, a mechatronic system is composed of four
prime components. They are sensors, actuators,
controllers and mechanical components.

(i) Actuators and sensors

(ii) Signals and conditioning
(iii) Digital logic Systems
(iv) Software and data acquisition systems
(v) Computers and display devices.

7
(i) Sensors and actuators
Sensors and actuators mostly come under mechanical
systems. The actuators produce motion or cause some
action. The sensors detect the state of the system
parameters, inputs, and outputs. The various actuators
.used in the mechatronic system are pneumatic and
hydraulic actuators, electro-mechanical actuators, electrical
motors such as DC motors, AC motors, stepper motors,
servomotors, and piezoelectric actuators. The various types
of sensors used in the mechatronic system are linear arid
rotational sensors, acceleration sensors, force, torque and
pressure sensors, flow sensors, temperature sensors,
proximity sensors, light sensors.

8
(ii) Signals and conditioning
The mechatronic systems deal with two types of signals
and conditioning such as – input and output. The input
devices receive input signals from the mechatronic systems
via interfacing devices and sensors. Then it is sent to the
control circuits for conditioning or processing. The various input
signal conditioning devices used in the mechatronic system are discrete
circuits, amplifiers, Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converters,
Digital-to-Digital (DZD) convertors. The output signals from the system
are sent to output/display devices through interfacing devices. The
various output signal conditioning devices used in the mechatronic
system are Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converters, Display Decoders (DD)
converters, amplifiers, power transistors, and power op-amps.

9
(iii) Digital logic systems

Digital logic devices control overall system operation. The

various digital logic systems used in the mechatronic
system are logic circuits, microcontrollers, programmable
logic controllers, sequencing and timing controls, and
control algorithms.

10
(iv) Software and data acquisition systems
The data acquisition system acquires the output signals
from sensors in the form of voltage, frequency, resistance
etc. and it is inputted into the microprocessor or computer.
Software is used to control the acquisition of data through
the DAC board. The data acquisition system consists of a
multiplexer, amplifier, register, and control circuitry., and
DAC board. The various data acquisition systems used in
the mechatronic system is data loggers, computer with
plug-in boards, etc.

11
(v) Computers and display devices
Computers are used to store a large number of data and
process further through software. Display devices are used
to give visual feedback to the user. The various display
devices used in the mechatronic system are LEDs, CRT,
LCD, digital displays, etc.

12
1.6 Importance of mechatronics in automation
* Mechatronics based automated systems such
as automatic inspection and quality assurance,
automatic packaging, record making, and automatic
dispatch help to expedite the entire manufacturing
operation.
* These systems certainly ensure a supply better quality,
well packed and reliable products in the market.

* Mechatronics and Automation is an integrative branch of

engineering that incorporates learning principles from
Mechanical, Electrical, Control, Robotics, Electronic,
Computer, Telecommunication, Systems, and Product
Engineering.

13
 CHAPTER 2

Sensors and Transducers

2.1 Definition of Transducers

2.2 Classification of Transducers
2.3 Electromechanical Transducers
2.4 Transducers Actuating Mechanisms
2.5 Displacement & Positions Sensors
2.6 Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors.
2.7 Temperature and light sensors.

14
2.1 Defination of Transducers

A transducer is a device that converts energy from one

form to another. Usually a transducer converts a signal in
one form of energy to a signal in another.
Transducers are often employed at the boundaries
of automation, measurement, and control systems, where
electrical signals are converted to and from other physical
quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion, position,
etc.). The process of converting one form of energy to
another is known as transduction.

15
2.2 Classification of Transducers

Classification of Transducers: There are many principles

on which a transducer can work like resistive, inductive,
capacitive etc. So Transducer can be categorized on the
basis of four thoughts. On the basis of transduction form
it`s used, we can go further.
1. Primary and secondary type
2. Analog and digital type
3. Active and passive type
4. Transducer and Inverse type .

16
Primary and Secondary Transducer: Suppose you need
to measure pressure. In this case we use bourdon tube .So
bourdon tube acts as primary transducer; it senses the
pressure and converts pressure into displacement of its free
end. The displacement of the free end moves the core of
the linear variable differential transducer which produces
output voltage proportional to movement of core which is
proportional to movement of core which is again
proportional to pressure. So we are able to measure
pressure. Here bourdon tube is the primary transducer and
LVDT is secondary transducer.

Analog and Digital Transducer: Transducers converting

input quantity to analog output in the form of pulses are
analog transducers. I.E. Strain gauge, thermocouple etc.
digital transducers convert input to electrical output in
form of pulses.

17
Active and Passive Transducer: Active transducers are
those which don’t need auxiliary power source to produce
output. The energy required for production of output signal
is obtained from physical quantities being measured. I.E.
piezoelectric crystals, tacho-generators etc. Passive
transducers are those which need an auxiliary power
source to produce output. I.E. linear potentiometer etc

Transducers and Inverse transducer: Transducers, as

mentioned earlier convert non electrical quantity to
electrical quantity whereas inverse transducer converts
electrical to non-electrical quantity. This type of transducer
converts electrical signals into required form. I.E.
Piezoelectric Crystal. It converts electrical signals into
mechanical vibration.

18
2.3 Electromechanical Transducers

Dielectric elastomer (DE)are electromechanical

transducers that convert or transduce electrical energy to or
from mechanical energy. In an actuator mode, DEs convert
electrical to mechanical energy, whereas in a generator
mode they perform the reverse function and convert
mechanical to electrical energy. This chapter derives the
fundamental equations describing DE transduction. The
equations show quantitatively how electrical parameters
such as electric field and dielectric constant are related to
mechanical parameters such as stress and strain. The basic
equations can be extended to examine more subtle
considerations such as film stability and leakage, as well as
applied to devices such as sensors and variable stiffness
devices that transduce mechanical energy both to and from
electrical energy.

19
2.4 Transducers Actuating Mechanisms
Transducers are also known as gauges,pick up and signal
generators.
1. Activating devices
2. Transducing elements

In order to excite a traveling wave in the cylinder, two

standing waves, the amplitudes of which are equal, and
their phase difference on time and space is π/2, are
generated by the longitudinal and bending vibration of the
transducer, respectively. The longitudinal vibration of the
transducer is excited by the longitudinal vibration of
longitudinal PZT. The bending PZT is located at the
antinodal plane of the bend wave of the transducer, and the
bending vibration of the transducer is excited by the
longitudinal vibration of bending PZT. Thus, the composite
transducer should be excited with two-phase alternating
voltages. When a flexural traveling wave is excited in the
cylinder, elliptical trajectories are achieved at the particles
on the teeth. And the driving force is the frictional force
between the rotor and teeth.

20
2.5 Displacement &Positions Sensors
What is a Displacement Transducer?
A Displacement Transducer is an electromechanical
device used to convert mechanical motion or vibrations,
specifically rectilinear motion, into a variable electrical
current, voltage or electric signals, and the reverse.
Actuating mechanisms used primarily for automatic
control systems or as mechanical motion sensors in
measurement technologies. The classification of
electromechanical transducers includes conversion
principles or types of output signals.

21
What is a Position Transducer?
A position transducer typically consists of two
fundamental parts. One part remains fixed in position
while the other part moves with the mechanism whose
displacement is being measured. The exact nature, and
therefore the size, of the fixed and moving portions
depend on the sensing technology being used. Some
transducers are intended to be mounted integrally to
the mechanism, while others are designed to be
mounted externally.

22
2.6 Velocity, motion, force and pressure sensors.

Velocity Sensor

A velocity receiver (velocity sensor) is a sensor that

responds to velocity rather than absolute position. For
example, dynamic microphones are velocity receivers. ...
Movement causes the coil to move relative to the magnet,
which in turn generates a voltage that is proportional to the
velocity of that movement.

23
Motion sensors

A motion sensor (or motion detector) is an electronic

device that is designed to detect and measure
movement. Motion sensors are used primarily in home and
business security systems, but they can also be found in
phones, paper towel dispensers, game consoles, and virtual
reality systems. Unlike many other types of sensors (which
can be handheld and isolated), motion sensors are typically
embedded systems with three major components:
a sensor unit, an embedded computer, and hardware (or
the mechanical component).

24
Force Sensor

A Force Sensor is defined as a transducer that converts

an input mechanical load, weight, tension, compression
or pressure into an electrical output signal (load cell
definition). Force Sensors are also commonly known as
Force Transducers. There are several types of load cells
based on size, geometry and capacity.

25
 Pressure sensor
A pressure sensor is a device for pressure
measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression
of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is
usually stated in terms of force per unit area. A pressure
sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as
a function of the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this
article, such a signal is electrical
Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure
other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level,
and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be
called pressure transducers, pressure
transmitters, pressure senders, pressure
indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other
names.

26
2.7 Temperature and light sensors.
Temperature sensor
A temperature sensor is a device used to measure
temperature. This can be air temperature, liquid
temperature or the temperature of solid matter. There are
different types of temperature sensors available and they
each use different technologies and principles to take the
temperature measurement.
A temperature sensor is an electronic device that measures
the temperature of its environment and converts the input
data into electronic data to record, monitor, or signal
temperature changes. There are many different types of
temperature sensors. Some temperature sensors
require direct contact with the physical object that is
being monitored (contact temperature sensors), while
others indirectly measure the temperature of an object
(non-contact temperature sensors).

27
Light sensor
The light sensor is a passive device that converts the
light energy into an electrical signal output. Light
sensors are more commonly known as Photoelectric
Devices or Photo Sensors because they convert light
energy (photons) into electronic signals (electrons). ... The
sensor receives the light reflected from the target.
A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the
intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that
exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically
called “light”, and which ranges in frequency from
“Infra-red” to “Visible” up to “Ultraviolet” light spectrum.
The light sensor is a passive device that converts this “light
energy” whether visible or in the infra-red parts of the
spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are
more commonly known as “Photoelectric Devices” or
“Photo Sensors” because they convert light energy
(photons) into electricity (electrons).

28
 CHAPTER 3

Actuators-Mechanical, Electrical

3.1Mechanical Actuators
3.1.1 Machine, Kinematic Link, Kinematic Pair
3.1.2 Mechanism, Slider crank Mechanism
3.1.3 Gear Drive, Spur gear, Bevel gear, Helical gear, worm
gear
3.1.4 Belt & Belt drive
3.1.5 Bearings
3.2 Electrical Actuator
3.2.1 Switches and relay
3.2.2 Solenoid
3.2.3 D.C Motors
3.2.4 A.C Motors
3.2.6 Specification and control of stepper motor
3.2.7 Servo Motors D.C & A.C

29
3.1Mechanical Actuators
3.1.1 Machine, Kinematic Link,
Kinematic Pair

Machine ;-
A machine (or mechanical device) is a
mechanical structure that uses power to apply forces and
control movement to perform an intended action
An apparatus using mechanical power and having several parts,
each with a definite function and together performing a particular
task..

30
KINEMATIC LINK : -
It is defined as the part of machine
which has a relative motion with respect to some other part of
same machine is called Kinematic link or element
In mechanical engineering, a kinematic chain is an assembly
of rigid bodies connected by joints to provide constrained
motion that is the mathematical model for a mechanical
system.

31
Kinematic Pair :-
The two links or elements of a machine, when in
contact with each other, are said to form a pair. If the
relative motion between them is completely or
successfully constrained the pair is known as
kinematic pair.

The two links or elements of a machine, when in

contact with each other, are said to form a pair. If the
relative motion between them is completely or
successfully constrained (i.e. in a definite direction),
the pair is known as kinematic pair.

32
3.1.2 Mechanism, Slider crank Mechanism

Mechanism

A mechanism is usually a piece of a larger

process, known as a mechanical system or
machine. Sometimes an entire machine may be
referred to as a mechanism; examples are the
steering mechanism in a car, or the winding
mechanism of a wristwatch.

The way in which the parts of a machine are

interconnected and guided to produce a
required output motion from a given input
motion is known as the mechanism of the
machine. ...

33
 Slider-crank mechanism

Arrangement of mechanical parts designed to convert

straight-line motion to rotary motion, as in a
reciprocating piston engine, or to convert rotary motion
to straight-line motion, as in a reciprocating piston
pump. The basic nature of the mechanism and the
relative motion of the parts
Slider-crank mechanism, arrangement of mechanical
parts designed to convert straight-line motion to rotary
motion, as in a reciprocating piston engine, or to convert
rotary motion to straight-line motion, as in a reciprocating
piston pump.

34
3.1.3 Gear Drive, Spur gear, Bevel gear,
Helical gear, worm gear

Gear Drive
Same sized and shaped teeth cut at equal distances
along a flat surface or a straight rod is called a gear
rack. A gear rack is a cylindrical gear with the
radius of the pitch cylinder being infinite. By
meshing with a cylindrical gear pinion, it converts
rotational motion into linear motion. Gear racks can
be broadly divided into straight tooth racks and
helical tooth racks, but both have straight tooth
lines. By machining the ends of gear racks, it is
possible to connect gear racks end to end.

35
Spur gear

Gears having cylindrical pitch surfaces are called

cylindrical gears. Spur gears belong to the parallel
shaft gear group and are cylindrical gears with a
tooth line which is straight and parallel to the shaft.
Spur gears are the most widely used gears that can
achieve high accuracy with relatively easy
production processes. They have the characteristic
of having no load in the axial direction (thrust load).
The larger of the meshing pair is called the gear and
smaller is called the pinion.

36
Bevel gear

Bevel gears have a cone shaped appearance and

are used to transmit force between two shafts
which intersect at one point (intersecting shafts).
A bevel gear has a cone as its pitch surface and its
teeth are cut along the cone. Kinds of bevel gears
include straight bevel gears, helical bevel gears,
spiral bevel gears, miter gears, angular bevel
gears, crown gears, zerol bevel gears and hypoid
gears.

37
Helical gear

Helical gears are used with parallel shafts similar to

spur gears and are cylindrical gears with winding
tooth lines. They have better teeth meshing than
spur gears and have superior quietness and can
transmit higher loads, making them suitable for
high speed applications. When using helical gears,
they create thrust force in the axial direction,
necessitating the use of thrust bearings. Helical
gears come with right hand and left hand twist
requiring opposite hand gears for a meshing pair.

38
Worm gear
A screw shape cut on a shaft is the worm, the
mating gear is the worm wheel, and together on
non-intersecting shafts is called a worm gear.
Worms and worm wheels are not limited to
cylindrical shapes. There is the hour-glass type
which can increase the contact ratio, but production
becomes more difficult. Due to the sliding contact
of the gear surfaces, it is necessary to reduce
friction. For this reason, generally a hard material is
used for the worm, and a soft material is used for
worm wheel. Even though the efficiency is low due
to the sliding contact, the rotation is smooth and
quiet. When the lead angle of the worm is small, it
creates a self-locking feature.

39
3.1.4 Belt & Belt drive

Belt ;
A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two
or more rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel.
Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power
efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped
over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and
the shafts need not be parallel.
In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys
normally in one direction (the same if on parallel shafts),
or the belt may be crossed, so that the direction of the
driven shaft is reversed (the opposite direction to the driver
if on parallel shafts). As a source of motion, a conveyor
belt is one application where the belt is adapted to carry a
load continuously between two points. The belt drive can
also be used to change the speed of rotation, either up or
down, by using different sized pulleys.

40
Belt drive
Belt drive, in machinery, a pair of pulleys attached to
usually parallel shafts and connected by an encircling
flexible belt (band) that can serve to transmit and modify
rotary motion from one shaft to the other. Most belt drives
consist of flat leather, rubber, or fabric belts running on
cylindrical pulleys or of belts with a V-shaped cross
section running on grooved pulleys. To create an effective
frictional grip on the pulleys, belts must be installed with a
substantial tension. Because of the wedging action of the
belts in the grooves, V belts require less tension than do
flat belts and are particularly suitable for connecting shafts
that are close together. Flat and V belts slip when
overloaded, and in some applications this condition may be
more desirable than a rigid drive because it limits the
transmitted torque and may prevent breakage of parts.

41
3.1.5 Bearings
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative
motion to only the desired motion, and reduces friction
between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for
example, provide for free linear movement of the moving
part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may
prevent a motion by controlling the vectors of normal
forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings
facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction.
Bearings are classified broadly according to the type of
operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the
loads (forces) applied to the parts.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear" a

bearing being a machine element that allows one part to
bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are
bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying
degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and

42
location of the surface. Other bearings are separate devices
installed into a machine or machine part. The most
sophisticated bearings for the most demanding applications
are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some
of the highest standards of current technology.

43
3.2 Electrical Actuator

3.2.1 Switches and relay

SWITCHES ;-

A switch is an electromechanical device used to make or

break the circuits.
★ Switches can be controlled mechanically
★ It controls the flow of current by opening or closing
of circuits
★ They are operated manually by a lever or by pushing
the buttons
★ It is used to open or close the contacts
★ It operates slowly when compared to relay because it
requires a physical object to make the changes
★ A switch makes a direct contact or connection
★ Example: Manual control of switch (Physical control
of fans, lights in Homes)
44
★ RELAY :-

❖ Relay is an electromechanical device used to make or break

the circuits
❖ Relays can be controlled electronically
❖ It controls high power circuits with low power signals by
opening or closing the contacts
❖ It can send electromagnetic or optical signal to actuate the
load circuit
❖ It is used to protect the system from damage
❖ It operates faster
❖ It is a remote control switch
❖ Example: To turn ON/OFF Air Conditioner, LDR street light
(Automatic)

45
3.2.2 Solenoid
A solenoid is a device comprised of a coil of wire, the housing
and a moveable plunger (armature). When an electrical current is
introduced, a magnetic field forms around the coil which draws
the plunger in. More simply, a solenoid converts electrical
energy into mechanical work.

● The coil is made of many turns of tightly wound copper

wire. When an electrical current flows through this wire, a
strong magnetic field/flux is created.
● The housing, usually made of iron or steel, surrounds the
coil concentrating the magnetic field generated by the coil.
● The plunger is attracted to the stop through the
concentration of the magnetic field providing the
mechanical force to do work.

When an electrical current is introduced, a magnetic field forms

around the coil which draws the plunger in. More simply, a
solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical work..

46
3.2.3 D.C Motors

A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical motors

that converts direct current electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the
forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC
motors have some internal mechanism, either
electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the
direction of current in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as
they could be powered from existing direct-current lighting
power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be
controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply
voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field
windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and
appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct
current but is a lightweight brushed motor used for
portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are
currently used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator
and hoists, and in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent
of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors
with AC motors possible in many applications.

47
A DC motor is defined as a class of electrical motors
that convert direct current electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
From the above definition, we can conclude that any
electric motor that is operated using direct current or DC is
called a DC motor. We will understand the DC motor
construction and how a DC motor converts the supplied
DC electrical energy into mechanical energy in the next
few sections.

48
3.2.4 A.C Motors

An AC motor is an electric machine that converts

alternating current into mechanical rotation. AC motor’s
applications range from industrial bulk power conversion
from electrical to mechanical to household small power
conversion. In this article, let us briefly discuss the various
traits and working of an AC motor.
An AC motor is a motor that converts the alternating
current into mechanical power. The stator and the rotor are
important parts of AC motors. The stator is the stationary
part of the motor, and the rotor is the rotating part of the
motor. The AC motor may be single-phase or three-phase.
Nikola Tesla invented the first AC induction motor in
1887.

49
The two main types of AC motors are induction motors
and synchronous motors. The induction motor (or
asynchronous motor) always relies on a small difference in
speed between the stator rotating magnetic field and the
rotor shaft speed called slip to induce rotor current in the
rotor AC winding.

3.2.6 Specification and control of stepper motor

Specifications

● Size: 42.3 mm square × 48 mm, not including the shaft

(NEMA 17)
● Weight: 350 g (13 oz)
● Shaft diameter: 5 mm “D”
● Steps per revolution: 200
● Current rating: 1.2 A per coil
● Voltage rating: 4 V
● Resistance: 3.3 Ω per coil
● Holding torque: 3.2 kg-cm (44 oz-in)
● Inductance: 2.8 mH per coil
● Lead length: 30 cm (12″)
● Output shaft supported by two ball bearings

50
 ● Control of stepper motor

Stepper motor control constant voltage drives are used to

apply a constant positive or negative voltage to each
winding to drive motion. However, it is winding current,
not voltage, that applies torque to the stepper motor shaft.
The current (I) in each winding is related to the applied
voltage (V) by the winding inductance (L) and the winding
resistance (R). Thus, these are also known as L/R drives.
To obtain high torque at high speeds requires a large drive
voltage with a low resistance and low inductance. With an
L/R drive it is possible to control a low voltage resistive
motor with a higher voltage drive simply by adding an
external resistor in series with each winding. However,
since it wastes power in the resistors, and generates heat, it
is therefore considered a low-performing option.

51
How can we control the speed of a stepper motor?

Speed of a stepper motor can be controlled by changing its

switching speed or by changing the length of the time
delay loop.

A stepper motor is a permanent magnet or variable

reluctance dc motor that has the following performance
characteristics:

1.rotation in both directions,

2.precision angular incremental changes,
3.repetition of accurate motion or velocity profiles,
4.a holding torque at zero speed, and
5.capability for digital control.
A stepper motor can move in accurate angular increments
knows as steps in response to the application of digital
pulses to an electric drive circuit from a digital controller.
The number and rate of the pulses control the position and

52
speed of the motor shaft. Generally, stepper motors are
manufactured with steps per revolution of 12, 24, 72, 144,
180, and 200, resulting in shaft increments of 30, 15, 5,
2.5, 2, and 1.8 degrees per step.

Stepper motors are either bipolar, requiring two power

sources or a switchable polarity power source, or unipolar,
requiring only one power source. They are powered by dc
current sources and require digital circuitry to produce the
coil energizing sequences for rotation of the motor. The
advantage of operating without feedback is that a closed
loop control system is not required. Generally, stepper
motors produce less than 1 horsepower(746W) and are
therefore frequently used in low-power position control
applications.

53
3.2.7 Servo Motors D.C & A.C
Difference between AC Servo Motor and DC Servo Motor

Characteristics AC Servo Motor DC Servo Motor

Efficiency Low (about 5-20%) High

Speed & Torque Adaptable to strong torque and Adaptable to a limited torque and
high-sped working condition. speed.

Stability Less stability issues More problems of stability

Noise No radio frequency noise Brushes cause radio frequency noise

Operation Have stable and smooth operation Noisy operation

Weight & Size Lighter weight and small in size Heavy weight and large in size

Repair & Since no commutators, Less Because of commutation process,

Maintenance maintenance is required regular maintenance is needed.

Output Power Deliver low power normally Provide high power

between 0.5W and 100W

54
CHAPTER 4

Programmable logic controllers (PLC)

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Advantages of PLC
4.3 Selection and uses of PLC
4.4 Architecture basic internal structures
4.5 Input/output Processing and Programming
4.6 Mnemonics
4.7 Master and Jump Controllers

55
4.1 Introduction

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a specialized

computer used to control machines and process. Eliminates
much of the hard wiring that was associated with conventional
relay control circuits. The program takes the place of much of
the external wiring that would be required for control of a
process.
PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controllers. They are
basically used to control automated systems in industries. They
are one of the most advanced and simplest forms of control
systems which are now replacing hard-wired logic relays at a
large scale.
The programmable logic controller, or PLC, is ubiquitous in
process and manufacturing industries today. Initially built to
replace electromechanical relay systems, the PLC offers a
simpler solution for modifying the operation of a control system.
Rather than having to rewire a large bank of relays, a quick
download from a PC or programming device enables control
logic changes in a matter of minutes or even seconds.

56
4.2 Advantages of PLC
Before getting into details about PLCs, lets us know 3
reasons why PLCs are being widely used these days
● They are user friendly and easy to operate
● They eliminate the need for hard-wired relay logic
● They are fast
● It is suitable for automation in industries.
● Its input and output modules can be extended depending
upon the requirements

4.3 Selection and uses of PLC

PLCs are used in,

◆ Transportation System likes Conveyor Belt System.
◆ Packing and Labeling System in Food & Beverage.
◆ Automatic Bottle or Liquid Filling System.
◆ Packaging and Labelling System in Pharma Industries.
◆ Transportation System like Escalator and Elevator.
◆ Industrial Crane Control System for Operation of
Overhead Traveling Crane.
◆ Glass Industries for glass production and recording
data.
◆ Paper Industries for the production of Pages, Books or
Newspapers, etc.
57
◆ Cement Industries for manufacturing or mixing
the right quality and quantities of raw materials, and
accuracy of data regarding.
◆ Automatic Drainage Water Pump Monitoring and
Controlling System.
◆ Time and Count-based Control System for
an Industrial Machine.

4.4 Architecture basic internal structures

Interior architecture is the design of a building or shelter

from inside out, or the design of a new interior for a type
of home that can be fixed. ... the art and science of
designing and erecting buildings and their interiors, along
with other related physical features, by a licensed architect.
The information within the PLC is carried by means of
digital signals. The internal paths along which digital
signals flow are called buses.

58
What is the basic structure of PLC?
The main components of a PLC consist of a central
processing unit (CPU), power supply, programming
device, and input and output (I/O) modules. The CPU is
the brain of the PLC and carries out programmed
operations.
What exactly does an interior architect do?
Simply put, an interior architect designs building
interiors & space planning while an interior designer
focuses on the actual furnishing and decoration of an
interior. ... Interior architects must take into account the
functionality, safety and appearance of the build.The
CPU controls and processes all the operations within the
PLC. It is supplied with a clock that has a frequency of
typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This frequency determines
the operating speed of the PLC and provides the timing
and synchronization for all elements in the system. The
information within the PLC is carried by means of digital
signals. The internal paths along which digital signals flow
are called buses. In the physical sense, a bus is just a
number of conductors along which electrical signals can
flow. It might be tracks on a printed circuit board or wires
in a ribbon cable.

59
4.5 Input/output Processing and
Programming
How will you process the input and output of PLC?

In a PLC system there will usually be dedicated modules for

inputs and dedicated modules for outputs. An input module
detects the status of input signals such as push-buttons,
switches, temperature sensors, etc.. An output module
controls devices such as relays, motor starters, lights, etc.
• PLC is continuously running through its program and
updating it as a result of the input signals, each such loop is
called a cycle. • Two methods of processing: • 1- Continuous
updating 2- Mass updating • continuous updating: • The cpu
scanning the input channels as they occur in the program
instructions. Each input is examined individually (delay time
3 ms). The output is latched so that they retain their status
until the next update Mass input/ output copying: it works in
the following process: 1. Scan all the inputs and copy into
RAM 2. Fetch and decode and execute all program
instruction in sequence, copying output instruction to RAM
3- Once the program is executed, the CPU performs
diagnostics and communication tasks 4- update all outputs
Repeat the sequence. Input/output processing Input/Output

60
Input/output unit
1. • The input/output unit provides the interface between
the system and the outside world.
2. • The input/ output interface provides isolation and
signal conditioning functions so that sensors and
actuators can often be directly connected to them
without the need for other circuitry.
3. • Out devices: motors, starting coils, solenoid valve, etc
4. • Input devices: temperature sensors, flow sensors,
encoders, etc…

61
4.6 Mnemonics
The appropriate product category. A ladder diagram
written in alphanumeric characters for easier understanding
than the machine language program to be executed by CPU
Unit. The mnemonic code can be converted to a ladder
diagram in the PLC.

What is a ladder in PLC?

Ladder logic is used to develop software for programmable

logic controllers (PLCs) used in industrial control
applications. The name is based on the observation that
programs in this language resemble ladders, with two
vertical rails and a series of horizontal rungs between
them.

62
The PLC executes the program loaded into it one rung
at a time. As the PLC begins to process the rung, it reads
the instructions on the left and determines if the Logic on
that side of the rung is set to TRUE. The Logic evaluates to
TRUE when a hypothetical current is able to pass through
the instructions

.
4.7 Master and Jump Controllers
How to use JUMP Instruction in PLC Ladder Logic?

Jump instruction in ladder logic is used to skip some

process or rungs according to the requirement. It is paired
with Label which is used to limit the skipping the process.

63
What is jump control in PLC?

Jump instruction in ladder logic is used to skip some

process or rungs according to the requirement. It is
paired with Label which is used to limit the skipping the
process.
What does a master control relay do?
In an electrical circuit, Master control relays are used to
shut down a section of an electrical system. In ladder
logic, MCR is used to turn ON one section of a
programming line. An MCR option should be opened and
closed properly. There is a section of ladder logic
implemented between the MCR instruction lines

How do you use jump instructions?

A jump instruction, like "jmp", just switches the CPU to
executing a different piece of code. It's the assembly
equivalent of "goto", but unlike goto, jumps are not
considered shameful in assembly.

64
 CHAPTER 5
Elements of CNC Machines

5.1 Introduction to Numerical Control of

machines and CAD/CAM
5.1.1 NC machines
5.1.2 CNC machines
5.1.3.CAD/CAM
5.1.3.1 CAD
5.1.3.2 CAM
5.1.3.3 Software and hardware for CAD/CAM
5.1.3.4 Functioning of CAD/CAM system
5.1.3.4 Features and characteristics of
CAD/CAM system
5.1.3.5 Application areas for CAD/CAM

65
5.2 Elements of CNC machines
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Machine Structure
5.2.3 Guideways/Slide ways
5.2.3.1 Introduction and Types of Guideways
5.2.3.2 Factors of design of guideways
5.2.4 Drives
5.2.4.1 Spindle drives
5.2.4.2 Feed drive
5.2.5 Spindle and Spindle Bearings

66
5.1 Introduction to Numerical Control of
machines and CAD/CAM

5.1.1 NC machines
Numerical control (also computer numerical
control, and commonly called CNC) is the
automated control of machining tools (such as
drills, lathes, mills and 3D printers) by means of a
computer. A CNC machine processes a piece of
material (metal, plastic, wood, ceramic, or
composite) to meet specifications by following a
coded programmed instruction and without a
manual operator directly controlling the machining
operation.

67
What is NC machine tool?
Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method of
controlling the manufacturing operation by means of
directly inserted coded numerical instructions into the
machine tool.

Numerical control, popularly known as the NC is very

commonly used in the machine tools. Numerical
control is defined as the form of programmable
automation, in which the process is controlled by the
number, letters, and symbols. In case of the machine
tools this programmable automation is used for the
operation of the machines.
The NC technology can be applied to wide variety of
operations like drafting, assembly, inspection, sheet
metal working, etc. But it is more prominently used for
various metal machining processes like turning,
drilling, milling, shaping etc. Due to NC all the
machining operations can be performed at the fast
rate resulting in bulk manufacturing becoming quite
cheaper.

68
 5.1.2 CNC machines
What is a CNC machine do?

A computer numerical controlled (CNC) machine

uses a program to control the operation of
machine tools such as lathes and mills. It takes a
raw material (metal, plastic, etc.) and cuts, grinds,
drills, turns, mills, and/or shapes it into parts that
meet exact specifications.

A CNC machine is a motorized maneuverable tool

and often a motorized maneuverable platform, which
are both controlled by a computer, according to
specific input instructions. Instructions are delivered

69
to a CNC machine in the form of a sequential
program of machine control instructions such as
G-code and M-code, then executed. The program
can be written by a person or, far more often,
generated by graphical computer-aided design (CAD)
software and/or computer aided manufacturing
(CAM) software. In the case of 3D printers, the part to
be printed is "sliced", before the instructions (or the
program) is generated. 3D printers also use G-Code.

CNC is a vast improvement over non-computerized

machining that must be manually controlled (e.g.
using devices such as hand wheels or levers) or
mechanically controlled by pre-fabricated pattern
guides (cams). In modern CNC systems, the design
of a mechanical part and its manufacturing program
is highly automated. The part's mechanical
dimensions are defined using CAD software and then

70
translated into manufacturing directives by
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software. The
resulting directives are transformed (by "post
processor" software) into the specific commands
necessary for a particular machine to produce the
component and then are loaded into the CNC
machine.

71
5.1.3.CAD/CAM
5.1.3.1 CAD

CAD or computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), is

technology for design and technical documentation, which
replaces manual drafting with an automated process. If you
are a designer, drafter, architect or engineer, you have
probably used 2D or 3D CAD programs such as AutoCAD
or AutoCAD LT software

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers

(or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification,
analysis, or optimization of a design.[1] This software is
used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve
the quality of design, improve communications through
documentation, and to create a database for
manufacturing.[2] Designs made through CAD software are
helpful in protecting products and inventions when used in
patent applications. CAD output is often in the form of

72
electronic files for print, machining, or other
manufacturing operations.

CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in

many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and
aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design,
prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to
produce computer animation for special effects in movies,
advertising and technical manuals, often called DCC
digital content creation. The modern ubiquity and power of
computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo
dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by
engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic
importance, CAD has been a major driving force for
research in computational geometry, computer graphics
(both hardware and software), and discrete differential
geometry.

73
5.1.3.2 CAM
A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage
used especially in transforming rotary motion into linear
motion.[1][2] It is often a part of a rotating wheel (e.g. an
eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder with an irregular
shape) that strikes a lever at one or more points on its
circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to
deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or
an eccentric disc or other shape that produces a smooth
reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the follower, which
is a lever making contact with the cam. A cam timer is
similar, and were widely used for electric machine control
(an electromechanical timer in a washing machine being a
common example) before the advent of inexpensive
electronics, microcontrollers, integrated circuits,
programmable logic controllers and digital control.

74
The cam can be seen as a device that converts rotational
motion to reciprocating (or sometimes oscillating) motion.]
A common example is the camshaft of an automobile,
which takes the rotary motion of the engine and converts it
into the reciprocating motion necessary to operate the
intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders.

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) also known as

Computer-aided Modeling or Computer-aided
Machining[1][2][3] is the use of software to control machine
tools and related ones in the manufacturing of work
pieces.[4][5][6][7][8] This is not the only definition for CAM,
but it is the most common;[4] CAM may also refer to the
use of a computer to assist in all operations of a
manufacturing plant, including planning, management,
transportation and storage.[9][10] Its primary purpose is to
create a faster production process and components and

75
tooling with more precise dimensions and material
consistency, which in some cases, uses only the required
amount of raw material (thus minimizing waste), while
simultaneously reducing energy consumption.[citation needed]
CAM is now a system used in schools and lower
educational purposes. CAM is a subsequent
computer-aided process after computer-aided design
(CAD) and sometimes computer-aided engineering (CAE),
as the model generated in CAD and verified in CAE can be
input into CAM software, which then controls the machine
tool. CAM is used in many schools alongside
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) to create objects.

76
5.1.3.3 Software and hardware for
What software and hardware is used in
CAD?

CADD Hardware

● System Unit.
● Central Processing Unit (CPU)
● Memory.
● Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, CD-ROM.
● External Storage Devices.
● The Monitor.
● Printers and Plotters.
● Digitizer, PuWhich is best software for CAD CAM?

77
Top 6 CAD/CAM tools

●Fusion360.

●SOLIDWORKS 3D CAD.

●Solid Edge CAM Pro.

78
●GibbsCAM.

●AutoCAD.

●ck and Mouse.

79
What is CAD CAM hardware?
A CAD/CAM system brings together the user
(designers, engineers and draughtsmen),
hardware (computers, visual display and
dialogue systems) and software (programs
for calculation, archiving and presentation of
graphics)

What are some examples of CAD CAM

software?
Examples of CAD/CAM software are
SolidWorks, INVENTOR, CATiA and
AutoCAD. Furthermore, examples of CAM
software are SolidCAM and CAMWorks. 3D
CAD/CAM software provides the ability to
control CNC machinery from 2.5 axis, 3 axis
and multi axis CNC machines.

80
5.1.3.4 Functioning of CAD/CAM system

What are the function and benefits of CAM?

The benefits of CAM

Greater speed in producing components. Greater

accuracy and consistency, with each component or
finished product exactly the same. Greater efficiency as
computer controlled machines do not need to take breaks.
High sophistication in terms of following complex patterns
like tracks on circuit boards.

Function of cad
Used by engineers, architects, and construction managers,
CAD has replaced manual drafting. It helps users creating
designs in either 2D or 3D so that they can visualize the
construction. CAD enables the development,
modification, and optimization of the design process.

81
5.1.3.4 Features and characteristics of CAD/CAM system

The Feature Technology Feature of CAD/CAM

CAM software should have forward looking features that
allow you to work in a traditional programming approach
and to step up into a more organized environment that
includes storing process knowledge and corporate
experiences.

CAM software systems promote many product features,

like high-speed machining technologies, multi-axis
machining, collision detection and simulation tools.
However in recent years there also is another commonly
dis-cussed feature called feature technology.

82
5.1.3.5 Application areas for CAD/CAM

Main Applications of Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Solid Modelling This process is used to create solid
components of desired shape by joining and cutting
different solid volumes. The final solid model is a virtual
replica of an actual product but it can be seen and rotated
like a real product. There are two main types: · direct
where the model can be edited by undoing or modifying
the model directly on the 3D; · parametric where the model
is constructed using parameters (variable quantities such as
measurements) and the model can be edited at any point in
its history. Surface Modelling This process is used to
create surfaces of desired shape by trimming, stitching and
joining different surfaces to create a final shape model.
Assembly This process is used to assemble the models
created in solid or surface modelling to create a final
assembly. This is used to see the actual fitment of all
models and see the actual working of assembly. Drafting
Detailing This process is used to create the 2D drawings of
components or assemblies; usually directly from a 3D
model, although 2D CAD can create 2D drawings directly.
Reverse Engineering This process is used to convert the
real component into 3D CAD Model. Different types of
instruments such as laser scanner, white light scanner,

83
CMM (coordinate measuring machine) etc. are used to
measure or decode the shape of a real model. The virtual
model obtained can then be modified in a CAD program

Main Applications of Computer Aided Manufacture

(CAM) Plotter/cutters Using 2D CAD or graphics software
these machines can draw or cut 2D shapes on paper, card
or self-adhesive vinyl sheets. Laser cutting Using 2D CAD
or graphics software these machines can cut or engrave a
wide variety of materials such as card, plywood, acrylic
sheet, textiles, glass. 2.5D Milling Typically 2.5D
machining uses 2D CAD files as the source and cuts in x
and y directions (parallel to the machine bed) while
lowering the tool progressively through several steps to cut
out an object using a rotating tool. Setting tool paths is
generally simple and the part cut rapidly. 3D Milling 3d
machining typically used STL files from 3D CAD
programs as a source and requires all three axes of the mill
to be able to move simultaneously. 3D machining can take
a very long time even on fast, modern machines and
especially if a high quality finish is required. A fourth or
rotary axis can also be added to create turned parts.

84
Turning CAM software automates traditional turning on a
lathe including roughing, grooving, threading and finishing
for faster, more accurate results. 3D printing 3D printing is
a process of making a three-dimensional object of virtually
any shape from a digital model. It is achieved using an
additive process where successive layers of material
(usually thermoplastic) are laid down. Each layer is a
thinly sliced, horizontal cross-section of the eventual
object. Each object begins with a CAD file, created with a
3D modelling programme, or by reverse engineering.

85
5.2 Elements of CNC machines

5.2.1 Introduction

The development of Computer Numerically Controlled

(CNC) machines is a tremendous contribution to the

manufacturing industry. Simply put, a CNC system

receives and interprets the data and then controls certain

actions accordingly. The CNC systems, a versatile form of

soft automation, are mostly used in the lathe machine,

milling machine, laser machine, sheet metal process, etc.

The concept was originally developed to control operation

and motion of machine tools.

86
The CNC is a computer-based electronic equipment, as

mentioned earlier, which receives information in digital

form from input devices, as well as positional information

of certain elements of the machine. Then it interprets the

digital data as requirements for new positions of the

machine elements and gives appropriate commands of

direction.

5.2.2 Machine Structure

The mechanism of a mechanical system is assembled from

components called machine elements. These elements
provide structure for the system and control its movement.
The structural components are, generally, the frame
members, bearings, splines, springs, seals, fasteners and
covers.

87
What is structure in theory of machine?

A structure is an assembly of resistant bodies (known as

members) such that these bodies don't have any
relative motion between them. A structure is meant for
carrying loads. For example, a building, a roof truss, a
railway bridge, machine frames, etc. The degree of
freedom of a structure is zero.

88
5.2.3 Guideways/Slide ways

5.2.3.1 Introduction and Types of Guideways

What are guideways and slideways?

The friction between the sliding surfaces is called as

guideways with sliding friction. These guideways are also
called as slideways. The slideways are further classified
according to the lubrication at the interface of contacting
surfaces. The friction between the sliding surfaces may be
dry, semi-liquid, and liquid.

89
Guideway

The Guideway is one of the important elements of machine

tool. The main function of the guideway is to make sure
that the cutting tool or machine tool operative element
moves along predetermined path. The machine tool
operative element carries workpiece along with it. The
motion is generally circular for boring mills, vertical lathe,
etc. while it is straight line for lathe, drilling, boring
machines, etc.

The guideways are mainly classified according to the

nature of friction between contacting surfaces of the
operative element :
(a) Guideways with sliding friction
(b) Guideways with rolling friction

90
(a) Guideways with Sliding Friction
The friction between the sliding surfaces is called as
guideways with sliding friction. These guideways are also
called as slideways. The slideways are further classified
according to the lubrication at the interface of contacting
surfaces. The friction between the sliding surfaces may be
dry, semi-liquid, and liquid. When the lubrication is absent
in between contacting surfaces, it is called as dry friction.
Dry friction is rarely occurred in machine tools.

These are also called as anti friction ways. The anti friction
slideways may be classified according to the shape of the
rolling element as :
(a) Roller type anti friction ways using cylindrical rollers.
(b) Ball type anti friction ways using spherical balls.

91
Slide ways
A slideway is used to control the direction or line of
action of the translational movement of the table or
carriage on which the tools or work are held. Although
VEE type has certain advantages, it is the FLAT &
DOVETAIL slideway forms which have commonly been
used on CNC machine tools.
What is the function of slideway?
Slideways or ways are used as the medium on which to
slide heavy equipment. This type of system is used
when the equipment to be transported is either very
heavy or when the movement requires high precision.

5.2.4 Drives

Mechatronic systems comprise a large variety of

electrical drives. ... The most important equations of these
electromagnetic components will be stated in such a form
that they can be used to describe the static and dynamic
behavior of mechatronic overall systems.

92
What is a Mechanical Drive?
Mechanical drives are a series of components that
manages the transmission. This power can be
channeled to power other equipment like pumps,
blowers, air compressors, and other common
industrial machinery.

Mechatronic systems comprise a large variety of

electrical drives. Their main purpose is to generate
translational or rotational forces or to change the
position of mechanical components. Electrical
power-generating machines, which are used to drive
power-consuming machines, and electrical actuators
(control motors, servo drives), which are employed to
drive control valves, are typical examples. In both
cases, a distinction can be made between rotational
and translational forces and motions. In the following
sections, the construction and modeling of
electromagnets, DC and AC motors will be outlined.
The most important equations of these
electromagnetic components will be stated in such a
form that they can be used to describe the static and
dynamic behavior of mechatronic overall systems.

93
5.2.4.1 Spindle drives

A spindle drive is a primitive type of transmission. A rod,

referred to as a spindle, is attached to the output end of and

engine. This rod then comes in direct contact with a tire.

There are several limitations to this design. The

spindle-tire interface is prone to inefficiency and slippage

since the contact area is very limited. Water of any sort on

the tire will render a spindle drive unusable until it dries.

94
Advantages
● Simplicity. The greatest advantage to a spindle driven

transmission is simplicity. It is because of this simplicity that

spindle driven scooters are the generally the least expensive

scooters available.

● Low maintenance. Spindle drives also require no lubrication

and minimal maintenance.

Disadvantages

Wear. Spindles cause excessive wear on the tire to which

they are connected and require constant re-adjustment in

order to maintain an optimal pressure on a tire's surface.

the black magic spindle is an aftermarket spindle that has

TONS of grip, but it also wears your tire down alot faster

than a stock or knurled ADA spindle.

95
5.2.4.2 Feed drive

Feed drive

The feed drive is one of the most important parts of every

CNC machine tool. ... The feed drive main purpose is to
move the working parts of machine tool (working table,
tool unit, spindle unit etc.) through machine axes. A separate
feed drive is necessary for every machine axis.

96
What are the components of feed drive?
The feed drive consists of an electromotor and
mechanical transmission elements. The mechanical
transmission elements comprise all the machine parts
which lie in the torque (power) transmission flow between
the servo motor and the tool or workpiece.

What are the components of feed drive?

The feed drive consists of an electromotor and
mechanical transmission elements. The mechanical
transmission elements comprise all the machine parts
which lie in the torque (power) transmission flow between
the servo motor and the tool or workpiece.

97
What is feed drive system?
FEED DRIVES. A feed drive consists of a feed
servomotor and an electronic controller. Unlike a
spindle motor, the feed motor has certain special
characteristics, like constant torque and positioning.

5.2.5 Spindle and Spindle Bearings

Machine tools are generally equipped with spindles for

locating the job (to provide centering), holding tool or
work, rotating the work or the tool and feeding the tool
also as in the case of drilling machine. The spindles are
made out of hollow steel shaft with a tapered hole at the
front end for receiving the centering element (spindle
nose).

It is desirable that the axis of the tapered hole and the axis
of the spindle rotation be concentric. Machining accuracy
depends to a considerable extent upon the rotational

98
accuracy of the spindle which transmits motion to the
cutting tool or to the work. Generally machine tool
spindles are made up of allow low carbon steel heat treated
to give a case hardened surface.

Such a spindle possesses resistance to wear combined with

a tough core for strength in torsion. High precision
spindles for external grinding machines are made from
Nitralloy. Spindles of heavy machine tools are made.

99
 CHAPTER 6

Robotics

6.1 Definition, Function and laws of robotics

6.2Types of industrial robots
6.3 Robotic systems
6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of robots

100
6.1 Definition, and laws of robotics

Definition

Robotics is an interdisciplinary sector of science and

engineering dedicated to the design, construction and use
of mechanical robots. Our guide will give you a concrete
grasp of robotics, including different types of robots and
how they're being applied across industries.

Robotics is the intersection of science, engineering and

technology that produces machines, called robots, that

101
substitute for (or replicate) human actions. Pop culture has
always been fascinated with robots. R2-D2. Optimus
Prime. WALL-E. These over-exaggerated, humanoid
concepts of robots usually seem like a caricature of the real
thing...or are they more forward thinking than we realize?
Robots are gaining intellectual and mechanical capabilities
that don’t put the possibility of a R2-D2-like machine out
of reach in the future.

102
Function

103
Laws of robotics

The Three Laws of Robotics (often shortened to The

Three Laws or known as Asimov's Laws) are a set of
rules devised by science fiction author Isaac Asimov. The
rules were introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround"
(included in the 1950 collection I, Robot), although they
had been foreshadowed in some earlier stories. The Three
Laws, quoted from the "Handbook of Robotics, 56th
Edition, 2058 A.D.", are:

104
First Law
A robot may not injure a human being or, through
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm.

Second Law
A robot must obey the orders given it by human
beings except where such orders would conflict
with the First Law.

Third Law
A robot must protect its own existence as long as
such protection does not conflict with the First or
Second Law.

105
Zeroth Law

A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow

humanity to come to harm.

The Three Laws, and the zeroth, have pervaded science

fiction and are referred to in many books, films, and
other media. They have impacted thought on ethics of
artificial intelligence as well.

106
6.2Types of industrial robots

Cartesian Robots

Cartesian robots, which are also

called linear robots or gantry robots, are industrial robots
that work on three linear axes that use the Cartesian
Coordinate system (X, Y, and Z), meaning they move in
straight lines on 3-axis (up and down, in and out, and side
to side). Cartesian robots are a popular choice due to being
highly flexible in their configurations, giving users the
ability to adjust the robot’s speed, precision, stroke length,
and size. Cartesian Robots are one of the most commonly
used robot types for industrial applications and are often
used for CNC machines and 3D printing.

107
SCARA Robots

SCARA is an acronym that stands for Selective

Compliance Assembly Robot Arm or Selective
Compliance Articulated Robot Arm. SCARA Robots
function on 3-axis (X, Y, and Z), and have a rotary motion
as well. SCARA Robots excel in lateral movements and
are commonly faster moving and have easier integration
than Cartesian Robots. Typically, SCARA robots are used
for assembly and palletizing, as well as bio-med
application.

108
Articulated Robots

Articulated Robots mechanical movement and

configuration closely resembles a human arm. The arm is
mounted to a base with a twisting joint. The arm itself can
feature anywhere from two rotary joints up to ten rotary
joints which act as axes, with each additional joint or axis
allowing for a greater degree of motion. Most Articulated
Robots utilize four or six-axis. Typical applications for
Articulated Robots are assembly, arc welding, material
handling, machine tending, and packaging.

109
Cylindrical Robots

Cylindrical Robots have a rotary joint at the base and a

prismatic joint to connect the links. The robots have a
cylindrical-shaped work envelop, which is achieved with
rotating shaft and an extendable arm that moves in a
vertical and sliding motion. Cylindrical Robots are often
used in tight workspaces for simple assembly, machine
tending, or coating applications due to their compact
design.

110
Delta Robots

Delta Robots, or parallel robots, possess three arms

connected to a single base, which is mounted above the
workspace. Delta Robots work in a dome-shape and can
move both delicately and precisely at high speeds due to
each joint of the end effector being directly controlled by
all three arms. Delta Robots are often used for fast pick
and place applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and
electronic industries.

111
Polar Robots

Polar Robots, or spherical robots, have an arm with two

rotary joints and one linear joint connected to a base with a
twisting joint. The axes of the robot work together to form
a polar coordinate, which allows the robot to have a
spherical work envelope. Polar Robots are credited as one
of the first types of industrial robots to ever be developed.
Polar robots are commonly used for die casting, injection
molding, welding, and material handling.

112
Collaborative Robots

Collaborative Robots or Cobots are robots that can directly

and safely interact with humans in a shared workspace.
There are numerous types and brands of collaborative
robots on the market – learn more here. Cobots are
typically used for pick and place, palletizing, quality
inspection, and machine tending.
­

113
6.3 Robotic systems

What are the 5 main parts of a robotic system?

The design of industrial robots makes them capable of
performing human-like functions. This design consists of
five main components which are the controller, sensors,
robot arm, end effector, and drive.

114
How do robotic systems work?

A typical robot has a movable physical structure, a motor

of some sort, a sensor system, a power supply and a
computer "brain" that controls all of these elements.
Essentially, robots are man-made versions of animal life --
they are machines that replicate human and animal
behavior.

There are three types of robotic systems –

★ The manipulation robotic system,
★ The mobile robotic system
★ The data acquisition and control robotic system.
The manipulation robot system is the most commonly used
in the manufacturing industry. These systems are made up
of many of the robot arms with 4-6 axes and varying
degrees of freedom. They can perform several different

115
functions, including welding, material handling and
material removal applications.

● The mobile robotic system is a bit different. This

system consists of an automated platform that moves
items from one place to another. While these robot
systems are used heavily in manufacturing for carrying
tools and spare parts, they are also used in the
agricultural industry for transporting products. These
can also be used by several different industries because
of their ability to swim and fly, as well as move along
the ground.

● Data acquisition and control robotic systems are used

to gather, process and transmit data for a variety of
signals. They are also used in software for engineering
and business. Many of the mobile robotic systems can
use signals from these systems.

116
6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of robots

What are the advantages?

● In many situations robots can increase productivity,

efficiency, quality and consistency of products:
○ Unlike humans, robots don’t get bored
○ Until they wear out, they can do the same thing
again and again
○ They can be very accurate – to fractions of an inch
(as is needed for example in manufacturing of
microelectronics)
● Robots can work in environments which are unsafe for
humans – in the nuclear or chemical industries for
example
● Robots don’t have the same environmental
requirements that humans do – such as lighting, air
conditioning or noise protection
● Robots have some sensors/actuators which are more
capable than humans

117
 What are the disadvantages?

● The use of robots can create economic problems if

they replace human jobs
● Robots can only do what they are told to do – they
can’t improvise
○ This means that safety procedures are needed to
protect humans and other robots
● Although robots can be superior to humans in some
ways, they are less dexterous than humans, they don’t
have such powerful brains, and cannot compete with a
human’s ability to understand what they can see.
● Often robots are very costly – in terms of the initial
cost, maintenance, the need for extra components and
the need to be programmed to do the task

118
THANK YOU!!!!

119