bPCC - 107

social psychology
 BPCC-107

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Swaraj Basu Prof. Swati Patra
Director, SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi Professor of Psychology
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Former Emeritus Professor Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar
Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Professor of Psychology
New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Purnima Singh Dr. Monika Misra
Professor Sr. Assistant Professor of Psychology
School of Humanities and Social SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Sciences, IIT, New Delhi
Dr. Smita Gupta (Convener)
Prof. Anuradha Sovani Sr. Assistant Professor of Psychology
Professor, SNDT University SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Mumbai

COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Smita Gupta General Editor
Discipline of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU Dr. Smita Gupta
Discipline of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU
COURSE PREPARATION TEAM
Unit Writer Editor
BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO (Content, format
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Language)
Unit 1 Introduction to Social Psychology Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari Dr.Smita Gupta
Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute and
of Psychological Research Dr. Mohsin Uddin
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow SOSS, IGNOU
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
Unit 2 Theories of Social Psychology Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari Dr.Smita Gupta
Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute and
of Psychological Research Dr. Mohsin Uddin
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow SOSS, IGNOU
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
(Also adapted few paragraphs
from BPC-006, Unit 3)
BLOCK 2 SELF IN SOCIAL CONTEXT SELF Dr.Smita Gupta
Unit 3 Self and Its Processes Adapted from BPC-006, and
Block 1, Unit 4 Dr. Mohsin Uddin
Unit 4 Self in Social Context Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari
Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute
of Psychological Research
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
BLOCK 3 SOCIAL COGNITION
Unit 5 Social Cognition: Understanding Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari
Social Behaviour- I Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute
of Psychological Research
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
Unit 6 Social Cognition: Understanding Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari
Social Behaviour- II Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute
of Psychological Research
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur Delhi-110054
Unit 7 Attitude And Attitude Change Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari
Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute
of Psychological Research
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
BLOCK 4 SOCIAL INFLUENCE Dr. Smita Gupta
Unit 8 Social Influence Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari and
Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute Dr. Mohsin Uddin
of Psychological Research SOSS, IGNOU
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
Unit 9 Aggression and Social Influence Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari
Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute
of Psychological Research
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
Unit 10 Interpersonal Attraction and Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari
Pro-Social Behaviour Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute
of Psychological Research
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
BLOCK 5 GROUP DYNAMICS Dr. Smita Gupta
Unit 11 Group Processes Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari and
Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute Dr. Mohsin Uddin
of Psychological Research SOSS, IGNOU
Ministry of Defence, Lucknow
Road, Timarpur, Delhi
Unit 12 Leader and Leadership Dr. Mohsin Uddin
Consultant
Discipline of Psychology
IGNOU, Delhi

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January, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
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 Contents
Page No.

BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 7

Unit 1 Introduction to Social Psychology 9
Unit 2 Theories of Social Psychology 21

BLOCK 2 SELF IN SOCIAL CONTEXT 39

Unit 3 Self and Its Processes 41
Unit 4 Self in Social Context 53

BLOCK 3 SOCIAL COGNITION 85

Unit 5 Social Cognition: Understanding Social Behaviour- I 87
Unit 6 Social Cognition: Understanding Social Behaviour- II 100
Unit 7 Attitude and Attitude Change 115

BLOCK 4 SOCIAL INFLUENCE 147

Unit 8 Social Influence 149
Unit 9 Aggression and Social Influence 165
Unit 10 Interpersonal Attraction and Pro-Social Behaviour 183

BLOCK 5 GROUP DYNAMICS 203

Unit 11 Group Processes 205
Unit 12 Leader and Leadership 227
 BLOCK 1
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction to Social
Psychology BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
This block comprises of two units.Thefirst unit deals with definition, nature and
scope of Social Psychology. It also deals with the assumptions of social
psychology and tries to explain the context of social psychology in India.

The second unit highlights the relationship of social psychology with other
disciplines. The unit also describes the historical background of social psychology.
It discusses the levels of analysis of social behaviour and various theoretical
approaches of social psychology.

8
 Introduction to Social
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition, Nature and Scope of Social Psychology
1.2.1 Definition of Social Psychology
1.2.2 Nature of Social Psychology
1.2.2.1 Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study
1.2.2.2 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Thought, Feeling and
Behaviour
1.2.2.3 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Behaviour in Social Contexts
1.2.3 Scope of Social Psychology
1.3 Historical Development of Social Psychology
1.3.1 Early Years of Social Psychology
1.3.2 Formational Years of Social Psychology
1.3.3 Expansion of Social Psychology
1.3.4 Social Psychology in 21st Century
1.3.5 Social Psychology in India
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Unit End Questions
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.8 Suggested Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Define social psychology;
Explain the nature and scope of social psychology;
Describe the historical background of social psychology; and
Illustrate the development of social psychology with reference to India.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us ponder upon some situations, events, issues and people. While going for a
job interview we dress up individually; but when we reach the interview venue
we find that all the candidates are dressed up in almost similar fashion. In another
situation, after the Nirbhaya incidence in Delhi on 16 December 2012, thousands
of people flooded on the roads of Delhi and other parts of the country protesting
against the incidence. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, Nelson
Mandela, Dalai Lama and many others like them influenced thoughts, feelings
and behaviours of the masses in a great manner and led the people’s thought
toward remarkable social, religious, political and ethical revolutions.
* Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari, Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute of Psychological Research, Ministry of Defence,
Lucknow Road, Timarpur, Delhi
9
Introduction to Social These are few examples from the history of human being where either we are
Psychology
influenced by other people or we influence other people’s behaviours. Social
psychology is the branch of psychology which studies human behaviour in an
array of social situations. The present unit will help you to understand the
definition, scope and nature of psychology. Further, in this unit, you will be
acquainted with the historical background and social psychology with reference
to Indian context.

1.2 DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE OF

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology is an important branch of psychology which studies human
interaction, its manifestations, causes, consequences and the various
psychological processes involved in it.

1.2.1 Definition of Social Psychology

Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of “how we feel about, think
about and behave toward the people around us and how our feelings, thoughts,
and behaviours are influenced by those people in the social context” (Kassin,
Fein, & Markus, 2017). In a slightly different expression social psychology is
defined asa discipline that uses scientific methods in an attempt to understand
and explain how the thought, feeling and behaviour of individuals are influenced
by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others (Gordon Allport, 1985, p.
3).

1.2.2 Nature of Social Psychology

Careful explanation of definitions given above reveals that it has three major
components that characterise the nature of social psychology. These characteristics
have been further elaborated below:

1.2.2.1 Social Psychology Applies Scientific Methods of Study

Social psychology is scientific in nature. It applies the scientific method of
systematic observation, description and measure mentto the study of the human
behaviour in social context. Social psychological studies refer to the data being
collected through direct observation or experiment. Such experiments and
observation are carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other
investigators can repeat and verify the work.

The scientific social psychology carries out three major activities: description,
explanation and prediction of social behaviours. Social psychology provides a
scientific account of social behaviour based on direct observation rather than on
common beliefs. Social psychology also attempts to explain why people behave
in a particular way in a particular social situation. Such interconnected
explanations of social behaviours lead to formation of theories which help in
predicting social behaviours and managing them in a desirable direction.

10
1.2.2.2 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Thought, Feeling Introduction to Social
Psychology
and Behaviour
The varied issues of the field of social psychology include– individuals’ thought,
feeling and behaviour. Cognition is referred as the manner in which people process
information. Social psychology studies cognition that relates to social activities
and that helps us in understanding and predictingour social behaviours. Social
psychology also studies the feelings we experience as an individual in our social
lives. What we think or feel in the social context is finally expressed through our
behaviours in social interactions. Social psychology studies these behaviours in
the forms of cooperation, helping behaviour, conflict, aggression, etc.

1.2.2.3 Social Psychology Studies Individuals’ Behaviour in Social

Contexts
Social psychology studies individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behaviours in the
social contexts. This component of social psychology refers that our behaviour
is influenced by the presence of other people and we also influence other people’s
behaviour. The social context referred to in the definition of social psychology
does not have to be real or present. Even the implied or imagined presence of
others can have important effects on individuals (Gordon Allport, 1985). However,
in order to establish general principles of human social behaviour, social
psychologists sometimes examine non-social factors also. Kurt Lewin (1936),
one of the important early figures in social psychology proposed a model for
understanding social behaviour, which says that social behaviour is a function of
the interaction of the situation and the individual’s characteristics (see box for
detail).

BOX 1.1: KURT LEWIN’S CONTRIBUTION TO SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY: A MODEL FOR UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR

Kurt Lewin (9th September, 1890-12th February, 1947) was a German-

American psychologist and is often recognized as the “founder of social
psychology”. Social psychologists are interested in the forces that operate
on individuals and cause them to engage in specific examples of social
behaviour. But social behaviour is typically complex and has many
contributing causes. Consequently, explaining social behaviour is a difficult
task. To simplify this task, we can assign the multiple causes of social
behaviour to one of two broad categories: the situation and the individual.
According to a formula first proposed by Kurt Lewin (1936), social behaviour
is a function of the interaction of the situation and the individual’s
characteristics, or B = f (P,E)
This suggest that the behaviour is the product of an individual and her/his
enviroment.

1.2.3 Scope of Social Psychology

Social psychology concentrates on the individual behaviour in the social context,
so the subject matter of social psychology is the interactions of the individual
with other individuals and society as well. It is the social world, based upon the
relations of human to their fellow beings which furnishes the subject matter of
11
Introduction to Social social psychology. The scope of social psychology can be broadly outlined in
Psychology
the following ways:

People generally express feelings of approval and disapproval, favourability

and unfavourability, or likes and dislikes towards different persons, objects
or issues that further influence their thought and actions. This phenomenon
is termed as attitudes and social psychologists have been emphasizing upon
various aspects of attitude, such as formation of attitude, attitude structure,
attitude change, function of attitudes and relationship between attitudes and
behaviour.

One of the emerging areas of social psychology is social cognition, which

studies the ways people perceive, ponder and remember information related
to social stimuli. Various phenomena studied under social cognition are
person perception, attribution process, schema, stereotypes, etc.

Social influence is a traditional, core area of study in social psychology

which refers to the way people affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
of others.

Social psychologists are also interested in the question of why people

sometimes act in a pro-social way (helping, liking or loving others), but at
other times act in an antisocial way (hostility, aggression or prejudice against
others).

Social psychologists have vastly studied various phenomena related to social

groups and group dynamics. Groups may be understood in terms of group
composition, group structures, group process and the effect this has on
individual change and group development, as well as on task performance.
Thus, a social psychologist studies almost everything that we do every day
in the social context (see box below for detail).

Box 1.2: CONTRIBUTIONS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS

WHAT DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY?

Social psychologists study why we are often helpful to other people and
why we may be unfriendly or aggressive at other times.

Social psychologists study both the benefits of having good relationships

with other people and the costs of being lonely.

Social psychologists study what factors lead people to purchase one product
rather than another.

Social psychologists study how men and women behave differently in social
settings.

Social psychologists study what makes some people more likely to engage
in environmentally friendly behaviours than others.

Social psychologists study how someone might choose to risk their life to
save that of a complete stranger.

12
Self Assessment Questions I Introduction to Social
Psychology
1) Define social psychology.
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2) How can you say that social psychology is a science?

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3) Describe the nature of social psychology.

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4) Give an account of scope of social psychology.

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1.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Although philosophical analysis of human behaviour in society has always been
a major issue of interest for the social thinkers, a systematic empirical approach
to the study of social psychology did not appear until the latter part of the
nineteenth century. History of social psychology can be outlined in following
developmental stages:
13
Introduction to Social
Psychology
1.3.1 Early Years of Social Psychology
The earliest roots of social psychology are thought to be a group of German
scholars who were influenced by the philosopher Hegel. In 1860, Steinthal and
Lazarus founded a journal devoted to this Völkerpsychologie that published
theoretical and factual articles on the study of the collective mind. This concept
of collective mind was interpreted in conflicting ways: on the one hand a societal
way of thinking within the individual and on the other a form of trans-individual
mentality that could encompass a whole group of people.
The two earliest textbooks on social psychology were written by the psychologist-
William McDougall (1908) in Britain and the sociologist- Ross (1908) in America.
However, none of these textbooks were like a modern social psychology textbook
and their main topics were principal instincts, primary emotions, nature of
sentiments, moral conduct, volition, religious conceptions and structure of
character.
At the end of 19th century and the beginning of 20th century social psychology
started to systematically measure the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of human
beings. A number of laboratories were set up in Europe and United States which
started with a psychological laboratory at Leipzig in 1879 set up by Willem
Wundt to provide an experimental basis for psychology in Germany. Meantime,
the behaviourist John Watson published his classic scientific manifesto for
psychology in 1913.
In 1924, inspired byWatson, Floyd Allport published an agenda for social
psychology. Building on Watson, Allport argued that social psychology would
flourish only if it became an experimental science. Shortly after, Gardner Murphy
and Lois Murphy (1931/1937) felt justified in producing a book actually entitled
Experimental Social Psychology. First experiment in social psychology is often
identified as Norman Triplett’s (1898) study of how people can put more effort
into a task when other people are present as observers or competitors.

1.3.2 Formational Years of Social Psychology

During the 1940s and 1950s, Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger argued for a
scientifically rigorous social psychology. Lewin, known as “the father of social
psychology”, developed many of the important ideas of the discipline, including
a focus on the dynamic interactions among people. In 1954, Festinger edited a
book called Research Methods in the Behavioral Sciences, which stressed the
need of scientific measurement and to use laboratory experiments to
systematically test research hypotheses about social behaviour. He also noted
that for factual results in these experiments the participants may be kept blind
about the purpose of the research.

During the time of World War II,the studies on conformity were conducted by
Muzafir Sherif (1936) and Solomon Asch (1952). Studies on obedience were
conducted by Stanley Milgram (1974) and Philip Zimbardo (Haney, Banks, &
Zimbardo, 1973).

1.3.3 Expansion of Social Psychology

Social psychology further expanded on other topics. John Darley and BibbLatané
(1968) developed a model to explain the context when people do and do not help
14 others in need. Leonard Berkowitz (1962) started the study of human aggression.
Many other social psychologists focused on the process of decision making in Introduction to Social
Psychology
group (Janis, 1972). Still other social psychologists, including Gordon Allport
and Muzafir Sherif, focused on intergroup relations with the goal of understanding
and potentially reducing the occurrence of stereotypes, prejudice and
discrimination.
In late 20th century social psychology expanded into the field of attitudes and
significance of cognitive processes in attitudes. Social psychologists also started
studying the process of persuasion by which advertisers and other people could
present their messages to make them most effective and persuasive (Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993; Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1963). They focused on the cognitive
processes that people use when evaluating messages. Relationship between
attitudes and behaviour was also an important aspect which was extensively
studied during this period. Leon Festinger’simportant cognitive dissonance theory
was developed during this time and became a model for later researches (Festinger,
1957).
In late 20th century, due to advances in information technology focus of social
psychology on cognitive process was further substantiated (Fiske & Taylor, 2008).
The social cognition approach has been focused on understanding of how our
knowledge about our social worlds develops and how it influences our social
thinking and behaviours. Further more, the extent to which humans’ decision
making could be flawed due to both cognitive and motivational processes that
were documented (Kahneman, Slovic, & Tversky, 1982).

1.3.4 Social Psychology in 21st Century

Social psychology has been still expanding into varied areas of social behaviour.
Social psychologists have studied impact of social situations on our health and
happiness, important roles of evolutionary experiences and cultures on our
behaviour.The field of social neuroscience has also emerged, which studies that
how our social behaviour, both influences and is influenced by the activities of
our brain (Lieberman, 2010). Social psychologists are consistently searching
new methods to measure and understand social behaviour and the field continues
to evolve.

1.3.5 Social Psychology in India

In 1928, first book on social psychologyinIndia,entitled– Introduction to Social
Psychology was written by Narendra Nath Sengupta, the first chairman of first
department of psychology at the Calcutta University, in association with an
eminent sociologist Radhakamal Mukherjee. However, this initial association
between social psychology and sociology could not continue and Indian social
psychologists, in effect of western research orientations, put out all efforts to
establish the identity of psychology as a scientific discipline. Jamuna Prasad,
inspired by Bartlett’s (1932) reconstructive memory of events, studied the famous
earthquake in Bihar in 1934 and collected and analyzed more than 35 thousand
rumours and published this work in the British Journal of Psychology in 1935.
This, and the later work of Durganand Sinha (1952) on similar lines, was reported
by Festinger as the basis of formulating his theory of cognitive dissonance.

In the later years, Indian social psychologists continued working in the areas of
prejudice, stereotypes and social attitudes. Large scale surveys were conducted
taking various attitude measures. Adinarayan conducted studies on racial and
15
Introduction to Social communal attitudes (1953) and on caste attitudes (1958). With increasing
Psychology
emphasis on public awareness programmes for health, family planning,
agricultural innovations, attitude change became a major topic of research. During
these years social psychology was growing in popularity in India as evident
from surveys conducted from time to time.

Social psychologists further explored the areas of intergroup relations (Singh,

1981), relative deprivation (Misra, 1982), ingratiation (Pandey, 1986) and
leadership (J.B.P. Sinha, 1980) in which influence of social groups on individual
behaviour was investigated. More recently, the interest is shifting to study ethnic
identities, the rise of depressed classes and related topics. In much of this research,
efforts are being made to establish causal linkages between macro-level variables
(demographic, social or cultural) and micro-level variables (attitudes, feeling of
deprivation, etc.). The approach and methodology remained consistent with
individual social psychology of the American variety. Another area which
persisted in popularity for long was achievement motivation. A large number of
scales were constructed to measure achievement motivation of school and college
students. In recent years the work of Ashish Nandy on self, science, nationality
and Sudhir Kakar’s work on identity and relationships have been somehow
indigenous and not directly influenced by what and how of social psychology in
America and Europe (see Dalal & Mishra, 2001).

Self Assessment Question II

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) The earliest textbooks on social psychology was written by the psychologist
Willian Mc Dougal in Britain. ..............................
2) The behaviorist John Watson published his classic scientific manifesto for
psychology in 1913. ..............................
3) Lewin, Known as the father of social psychology...............................
4) Narendra Nath sengupta was the first chairman of the first department of
psychology at the mumbai University. ..............................

1.4 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that social psychology is a field
which analyses our thoughts, feelings and behaviour toward the people around
us. It also explains how others have an influence on our behaviour in the social
context. Thus, social psychology concentrates on studying the interactions of
individuals with other individuals and society. Foundation of social psychology
as specific branch of psychology can be traced back to early 20th century. However,
the major expansion in the scope of social psychology took place in later half of
20th century. Indigenous studies in social psychology in India have been majorly
focused on self and culture, nationality and identity, etc. Although social
psychology is closely related with other discipline of social sciences, as well as
other branches of psychology; it differs from them in approach.

Social psychologists investigate human social behaviour at various levels.

Primarily, these levels are intrapersonal social behaviours, interactions between
individuals, interactions between individual and group and interactions between
group and group.
16
 Introduction to Social
1.5 UNIT END QUESTIONS Psychology

1) Define social psychology and explain the nature and scope of social
psychology.

2) Present an account of historical development of social psychology.

1.6 GLOSSARY
Social Psychology: Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of how
we feel about, think about and behave toward the people around us and how our
feelings, thoughts, and behaviours are influenced by those people in the social
context.
Social Neuroscience:Social neuroscience is the study of how our socialbehaviour
both influences and is influenced by the activities of our brain.
Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning presumes that when a neutral
stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is paired with a natural stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus, UCS), neutral stimulus alone acquires the ability to
elicit the response (conditioned response, CR) which naturally occurs
(unconditioned response, UCR) after natural stimulus.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the mechanism by which people learn to
perform a particular behaviour because it is followed by something that is
pleasurable or that satisfies a need (or they learn to avoid behaviour that is followed
by unpleasant consequences).
Observational Learning: Observational learning presumes thatpeople often learn
social atti­tudes and behaviours simply by watching other people, known
technically as “models”.
Social Exchange Theory: Social exchange theory uses the concept of
reinforcement to explain stability and change in social interactions and relations
between individuals.
Social Cognitive Theories: Social cognitive theoriesemphasise that a person’s
behaviour depends on the way he or she perceives the social situation.
Schema: Schema is a mental representation capturing the general characteristics
of a particular class of episodes, events or individuals.
Principle of Cognitive Consistency:Principle of cognitive consistency maintains
that individuals strive to hold ideas that are consistent or congruous with one
another, rather than ideas that are inconsistent or incongruous.

1.7 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS (SAQ)
Self Assement Question I
1) Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of “how we feel about,
think about and behave toward the people around us and how our feelings,
thoughts, and behaviours are influenced by those people in the social
context” (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2017).

17
Introduction to Social 2) Social psychology is scientific in nature. It applies the scientific method of
Psychology
systematic observation, description and measurementto the study of the
human behaviour in social context. Social psychological studies refer to the
data being collected through direct observation or experiment. Such
experiments and observation are carried out carefully and reported in detail
so that other investigators can repeat and verify the work.

3) The following three major components characterise the nature of social

psychology:
Social psychology applies scientific methods of study.
Social psychology studies individuals’ thought, feeling and behaviour.
Social psychology studies individuals’ behaviour in social contexts.
4) The scope of social psychology can be broadly outlined in the following
ways:
Social psychologists emphasize upon various aspects of attitude
Social psychology also deals with social cognition.
Social influence is a traditional, core area of study in social psychology.
Social psychologists are also interested in the question of why people
sometimes act in a pro-social way but at other times act in an antisocial
way.
Self Assement Question II
1) True
2) True
3) True
4) False

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10th ed.).
Cengage Learning.

Baron, R. A., &Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston:

Pearson/Allyn& Bacon.

References
Adinarayan, S. P. (1953). Before and after Independence–A study of racial and
communal attitudes in India. British Journal of Psychology, 44, 108-115.

Adinarayan, S.P. (1957). A study of racial attitudes in India. Journal of Social

Psychology, 45, 211-216.
Allport, F. H. (1924). Social Psychology. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G.
Lindzey& E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (3rd ed., Vol. I,
pp. 1-46). New York: Random House.
Asch, S. E. (1952). Social Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
18
B. F. Skinner (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis. Introduction to Social
Psychology
Cambridge, Massachusetts: B. F. Skinner Foundation.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice-

Hall.

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social

Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis. New York,

NY: McGraw-Hill.

Dalal, A. K., & Mishra, G. (2001). Social Psychology in India: Evolution and
emerging trends. In In A. K. Dalal& G. Misra (Eds.), New Directions in Indian
Psychology (vol. 1: Social Psychology), New Delhi: Sage.

Darley, J. M., &Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies:

Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8,
377-383.

Eagly, A. H., &Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations,

7, 117-140.

Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row,

Peterson.

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2008). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture.
Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a

simulated prison. International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-97.

Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1963). Communication and

Persuasion. Oxford, England: Yale University Press.

Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign

Policy Decisions and Fiascos. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin.

Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (1982). Judgment under Uncertainty:
Heuristics and Biases. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10th ed.).
Cengage Learning.

Kelley, H. H., & Thibaut, J. W. (1978). Interpersonal Relations: A Theory of

Interdependence. New York: Wiley.
LeBon, G. (1908). The crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: Unwin
(original work published 1896). Online: http://cupid.ecom.unimelb.edu.au/het/
lebon/crowds.pdf
Lewin, K.(1936). A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Introduction to Social Lieberman, M. D. (2010). Social cognitive neuroscience. In S. T. Fiske, D. T.
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Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1,
pp. 143–193). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
McDougall, W. (1908). An Introduction to Social Psychology. London: Methuen.
McDougall, W. (1920). The Group Mind. London: Cambridge University Press.
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority. London: Tavistock.
Misra, G. (1982). Deprivation and development : A review of Indian studies.
Indian Educational Review, 18, 12-33.

Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental Social Psychology. New

York: Harper (rev. ed published with T. M. Newcomb in 1937).

Pandey, J. (1986). Social-cultural perspectives on ingratiation. In B.A. Mahar &

W.B. Mahar (Ed.), Progress in Experimental Personality Research (Vol. 14).
New York: Academic Press.

Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological

Activity of the Cerebral Cortex (translated by G.V. Anrep). London: Oxford
University Press.
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Sherif, M. (1936). The Psychology of social norms. New York: Harper.
Singh, A. K. (1981). Development of religious identity and prejudice in Indian
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Delhi: Concept.

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reports and rumours. British Journal of Psychology, 43, 200-209.
Sinha, J. B. P. (1980). Nurturant Task Leader. New Delhi: Concept.
Triplett, N. (1898). The dynamogenic factors in pacemaking and competition.
American Journal of Psychology, 9, 507-533.

20
 Introduction to Social
UNIT 2 THEORIES OF SOCIAL Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY*
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Social Psychology and Other Disciplines
2.2.1 Social Psychology and Other Social Sciences
2.2.2 Social Psychology and Other Branches in Psychology
2.3 Levels of Analysis of Social Behaviour
2.3.1 Individual-Intrapersonal Level Analysis
2.3.2 Interpersonal Interactions
2.3.3 Interaction between Individual and Group
2.3.4 Interaction between Groups
2.4 Theoretical Approaches to Social Psychology
2.4.1 Learning Theories
2.4.2 Cognitive Theories
2.5 Research Methods in Social Psychology
2.5.1 Observational Method
2.5.2 Experimental Method
2.5.2.1 Quasi-experimental Method
2.5.2.2 Experimental Method
2.5.3 Ethical Issues in Research
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 Glossary
2.9 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
2.10 Suggested Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
Illustrate the levels of analysis of social behaviour;
Explain the relationship of social psychology with other disciplines;
Delineate various theoretical approaches of social psychology;
Discuss the different types of research methods in social psychology; and
Elucidate the various ethical issues of research methods.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
It must be clear to you from the previous unit that, social psychology is the
branch of psychology which studies human behaviour in an array of social
situations. In this unit, you will be explained about the Social psychology as
branch of psychology, its nature, scope and relationship with other disciplines.
You will also be acquainted with the historical background and various theoretical
* Dr. Ari Sudan Tiwari, Scientist ‘E’Defence Institute of Psychological Research, Ministry of Defence,
Lucknow Road, Timarpur, Delhi, (Also adapted few paragraphs from BPC-006, Unit 3) 21
Introduction to Social approaches to social psychology. The unit will also discuss the levels of analysis
Psychology
of social behaviour.

2.2 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER

DISCIPLINES
Social psychology is related to other social sciences and to other branches of
psychology. It also differs from them in important ways.

Social psychology is related to other disciplines in the family of social sciences

and to other branches of psychology in many ways. It also differs from them in
important ways.

2.2.1 Social Psychology and Other Social Sciences

Social scientists study people and the societies in which people live. They are
interested in how people relate to one another. The various social sciences focus
on different aspects of social life.

Social Psychology and Anthropology

Anthropologyis the study of human culture. The filed of anthropology and social
psychology are inter related. Human culture consists of the shared values, beliefs,
and practices of a group of people. These values, beliefs, and practices are passed
down from one generation to another. Human beings arenot only social animals,
they are also cultural animals. In order to understand human behaviour,social
psychology requiresto understand the cultural context in which that behaviour
occurs.

Social Psychology and Economics

You might know that the field of Economicsdeals with the trends of production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services of a particular society. This
equally diverts the interest of social psychologists. In fact, some social
psychological theories are based on economic principles. For example, social
exchange theory predicts commitment to relationships by considering factors
such as the costs, rewards, investments, and the number of alternatives available.
Economics also calls our attention to large social systems (such as the labour
market or money system) and to how these systems shape behaviour. Again, a
full understanding of human behaviour requires appreciating not just what goes
on inside one person’s head and what is happening in his or her immediate
environment at the time, but also how the person’s behaviour fits into the larger
social system.

Social Psychology and Political Science

Political science is the study of political organizations and institutions, especially
governments. Social psychologists conduct research on political behaviour. They
study political issues such as voting, party identification, liberal versus
conservative views, and political advertising. They are also interested in what
makes some people better leaders than others.

22
 Social Psychology and Sociology Theories of Social Psychology

Sociology is the study of human societies and the groups that form those societies.
Although both sociologists and social psychologists are interested in how people
behave in societies and groups, they differ in what they focus on. Sociologists
focus on the group as a single unit, whereas social psychologists focus on the
individual members that make up the group. Some sociologists call themselves
social psychologists and the exchange of ideas and findings between the two
fields that have sometimes been quite fruitful because they bring different
perspectives to the same problems.

2.2.2 Social Psychology and Other Branches in Psychology

Psychology is the study of human behaviour. Psychology is like a big tree that
contains many branches. Social psychology is just one of those branches, but it
is closely related with some of the other branches.

Social Psychology and Biological Psychology

Everything that people think, do or feel involves some bodily processes such as
brain activity or hormones. Biological or physiological psychologyand more
recently neurosciencehave focused on learning about what happens in the brain,
nervous system and other aspects of the body. Until recently, this work had little
contact with social psychology, but during the 1990s many social psychologists
began looking into the biological aspects of social behaviour and that interest
has continued into the 21 st century. Social neuroscience and social
psychophysiology are now the thriving fields.

Social Psychology and Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology focuses on abnormal behaviour, whereas social psychology
focuses on normal behaviour. Social psychological theory can shed a great deal
of light on so called normal behaviour. Both the branches, social and clinical
psychology, have had a long tradition of exchanging ideas and stimulating insights
into each other’s fields. In particular, clinical psychologists have made good use
of social psychological theories.

Social Psychology and Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the basic study of thought processes, such as how memory
works and what events people notice. In recent decades, social psychology has
borrowed heavily from cognitive psychology, especially by using their methods
for measuring cognitive processes. Social psychologists study that how people
think about their social lives, how they think about other people or solve the
problems in their social world.

Social Psychology and Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is the study of how people change across their lives,
from conception and birth to old age and death. In practice, most developmental
psychologists study children. Developmental psychology has been studying that
at what age children begin to show various patterns of social behaviour. Social
psychologists interested in self-regulation, emotion, gender differences, helping
behaviour and antisocial behaviour sometimes look to the research on child
development to see how these patterns get started.
23
Introduction to Social Social Psychology and Personality Psychology
Psychology
Personality psychology focuses on important differences between individuals,
as well as inner processes. For example, some people are introverted and avoid
social contact, whereas other people are extraverted and look for social contact.
Social and personality psychology have had a long and close relationship. This
relationship has been sometimes complementary (personality psychologists look
inside the person, whereas social psychologists lookoutside at the situation) and
sometimes competitive (is it more important to understand the person or the
situation?). In recent years, the line between these two fields has become
overlapping, as social psychologists have come to recognize the importance of
inner processes and personality psychologists have come to recognize the
importance of circumstances and situations.

Self Assessment Questions I

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
1) Social psychologists study that how people think about their social lives.
..............................

2) The social cognition approach do not focus upon understanding of

ourknowledgetowards social world, thinking and behaviours.
....................................

3) None of the social psychological theories are based on economic principles.

.............................

4) Both sociologists and social psychologists are interested in how people

behave in societies and groups, they differ in what they focus on.
..................................

2.3 LEVELS OF ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL

BEHAVIOUR
Social psychologists investigate human behaviour but their primary concern is
human behaviour in a social context. Further, social psychology analyses human
social behaviour at various levels, presented below:

2.3.1 Individual-Intrapersonal Level Analysis

Individuals involved are fundamental constituents in any social interaction. As
conceptualised in psychology, every individual is unique in his or her biological
inheritance, thought process, affect and behaviour. Therefore, the basic level
analysis of social behaviour is individual-intrapersonalwhere the aspects like
social cognition, values and attitudes, social deviance and violent behaviours
are studies.

2.3.2 Interpersonal Interactions

Individuals are affected by others in many ways. In everyday life, communication
from others may significantly influence a person’s understanding of the social
world. Attempts by others at persuasion may change an individual’s beliefs about
the world and his or her attitudes toward persons, groups or other objects. Social
24
psychologists also study many other interpersonal activities like cooperation and Theories of Social Psychology
competition, altruism and aggression, prejudice and discrimination, etc.

2.3.3 Interaction between Individual and Group

Social psychology further analyses the impact of a group on the behaviours of its
individual members. Every individual belongs to many different groups and these
groups influence and regulate the behaviours of their members, typically by
establishing norms or rules. One result of this is conformity, the process by which
a group member adjusts his or her behaviour to bring it into line with group
norms. Groups also exert substantial longterm influence on their members through
socialization, a process that enables groups to regulate what their members learn.
Socialization assumes that the members will be adequately trained to play roles
in the group and in the larger society. Significant outcomes of socialization are
acquiring language skills,forming political and religious beliefs and attitudes
and our conception of self.

Just as any group influences the behaviour of its members, these members, in
turn, may influence the group itself. For instance, individuals contribute to group
productivity and group decision making. Moreover, some members may provide
leadership, performing functions such as planning, organizing, and controlling,
necessary for successful group performance. Without effective leadership,
coordination among members will falter and the group will drift or fail.

2.3.4 Interaction between Groups

Another concern of social psychology is the impact of one group on the activities
and structure of another group. Relations between two groups may be friendly or
hostile, cooperative or competitive. These relationships, which are based in part
on members’ identities and may entail group stereotypes, can affect the structure
and activities of each group. Intergroup conflict, with its accompanying tension
and hostility, has been a core area of study in social psychology. Conflicts of this
type affect the interpersonal relations between groups and within each group.
Social psychologists have long studied the emergence, persistence and resolution
of intergroup conflict.

2.4 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Theory is a set of interrelated propositions that organizes and explains a set of
observed phenomena. In social psychology, no single theory explains all
phenomena of interest; rather, it includes many different theories. Various
theoretical perspectives of social psychology offer general explanations for a
wide array of social behaviours in a variety of situations. The fundamental value
of any theoretical perspective lies in its applicability across many situations. It
provides a frame of reference for interpreting and comparing a wide range of
social situation and behaviour. There are two major theoretical approaches in
social psychology: learning theories and cognitive theories.

2.4.1 Learning Theories

The central idea in learning theory is that a person’s current behaviour is
deter­mined by his/her prior experience. In any given situation, a person learns 25
Introduction to Social certain behaviours that, over time, may become habits. When presented with a
Psychology
similar situation,the person tends to behave in the same habitual way. For example,
when a traffic light turns red, we typically stop, because that is how we have
learned to respond in the past. As applied to social behaviour by Albert Bandura
(1977) and others, this approach has been called social learning theory.

There are three general mechanisms by which learning occurs. One is association,
or classical conditioning. Classical Conditioning presumes that when a neutral
stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is paired with a natural stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus, UCS), neutral stimulus alone acquires the ability to
elicit the response (conditioned response, CR) which naturally occurs
(unconditioned response, UCR) after natural stimulus. Pavlov’s dogs learned to
salivate at the sound of a bell because they were presented with food every time.
After a while, they would salivate to the sound of the bell even in the absence of
the meat because they associated the bell with meat. Humans sometimes learn
emotions by association(Pavlov, 1927). After a particularly painful visit to a
particular place, the mere mention of the place may arouse anxiety.

A second learning mechanism is reinforcement, a principle studied by B. F.

Skinner (1938) and others. People learn to perform a particular behaviour because
it is followed by something that is pleasurable or that satisfies a need (or they
learn to avoid behaviour that is followed by unpleasant consequences). A child
may learn to help other people because his or her parents praise for sharing toys
and smile approvingly when he or she offers to help. Or a student may learn not
to contradict his teacher in class because each time he does so, the teacher frowns,
looks angry and scolds him.

A third mechanism is observational learning. People often learn social atti­tudes

and behaviours simply by watching other people, known technically as “models”.
Children learn regional and ethnic speech patterns by listening to the speakers
around them. Adolescents may acquire their political attitudes by listen­ing to
their parents’ conversations during election campaigns. In observational learning,
otherpeople are an important source of information. Observational learning can
occur without any external reinforcement. However, whether peo­ple actually
perform a behaviour that is learned through observation is influenced by the
consequences of the action. For example, a little boy may learn a lot about baby
dolls from watching his sisters but may be discouraged from playing with them
himself because his traditional parents say, “Dolls aren’t for boys”. Imitation or
modelling occurs when a person not only observes but actu­ally copies the
behaviour of a model.The learning approach seeks the causes of behaviour in the
past learning history of the individual.

Another important process based on the principle of reinforcement is social

exchange. Social exchange theory (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978) uses the concept of
reinforcement to explain stability and change in relations between individuals.
This theory assumes that individuals have freedom of choice and often face social
situations in which they must choose among alternative actions. Any action
provides some rewards and entails some costs. There are many kinds of socially
mediated rewards, such as money, goods, services, prestige or status, approval
by others, etc. The theory presumes that individuals are hedonistic and they try
to maximize rewards and minimize costs. Consequently, they choose actions
that produce good profits and avoid actions that produce poor profits. Thus, social
26 exchange theory primarily views social interactions as exchanges of goods and
services among persons. If they find that a particular interaction is providing Theories of Social Psychology
profitable outcomes, they happily participate in the relationship. Furthermore,
the attractiveness of a relationship is compared on the basis of the profits it
provides against the profits available in other alternative relationships. If a person
is participating in a social relationship and receiving certain outcomes, the level
of outcomes available in the best alternative relationship is termed that person’s
comparison level for alternatives. Concepts of this type apply not only to work
relations but also to personal relations. People are more likely to stay with a
social relationship when the rewards are high, the costs are low, and the
alternatives are unpromising.

Despite its usefulness in illuminating why relationships change and how people
learn, learning theories have been criticized on various grounds. One criticism is
that learning theories portrays individuals primarily as reacting to or imitating
environmental stimuli. The theory does not account easily for creativity,
innovation, orinvention. A second criticism is that reinforcement theory largely
ignores or downplays other motivations. It characterizes social behaviour as
hedonistic, with individuals striving to maximize profits from outcomes. Thus,
it cannot easily explain selfless behaviour such as altruism and martyrdom. Despite
its limitations, reinforcement theory has enjoyed substantial success in explaining
why individuals persist in emitting certain behaviours, how they learn new
behaviours and how they influence the behaviour of others through exchange.

2.4.2 Cognitive Theories

Another theoretical perspective in social psychology is cognitive theory. Cognitive
theory presumes that the mental activities of the individual are important
determinants of social behaviour. These mental activities are called cognitive
processes which include perception, memory, judgment, problem solving and
decision making. Cognitive theory does not deny the importance of external
stimuli, but it maintains that the link between stimulus and response is not
mechanical or automatic. Rather, the individual’s cognitive processesintervene
between external stimuli and behavioural responses. Individuals not only actively
interpret the meaning of stimuli but also select the actions to be made in response.

Historically, the cognitive approach to social psychology has been influenced by

the ideas of Koffka, Kohler and other theorists in the Gestalt movement of
psychology. Central to Gestalt psychology is the principle that people respond to
configurations of stimuli rather than to a single, discrete stimulus. In other words,
people understand the meaning of a stimulus only by viewing it in the context of
an entire system of elements (the gestalt) in which it is embedded. To comprehend
the meaning of any element, we must look at the whole of which it is a part.

Modern cognitive theorists depict humans as active in selecting and interpreting

stimuli. According to this view, people do more than merely reacting to their
environment; they actively structure their world cognitively. Firstly, because they
cannot possibly attend to all the complex stimuli that surround them, they select
only those stimuli that are important or useful to them and ignore the others.
Second, they actively control which categories or concepts they use to interpret
the stimuli in the environment.

Central to the cognitive perspective is the concept of cognitive structure, which

refers broadly to any form of organization among cognitions, concepts and beliefs.
27
Introduction to Social Because a person’s cognitions are interrelated, cognitive theory gives special
Psychology
emphasis to exactly how they are structured and organized in memory and to
how they affect a person’s judgments.

Social psychologists have proposed that individuals use specific cognitive

structures called schemasto make sense of complex information about other
persons, groups and situations. The term schema refers to the form or basic sketch
of what we know about people and things. Whenever we encounter a person for
the first time, we usually form an impression of what he or she is like. In doing
this, we not only observe the person’s behaviour but also rely on our knowledge
of similar persons we have met in the past; that is, we use our schema regarding
this type of person. Schemas help us process information by enabling us to
recognize which personal characteristics are important in the interaction and
which are not. They structure and organize information about the person, and
they help us remember information better and process it more quickly. Sometimes
they fill gaps in knowledge and enable us to make inferences and judgments
about others.

One way to study cognitive structure is to observe changes that occur in a person’s
cognitions when he or she is under challenge or attack. The changes will reveal
facts about the underlying structure or organization of his or her cognitions. An
important idea emerging from this approach is the principle of cognitive
consistencywhich maintains that individuals strive to hold ideas that are consistent
or congruous with one another, rather than ideas that are inconsistent or
incongruous. If a person holds several ideas that are incongruous or inconsistent,
he or she will experience internal conflict. In reaction, he or she will likely change
one or more ideas, thereby making them consistent and resolving this conflict.

Cognitive theory has made many important contributions to social psychology.

It treats such diverse phenomena as self-concept, perception of persons and
attribution of causes, attitude change, impression management, and group
stereotypes. In these contexts, cognitive theory has produced many insights and
striking predictions regarding individual and social behaviour.One limitation of
cognitive theory is that it simplifies, and sometimes oversimplifies, the way in
which people process information, an inherently complex phenomenon. Another
limitation is that cognitive phenomena are not directly observable; they must be
inferred from what people say and do. This means that compelling and definitive
tests of theoretical predictions from cognitive theory are sometimes difficult to
conduct. However, the cognitive perspective is among the more popular and
productive approaches in social psychology.

2.5 RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Every scientific investigation begins with a question. The question can be dictated
by a practical problem or grow out of theoretical interest. The difference between
theoretical and applied research in not a qualitative one but rather a matter of
degree (Feldman, 1985: 21). Pure theoretical work in social psychology is aimed
at the building of a basic body of knowledge and facts about the social world.
While applied research is meant to provide immediate solutions to immediate
problems. But both researches have relevance for each other. Results of even the
most applied studies are invariably used not only for them immediate applications
28
to the problem at hand but also for their implication for theory. On the other Theories of Social Psychology
hand, theories are able to suggest new approaches and strategies for dealing with
the problems of society. But there is a difference of methods in theoretical and
applied research. Theoretical studies are mostly conducted in laboratories using
experiment and applied researches are based on natural field settings. But the
goal for both of them is same, “building knowledge, a concern regarding the
quality of life and an interest in how knowledge of social psychology is ultimately
utilised” (Feldman).

While the paths to these goals may differ, depending on the orientation of a
particular social psychologist, the interaction between theory and research is
well recognised today. “Many psychologists working in an applied field are keenly
aware of the need for close cooperation between theoretical and applied
psychology. This can be accomplished in psychology…..if the theorist does not
look toward applied problems with high brow aversion or with a fear of social
problems, and if the applied psychologist realizes that there is nothing so practical
as a good theory” (Lewin, 1951: 169).
Our discussion will be limited to following research methods:

2.5.1 Observational Method

Observation is the old method of social psychology. Many writers have used
different terms and categories for this method like method of systematic
observation (Morgan and King), direct observation (Hilgard and Atkinson) and
Feldman has included it in field study. Observation is to simply observe the
phenomena under study as it occur naturally (Hilgard and Atkinson, 2003: 21)
This method plays a very important role in the collection of data on overt
behaviour and the actions of individuals. The main problem involved in the
application of this method include, what to observe? How to fixate the
observations? How to structure observation? What should be the units of
observation in social psychological research, and the definite interval of time for
observation? This method proceeds in following two stages:

Describing behaviour:This methods starts with the observation of behaviours

in natural setting that is relevant for the research. The observation may be
based on the questions like what do people do? Can various behaviours be
classified in systematic ways? How do people differ in their behaviours?

From description to causes: The method of systematic observation tells us

what do people do and how they differ in their behaviours. It may also be
used to find out what caused the observed behaviours. But one should to be
cautious in inferring causes from observation as;
A behaviour may have many causes:
The fact that an event comes before another event do not show that the first
event is the cause of the latter one.

To establish likely causes of even simple behaviour, a number of observations

would be required.

For more complex behaviours, establishing likely cause is much more difficult.
Thus to find out the course of a particular behaviours, we must look carefully at
the result of many observations, noting the effects of a particular factor. 29
Introduction to Social Observational method can be relatively informal and unstructured or it can be
Psychology
formal and structured. But the object in each case in the same, “to abstract
information from the complex flux of social behaviours that are of potential
significance to the research questions; and to record each instance of such actions
over some period” (Manstead A.S. R. Semin G.R., 2001: 97). The nature of
research setting or topic dictates that observation is conducted in a relatively
informal and unstructured manner with the researcher posing as a member of the
group being observed. A Classical example of research employing this method
is Festinger, Riecken and Schachter’s (1956) study of the consequences of blatant
disconfirmation of strongly held beliefs. The investigators identified a religious
sect which predicted that the northern hemisphere would be destroyed by flood
on a certain date. By joining that sect, members of the research team were able to
observe what happened when the predicted events failed to materialise?

This is called participant observation. In such observation researcher participate

in the ongoing activities of the people being observed. Formal methods of
observation can be used when it is possible to record actions relevant to the
research question without disturbing the occurrence of behaviour. In non-
participant observation observers record people’s behaviour but do not actually
participates in their activities. The most formal type of observational methods is
one in which the researcher uses a predetermined category system for scoring
social behaviours.

Observational methods of data collection have two main advantages over the
self report methods. They can often be made without disturbing the naturally
occurring behaviours. Even where people know that they are being observed,
enacting behaviour may be quite engrossing.

Nevertheless, there are some types of behaviours that are either impossible to
observe directly (because they took place in the past) or difficult to observe
directly (because they are normally enacted in private). Moreover, social
psychologists are often interested in measuring people’s perceptions, cognitions
or evaluations, none of which can be directly assessed simply through observation.
For these self-report measures or other techniques are often used.

2.5.2 Experimental Method

Experimentation has been the dominant research method in social psychology,
mainly because it is without equal as a method for testing theories that predict
causal relationships between variables. The goal of an experiment is to see what
happens to a phenomenon, such as obedience, when the researcher deliberately
modifies some features of the environment in which the phenomenon occurs
(that is, if variable A is changed, will there be resulting changes in B). We can
see the meanings of some basic concepts

Methods of Social Psychology of the experimental research in the table given

below:

30
 Theories of Social Psychology
Table: Terminology in Experimental Research

Experiment A well controlled test of hypothesis about cause and

effect.

Hypothesis A statement about cause and effect that can be tested.

Variable Something that can occur with different values and

can be measured.

Independent Variable A variable that represents the hypothesised cause

that is precisely controlled by the experimenter and
independent of what the participant does.

Dependent Variable A variable that represents the hypothesised effect

whose values ultimately depend on the value of the
independent variable.

Experimental Group A group in which the hypothesised cause is present.

Control Group A group in which the hypothesised effect is present.

Statistics Mathematical techniques for determining the

certainty with which a sample of data can be used
to draw generalisations or inferences

Measurement A system for assigning numbers to different values

of variables.

Random Assignment A system for assigning participants to experimental

and control groups so that each participant has as
equal chance of being assigned to any group.

Source: Atkinson & Hilgard et al (2003) Introduction to Psychology 14th edition. Wadsworth
Asia Pvt. Ltd.

There are two basic types of experiments in social psychology laboratory and
natural laboratory and natural experiments have their particular rules. The
laboratory experiment is of particular interest in social psychological discussions.

Social psychologists use some variations. Two of the most common of these
variations are the quasi-experiments and the true randomized experiments. These
two methods differ with respect to realism of the setting in which data are
collected, and the degree of control that the researcher has over that setting.

2.5.2.1 Quasi-experimental Method

Quasi-experiment is conducted in a natural, everyday life setting, over which
the researcher has less than complete control. The lack of control over the setting
arises from the very fact that it is an everyday life setting. Here the realism of the
setting is relatively high, the control relatively low. The true randomized
experiment by contrast is one in which the researcher has complete control over
key features of the setting. However, this degree of control often involves a loss

31
Introduction to Social of realism. It is sometimes possible to conduct a true randomized experiment in
Psychology
an everyday setting; this is called a field experiment.

2.5.2.2 Experimental Designs

In an experiment, it is important that (1) the experimenter keep all theoretically
irrelevant features of the experimental setting constant, manipulating just the
key independent variable; and (2) that participants are allocated randomly to the
different conditions of an experiment. A true experimental design is known as
Post test only control group design. In this type of design participants are allocated
randomly to one of the two groups. One group is exposed to the independent
variable (experimental group) and the other is not (control group). Both groups
are assessed on the independent variable and the comparison of the two groups
on this measure indicates whether or not the independent variable had an effect.

There are many types of experimental designs used in social psychology, more
sophisticated and complex than the above. Each design represents a more complete
attempt to rule out the possibility that observed difference between conditions
result from something other than the manipulation of independent variable. A
common design in social psychological experiment is the factorial experiment,
in which two or more independent variables are manipulated within the same
study. The main benefit of a factorial design is that it allows the researcher to
examine the separate and combined effects of two or more independent variables.
The separate effects of each of the independent variable are known as main effects.
Interaction effect is a term used when combined effects of two (or more)
independent variables in a factorial experiment yield a pattern that differs from
the sum of the main effects.

2.5.3 Ethical Issues in Research Methods

There are certain ethics which a researcher needs to take care while conducting
research. Few of them can be pointed out as follows:

Informed Consent: It is the duty of the researcher to inform the participants

about whatever experiment or test will be administered upon them and they
can carry upon the research only if the participants give their consent after
getting the detailed information.

Debrief: It is a process which is done after the experiment or research has

been conducted upon participants. The researcher conducts a structured or
semi structured interview and discusses the details of the research as well as
gives the participants an opportunity to ask questions from them.

Protection of Participants: The security and safety are the prior concern
of a researcher. No personal harm or violation of the rights of the participants
should take place.

Deception: The researcher should clearly specify the method, investigation,

analysis and interpretation of research. No information or method can be
deceived from the participants.

Confidentiality: The personal information and other details of the

participants should be kept completely confidential and can not be disclosed,
32 unless it involves any legal issues.
Self Assessment Questions II Theories of Social Psychology

State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:

1) The primary concern of social psychologists is to study human behaviour in
a social context. .............................

2) Social psychology does not examines the impact of a group on the behaviours
of its individual members. ......................

3) Cognitive theory presumes that the mental activities of the individual are
not important determinants of social behaviour. .......................

4) The central idea in learning theory is that a person’s current behaviour is

deter­mined by his/her prior experience. ..............................

2.6 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that social psychology is a field
which analyses our thoughts, feelings and behaviour toward the people around
us. It also explains how others have an influence on our behaviour in the social
context.

Social psychologists investigate human social behaviour at various levels.

Primarily, these levels are intrapersonal social behaviours, interactions between
individuals, interactions between individual and group and interactions between
group and group. The two major theoretical approaches in social psychology are
learning theories and cognitive theories. Learning theories believe that social
behaviour is governed by external events. Its central proposition is that people
will be more likely to perform a specific behaviour if it is followed by something
pleasurable. Likewise, people will more likely refrain from performing a particular
behaviour if it is followed by something aversive. The cognitive approach
emphasizes that a person’s behaviour depends on the way he or she perceives the
social situation. Cognitive theoriesargue that the mental activities called cognitive
processes,of the individual are important determinants of social behaviour. These
mental activities include perception, memory, judgment, problem solving and
decision making.

2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Explain that how social psychology is related with other disciplines of social
sciences and other branches of psychology.

2) Elucidate the levels of analysis of social behaviour in social psychology.

3) Discuss learning theories as an approach to study social behaviour.

4) Discuss cognitive theories as an approach to study social behaviour.

2.8 GLOSSARY
Social Psychology: Social psychology is defined as the scientific study of how
we feel about, think about and behave toward the people around us and how our
33
Introduction to Social feelings, thoughts, and behaviours are influenced by those people in the social
Psychology
context.

Social Neuroscience: Social neuroscience is the study of how our social behaviour
both influences and is influenced by the activities of our brain.

Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning presumes that when a neutral

stimulus (conditioned stimulus, CS) is paired with a natural stimulus
(unconditioned stimulus, UCS), neutral stimulus alone acquires the ability to
elicit the response (conditioned response, CR) which naturally occurs
(unconditioned response, UCR) after natural stimulus.

Reinforcement: Reinforcement is the mechanism by whichpeople learn to

perform a particular behaviour because it is followed by something that is
pleasurable or that satisfies a need (or they learn to avoid behaviour that is followed
by unpleasant consequences).

Observational Learning: Observational learning presumes thatpeople often learn

social atti­tudes and behaviours simply by watching other people, known
technically as “models”.

Social Exchange Theory: Social exchange theory uses the concept of

reinforcement to explain stability and change in social interactions and relations
between individuals.

Social Cognitive Theories: Social cognitive theoriesemphasise that a person’s

behaviour depends on the way he or she perceives the social situation.

Schema: Schema is a mental representation capturing the general characteristics

of a particular class of episodes, events or individuals.

Principle of Cognitive Consistency: Principle of cognitive consistency maintains

that individuals strive to hold ideas that are consistent or congruous with one
another, rather than ideas that are inconsistent or incongruous.

2.9 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assement Question I
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) True
Self Assement Question II
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) True
34
 Theories of Social Psychology
2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10thed.).
Cengage Learning.

Baron, R. A., &Branscombe, N. R. (2016). Social Psychology (14th ed.). Boston:

Pearson/Allyn& Bacon.
References
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Adinarayan, S.P. (1957). A study of racial attitudes in India. Journal of Social

Psychology, 45, 211-216.

Allport, F. H. (1924). Social Psychology. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G.
Lindzey& E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (3rd ed., Vol. I,
pp. 1-46). New York: Random House.

Asch, S. E. (1952). Social Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

B. F. Skinner (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: B. F. Skinner Foundation.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice-

Hall.

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social

Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Berkowitz, L. (1962). Aggression: A Social Psychological Analysis. New York,

NY: McGraw-Hill.

Dalal, A. K., & Mishra, G. (2001). Social psychology in India: Evolution and
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Darley, J. M., &Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies:

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Eagly, A. H., &Chaiken, S. (1993). The Psychology of Attitudes. Fort Worth, TX:
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Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations,

7, 117-140.

Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row,

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Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2008). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture.
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Introduction to Social Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a
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Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of foreign policy

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Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (1982). Judgment Under Uncertainty:
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Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2017). Social Psychology (10th ed.).
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Kelley, H. H., & Thibaut, J. W. (1978). Interpersonal Relations: A Theory of

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LeBon, G. (1908). The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. London: Unwin
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Lewin, K.(1936). A Dynamic Theory of Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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McDougall, W. (1908). An Introduction to Social Psychology. London: Methuen.
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Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to Authority. London: Tavistock.
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Murphy, G., & Murphy, L. B. (1931). Experimental Social Psychology. New

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Pandey, J. (1986). Social-cultural perspectives on ingratiation. In B.A. Mahar &

W.B. Mahar (Ed.), Progress in Experimental Personality Research (Vol. 14).
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Pavlov, I.P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological

Activity of the Cerebral Cortex (translated by G.V. Anrep). London: Oxford
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Ross, E. A. (1908). Social Psychology. New York: Macmillan.
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Sinha, D. (1952). Behaviour in a catastrophic situation: A psychological study of Theories of Social Psychology
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