Savitribai Phule Pune University

F. Y. B. C. A. (Science)

Semester-II

BCA - 127
Operating Systems Laboratory
Work Book

Name:

College Name: _

Roll No.: Division:

Academic Year:
 Editors:

Assignment 1 Mr. Kamil Khan Abeda Inamdar Senior College, Pune

Assignment 2 Mr. Praveen Kulkarni New Arts, Commerce and Science
College, Ahmednagar
Assignment 3 Mrs. Ashwini Patil Dr.D.Y.Patil College,Pimpri, Pune
Assignment 4 Mrs. Veena Gandhi Abeda Inamdar Senior College, Pune
Assignment 5 Mrs. Aparna Gohad Abasaheb Garware College, Pune
Assignment 6 Mrs. Rupali Nankar Modern College, Ganeshkhind, Pune
Assignment 7 Mrs. Madhuri Khadtare Abasaheb Garware College, Pune
Assignment 8 Mrs. Veena Gandhi Abeda Inamdar Senior College, Pune
Assignment 9 Mrs. Veena Gandhi Abeda Inamdar Senior College, Pune

Compiled By:
Mrs. Veena Gandhi
Abeda Inamdar Senior College, Pune

Reviewed By:
Prof. Arun Gangarde,
New Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ahmednagar

1
Introduction

1. About the work book:

This workbook is intended to be used by F.Y.B.C.A. (Science) students for
the BCA127- Operating Systems Assignments in Semester–II. This
workbook is designed by considering all the practical concepts / topics
mentioned in syllabus.

2. The objectives of this workbook are:

1) Defining the scope of the course.
2) To bring the uniformity in the practical conduction and
implementation in all colleges affiliated to SPPU.
3) To have continuous assessment of the course and students.
4) Providing ready reference for the students during practical
implementation.
5) Provide more options to students so that they can have good practice
before facing the examination.
6) Catering to the demand of slow and fast learners and accordingly
providing the practice assignments to them.

3. How to use this workbook:

The workbook is divided into nine assignments. Each assignment has
three SETs. It is mandatory for students to complete SET A and SET B in
given slot.

Instructions to the students

Please read the following instructions carefully and follow them.

1) Students are expected to carry this book every time they come to the
lab for computer science practical.
2) Students should prepare oneself beforehand for the Assignment by
reading the relevant material.
3) Instructor will specify which problems to solve in the lab during the
allotted slot and student should complete them and get verified by the
instructor. However student should spend additional hours in Lab and at
home to cover as many problems as possible given in this work book.
4) Students will be assessed for each exercise on a scale from 0 to 5.

2
 Not done 0
Incomplete 1
Late Complete 2
Needs improvement 3
Complete 4
Well Done 5

Instruction to the Instructors

1) Explain the assignment and related concepts in around ten minutes

using whiteboard if required or by demonstrating the software.
2) You should evaluate each assignment carried out by a student on a scale
of 5 as specified above by ticking appropriate box.
3) The value should also be entered on assignment completion page of the
respective Lab course.

Instructions to the Lab administrator

You have to ensure appropriate hardware and software is made available

to each student.

The operating system and software requirements on server side and also client
side areas given below:
1) Server and Client Side - ( Operating System ) Linux(Ubuntu/Red
Hat/Fedora) – any distribution
2) BASH shell for shell scripts

3
 Table of Contents

Assignment No.1 Linux Installation Page No. 9

Study of Linux desktop environment

Assignment No. 2 Page No. 27

Linux Commands-I
Assignment No. 3 Page No. 35
(Basic Linux shell commands)
Linux Commands-II
Assignment No. 4 Page No. 43
(Redirection and simple filters)
Linux Commands-III
Assignment No. 5 Page No. 57
(File and Networking Security
commands)
Vi Editor Commands
Assignment No. 6 Page No. 69

Shell Programming – I
Assignment No. 7 Page No. 79
(Basics of shell Programming)
Shell Programming – II
Assignment No. 8 Page No. 82
(Conditional Statement)

Shell Programming – III

Assignment No. 9 Page No. 89
(Looping control statement)

4
Assignment Completion Sheet

Lab Course BCA-127 Operating Systems Laboratory

Sr. Assignment Name Marks Teachers

No. (out of 5) Sign
1 Linux Installation
2 Study of Linux desktop environment
3 Linux Commands-I
4 Linux Commands-II
5 Linux Commands-III
6 Vi Editor Commands
7 Shell Programming - I
8 Shell Programming - II
9 Shell Programming - III
Total ( Out of 45 )

Total (Out of 15)

7
 Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. /Ms.

.has successfully completed BCA-127 Operating Systems Laboratory
course in year and his/her seat no. is He / she
has scored Marks out of 15.

Instructor H.O.D. / Coordinator

Internal Examiner External Examiner

8
 Assignment 1

Aim: To Study about Linux operating system and installation of OS and application
Pre-requisite: Knowledge of basic operation in Linux operating system and partitioning
The student should read following topics before starting exercises.

Introduction
Linux is a popular version of the UNIX Operating System. It is open source as its source code is freely
available. It is free to use. Linux was designed considering UNIX compatibility. Its functionality list is
quite similar to that of UNIX.

Components of Linux System

Linux Operating System has primarily three components:

Kernel:
Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating system. It is
consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel provides the
required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application programs.
System Library:
System libraries are special functions or programs using which application programs or system utilities
accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implement most of the functionalities of the operating system
and do not require kernel module's code access rights.

System Utility:
System Utility programs are responsible for doing specialized, individual level tasks .

Components of Linux System

9
Important features of Linux Operating System

• Portable – Portability means software can works on different types of hardware in same way. A
Linux kernel and application program supports their installation on any kind of hardware platform.
• Open Source – Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development
project. Multiple team’s works in collaboration to enhance the capability of Linux operating system
and it is continuously evolving.
• Multi-User – Linux is a multiuser system means multiple users can access system resources like
memory/ ram/ application programs at same time.
• Multiprogramming – Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at
same time.
• Hierarchical File System – Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/ user files
are arranged.
• Shell – Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands of
the operating system. It can be used to do various types of operations, call application programs etc.
• Security – Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/
controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.
• Live CD/USB: Almost all Linux distributions have Live CD/USB feature by which user can run/try
the OS even without installing it on the system.
• Graphical user interface (X Window System): People think that Linux is a command line OS,
somewhere its true also but not necessarily, Linux have packages which can be installed to make
the whole OS graphics based as Windows.
• Support’s most national or customized keyboards: Linux is used worldwide and hence available in
multiple languages, and supports most of their custom national keyboards.
• Application Support: Linux has its own software repository from where users can download and
install thousands of applications just by issuing a command in Linux Terminal or Shell. Linux can
also run Windows applications if needed.

Linux Distribution:
Linux distributions take the Linux kernel and combine it with other free software to create complete
packages.
Here, are a few popular Linux Distributions (also called Linux Distro) –

Linux Distribution Name Description

Arch This Linux Distro is popular amongst
Developers. It is an independently developed
system. It is designed for users who go for a do-
it-yourself approach.
CentOS It is one of the most used Linux Distribution for
enterprise and web servers. It is a free enterprise
class Operating system and is based heavily on
Red Hat enterprise Distro.

10
 Debian Debian is a stable and popular non-commercial
Linux distribution. It is widely used as a desktop
Linux Distro and is user-oriented. It strictly acts
within the Linux protocols.
Fedora Another Linux kernel based Distro, Fedora is
supported by the Fedora project, an endeavor by
Red Hat. It is popular among desktop users. Its
versions are known for their short life cycle.
Gentoo It is a source based Distribution which means
that you need to configure the code on your
system before you can install it. It is not for
Linux beginners, but it is sure fun for
experienced users.
LinuxMint It is one of the most popular Desktop
Distributions available out there. It launched in
2006 and is now considered to be the fourth most
used Operating system in the computing world.
OpenSUSE It is an easy to use and a good alternative to MS
Windows. It can be easily set up and can also run
on small computers with obsolete configurations.

RedHat Another popular enterprise based Linux

enterprise Distribution is Red Hat Enterprise.It has evolved
from Red Hat Linux which was discontinued in
2004. It is a commercial Distro and very popular
among its clientele.
Slackware Slackware is one of the oldest Linux kernel
based OS's. It is another easy desktop
Distribution. It aims at being a 'Unix like' OS
with minimal changes to its kernel.
Ubuntu This is the third most popular desktop operating
system after Microsoft Windows and Apple Mac
OS. It is based on the Debian Linux Distribution,
and it is known as its desktop environment.

Installing Ubuntu Operating System

Download Ubuntu 16.04 from https://www.ubuntu.com/download, put the CD into the CD-ROM drive,
change the boot sequence so that CD-ROM can boot first.
OR
If you want to install Ubuntu from the USB flash Disk, change the boot sequence according to the USB
mass storage to boot first.
Press Enter to get a language screen and then select the language of your choice.

11
 Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Installation language

For installing the Ubuntu 16.04, Select Install Ubuntu.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Menu

This is a starting screen, it will disappear in a minute

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Starting Screen

12
 Click continue on the welcome screen.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Welcome Screen

You can either choose to install updates and other third-party software while installing Ubuntu 16.04 or
leave as it is since it requires internet and installation may take an hour-long depends on the downloadable
contents.

Ubuntu 16.04 – Preparing Installation

Next is the installation type, this installation on the fresh HDD so I have only two option in the installation
type. Depend on the other OS on your HDD you will get more options. Please chose any one of the
methods.

13
 1. Erase disk and install Ubuntu (i.e. it will format the entire drive and install the OS).

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Installation Type

Once you clicked on Install Now, the installer will ask you to confirm the auto partitioning. Click on
continue.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Erase Full Disk

14
2. Something else (i.e. you can manually create the partition and install Ubuntu on your selected
partition), use this advanced mode if you are comfortable in partitioning your drives manually. Click on
continue.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Installation Type

Once you clicked, you would get the following page where installer lists available hard disk. In my case I
have one hard disk size of 100GB, to create a partition; click on New Partition Table to create an empty
partition.
Since this is a new hard disk. Pop up will ask you to confirm, click on continue.
Partition scheme will be like below:
/boot – 500MB
/swap – 2048MB
/ – Remaining (99GB)
Select free space and click on the + sign at the bottom to create partitions. Following shows for /boot
partition.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – boot partition

15
 Following is for / (root) partition.
Install Ubuntu 16.04 – root partition

Review your partition layout and click on install now.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Partition List

Write the changes to disk by clicking on continue.

16
 Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Formatting Partitions
Select your location next screen.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Select Location

Select your keyboard layout. If you are not sure, use the ‘Detect Keyboard Layout‘ option. You can
also test your selection by typing in the test text box.

Ubuntu 16.04 – Keyboard Layout

In the final screen of the installation wizard, you will be prompted to enter information about the user that
you wanted to create on the system. Enter your information in this screen.
Here is one thing you should remember – if you select ‘Login automatically‘, System will directly take
you to desktop without asking your credentials.
It’s best if you give a very secure password for your installation. Ubuntu will tell you whether your
password is secure or not. If you select ‘Encrypt my home folder‘ it will make all the files and folders in
your home folder more secure from unauthorized viewing if you have multiple users using your computer.
When you log into your computer your files are seamlessly decrypted for just your session. If you are not
sure, leave this box unchecked.

17
 Once it’s done, click on continue.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – User

Below screenshot shows installing Ubuntu 16.04.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Installing
Once the installation is over, click on restart now.

18
 Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Restart After the installation
Once your machine is restarted, you will get a login window. Login with username and password that
you created earlier.

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Login Screen

Install Ubuntu 16.04 – Desktop Screen

19
From a command shell, use the "concatenate" command: cat /proc/meminfo for memory usage information.
You should see a line starting something like Mem: 64655360, etc. This is the total memory Linux thinks
it has available to use.

You can also use commands

• free - m
• vmstat
• top
• htop

How to install applications in Ubuntu and how to remove installed software

Install software using Ubuntu Software Center
The easiest and most convenient way to find and install software in Ubuntu is by using Ubuntu Software
Center. In Ubuntu Unity, you can search for Ubuntu Software Center in Dash and click on it to open it:

Run Ubuntu Software Center

You can think of Ubuntu Software Center as Google’s Play Store or Apple’s App Store. It showcases all
the software available for your Ubuntu system. You can either search for an application by its name or just
browse through various categories of software. You can also opt for the editor’s pick. Your choice mainly.
Once you have found the application you are looking for, simply click on it. This will open a page inside
Software Center with a description of the application. You can read the description, see its raiting and also
read reviews. You can also write a review if you want.

20
Once you are convinced that you want the application, you can click on the install button to install the
selected application. You’ll have to enter your password in order to install applications in Ubuntu.

Check details and then install software

21
But there is also a Canonical Partner repository which is not directly controlled by Ubuntu and includes
closed source proprietary software. Enabling this repository gives you access to more software. Installing
Skype in Ubuntu is achieved by this method.
In Unity Dash, look for Software & Updates.

And in here, under Other Software tab, check the options of Canonical Partners.

Enable Canonical partners to access more software

Remove software using Ubuntu Software Center

We just saw how to install software using Ubuntu Software Center. How about removing software that you
had installed using this method?
Uninstalling software with Ubuntu Software Center is as easy as the installation process itself.

22
Open the Software Center and click on the Installed tab. It will show you all the installed software.

Alternatively, you can just search for the application by its name.
To remove the application from Ubuntu, simply click on Remove button. Again you will have to provide
your password here.

Install software in Ubuntu using .deb files

.deb files are similar to the .exe files in Windows. This is an easy way to provide software installation.
Many software vendors provide their software in .deb format. Google Chrome is such an example.
You can download .deb file from the official website.

Once you have downloaded the .deb file, just double click on it to run it. It will open in Ubuntu Software
Center and you can install it in the same way as we saw in section 1.1.
Alternatively, you can use a lightweight program Gdebi to install .deb files in Ubuntu.
Once you have installed the software, you are free to delete the downloaded .deb file.

23
• Make sure that you are downloading the .deb file from the official source. Only rely on the official website
or GitHub pages.
• Make sure that you are downloading the .deb file for correct system type (32 bit or 64 bit). Read our quick
guide to know if your Ubuntu system is 32 bit or 64 bit.
Remove software that was installed using .deb
Removing software that was installed by a .deb file is the same as we saw earlier in section 1.2. Just go to
Ubuntu Software Center, search for the application name and click on remove to uninstall it.
Alternatively, you can use Synaptic Package Manager. Not necessarily but this may happen that the
installed application is not visible in Ubuntu Software Center. Synaptic Package Manager is lists all the
software that are available for your system and all the software that are already installed on your system.
This is a very powerful and very useful tool.
This is a very powerful and very useful tool. Before Ubuntu Software Center came into existence to provide
a more user-friendly approach to software installation, Synaptic was the default program for installing and
uninstalling software in Ubuntu.
You can install Synaptic package manager by clicking on the link below (it will open Ubuntu Software
Center).

Open Synaptic Manager and then search for the software you want to uninstall. Installed softwares are
marked with a green button. Click on it and select “mark for removal”. Once you do that, click on “apply”
to remove the selected software.

Install software in Ubuntu using apt commands [recommended]

You might have noticed a number of websites giving you a command like “sudo apt-get install” to install
software in Ubuntu.

24
This is actually the command line equivalent of what we saw in section 1. Basically, instead of using the
graphical interface of Ubuntu Software Center, you are using the command line interface. Nothing else
changes.
Using the apt-get command to install software is extremely easy. All you need to do is to use a command
like:
# -> sudo apt-get install package_name
Here sudo gives ‘admin’ or ‘root’ (in Linux term) privileges. You can replace package_name with the
desired software name.
apt-get commands have auto-completion so if you type a few letters and hit tab, it will provide all the
programs matching with those letters.
Remove software in Ubuntu using apt commands [recommended]
You can easily remove softwares that were installed using Ubuntu Software Center, apt command or .deb
file using the command line.
All you have to do is to use the following command, just replace the package_name with the software name
you want to delete.
# -> sudo apt-get remove package_name
Here again, you can benefit from auto completion by pressing the tab key.
Using apt-get commands is not rocket science. This is in fact very convenient. With these simple
commands, you get acquainted with the command line part of Ubuntu Linux and it does help in long run.
I recommend reading my detailed guide on using apt-get commands to learn in detail about it.
Install GCC
The following linux command will install gcc compiler on on Ubuntu 18.04 Bionic Beaver. Open up
terminal and enter:
$ sudo apt install g++
Install build-essential
install g++ compiler
Another way to build-essential is to install it as part of build-essential package.
Additionally the package will also install additional libraries as well

as gcc compiler. In most cases or if unsure this is exactly what you need:
$ sudo apt install build-essential
Check G++ version
Confirm your installation by checking for GCC version:
$ g++ --version
g++ (Ubuntu 7.2.0-18ubuntu2) 7.2.0
Copyright (C) 2017 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This is free software; see the source for copying conditions. There is NO
warranty; not even for MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
Same For GCC

SET A
1) How can you find out how much memory Linux is using?
2) How do you switch from one desktop environment to another, such as switching from KDE
to Gnome?
3) How do you execute more than one command or program from a single command line entry?
SET B
25
 1) How can you install multiple packages using single command?
2) How to remove software that was installed using .deb?
3) Install all Python package.

SET C
1) Install the following Software using sudo apt install :
Before this use sudo apt update
a) python3-pip
b) gcc
c) default-jdk
d) libapache2-mod-php
e) Apache2
f) mysql-server

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

26
 Assignment 2

Aim: To study of Desktop Environment and Components -

Pre-requisite: Knowledge of Linux.

Note: The student should read following topics before starting exercises.

Desktop environment (DE):

Desktop environment (DE) is an implementation of the desktop metaphor made of a bundle of programs
running on top of a computer operating system, which share a common graphical user interface (GUI),
sometimes described as a graphical shell.
The desktop environment was seen mostly on personal computers until the rise of mobile computing.
Desktop GUIs help the user to easily access and edit files, while they usually do not provide access to
all of the features found in the underlying operating system. Instead, the traditional command-line
interface (CLI) is still used when full control over the operating system is required.
A desktop environment typically consists of icons, windows, toolbars, folders, wallpapers and desktop
widgets (see Elements of graphical user interfaces and WIMP).
Best Desktop Environment for Linux:
Just to mention, this is not the list for the best desktop environment for programming or any such specific
purposes. Also, the list is not in any specific order. There are lots of popular desktop environments
available for Linux in the market but choosing the best one, depending on requirement, quite difficult
for the newbie. So that we create this details on best Linux desktop environment. Details are as follows:

Sr. Name of Desktop

No. Environments Pros Cons
1. KDE Plasma Desktop Most advanced, powerful and feature- Slightly resource heavy,
Environment rich, Modern and polished user interface, Some components might
Highly customizable and flexible seem too complicated to use
experience,
Wide range of software, compatibility

2. MATE on Ubuntu MATE Intuitive and robust experience, Simple Interface might seem old
and lightweight, (because it’s intended to be)
Highly customizable
3. GNOME Modern and touch-friendly UI Can extend Resource heavy,
functionalities through GNOME Shell Extension management is
Extensions , not satisfactory
Customizable
4. Cinnamon on Linux Mint Sleek and polished look, Familiar Small icons are not touch
interface, Pretty customizable friendly

27
5. Budgie Solid and intuitive Modern UI, elegant Available only on few
looks, Seamless desktop experience distributions (can be
installed on your own
manually)
6. LXDE on Fedora Extremely fast performing and User interface may
lightweight, Supports almost every Linux seem unappealing
distro
7. Unity Intuitive, New technologies like HUD, Poor implementation of
Customizable by third-party applications notifications,
Very little default tools for
customization,
Inconsistent UI

Desktop Components:

Instructor Notes: Highlight the fact that unlike other operating systems, Ubuntu comes with a completely
clean desktop, by default. Users are free to add icons and files on the desktop according to their
preferences.
GNOME is the default desktop environment for Ubuntu. GNOME (GNU Network Object Model
Environment) is an international effort to build a complete desktop environment—the graphical user
interface, which sits on top of a computer operating system—entirely from free software. This goal
includes creating software development frameworks, selecting application software for the desktop and
working on the programmes.
Which manage application launching, file handling and window and task management. Community
members worldwide contribute to the translation and accessibility of the desktop in multiple languages.
Key Desktop Components on Ubuntu when you start your computer, the first screen displayed on
Ubuntu is the logon screen, where you type your user name and password. The next screen displayed
is the Ubuntu desktop. Ubuntu comes with a completely clean desktop background, free of icons by
default.
Let’s discuss various components like window manager, Panels, Menu, System Tray, Icons, Widgets,
Launcher, dashboards, file manager, display manger, terminal emulator, text editor, configuration tools
etc.

1) Window manager:

Figure 1
An X window manager is a window manager which runs on top of the X Window System, a
windowing system mainly used on Unix-like systems. Unlike the classic Mac OS, macOS (Apple
Macintosh) and Microsoft Windows platforms (excepting Microsoft Windows explorer.exe shell
replacements) which have historically provided a vendor-controlled, fixed set of ways to control how

28
 windows and panes display on a screen, and how the user may interact with them, window management
for the X Window System was deliberately kept separate from the software providing the graphical
display. The user can choose between various third-party window managers, which differ from one
another in several ways, including:

• customizability of appearance and functionality:

o textual menus used to start programs and/or change options
o docks and other graphical ways to start programs
o multiple desktops and virtual desktops (desktops larger than the physical monitor size), and
pagers[1] to switch between them
• consumption of memory and other system resources
• Degree of integration with a desktop environment, which provides a more complete interface to the
operating system, and provides a range of integrated utilities and applications.
2) Gnome Panel: Panel is a component that is part of Gnome Flashback and provides panels and default
applets for the desktop. A panel is a horizontal or vertical bar that can be added to each side of the screen.
On the bottom panel there is usually a list of open applications. Gnome Panel component comes with
several default applets such as
• The Workspace Switcher

• The Window List

• The Window Selector
• The Notification Area
• The Clock
• And the infamous 'Wanda the Fish'
Panel Configuration:
To configure a panel you can hold the <ALT>-key and right click on the panel, this will open a context
menu that allows you to:
• Add an applet

• Configure the panel through "Properties"

• Delete the current panel
• Or add a new panel
3) How to Enable Local Menus in Ubuntu
There's no "System" menu in modern versions of Ubuntu. Just open the Dash (using
Ubuntu button on the Launcher or Win key on your keyboard) and start typing program's
name that you want to launch.
1. The Global menu is a feature in Ubuntu that places the menu bar for each application on the bar at the top
of the screen. ...
2. On the System Settings dialog box, click the “Appearance” icon in the Personal section.

29
3. On the Appearance screen, click the “Behavior” tab.
4) System Tray:
System Places menu, you will find the system tray. The system tray holds buttons for commonly used
applications. On Ubuntu these include icons for the Konqueror Web Browser, Amarok media player,
Kopete Instant Messenger, and KContact contact address book.

5) Icons: While Ubuntu comes with a number of icon packs you can select from, online a small number is
installed by default. The first place to look for more icons is on the default repositories.

6) Widgets:
Screen less is a framework that allows adding widgets to your desktop. The Screen less PPA provides
numerous screen less (desktop widgets), such as RSS readers, weather, clock, countdown, a Conky-
like system information widget, folder view, calendars, sensors, and much more.
7) Launcher: Unity Launchers are actually files stored in your computer, with a '.desktop' extension. In
earlier Ubuntu versions, these files were simply used so as to launch a specific application, but in Unity
they are also used so as to create right-click menus for each application, which you can access from the
Unity Launcher. How do I get desktop launcher on Ubuntu?

1. Right-click unused space in any panel (the toolbars at the top and/or bottom of the screen)
2. Choose Add To Panel...
3. Choose Custom Application Launcher.
4. Fill in Name, Command, and Comment. ...
5. Click the No Icon button to select an icon for your launcher. ...
6. Click OK.
7. Your launcher should now appear on the panel.
8) Terminal Emulator: Guake, ROXTerm, XTerm, Eterm, Gnome Terminal are number of terminal
emulators.
• Sakura. Sakura is a terminal emulator based just on GTK and VTE.

• LilyTerm. LilyTerm is a terminal emulator based off of libvte that aims to be fast and lightweight, Licensed
under GPLv3.
• Konsole. If you're a KDE or Plasma user, you must know Konsole.

Customizing the Desktop Ubuntu and its derivatives can be customized through a Graphical User Interface
or a Command Line Interface. The graphical tools to customize the desktop are available as menu options
in the System menu. Point to Preference s on the System menu to view the tools.

Changing the Background: The desktop background is the image or color applied to your desktop.

30
Screen Description
Figure 2: Launching Appearance Preferences Dialogue Box
On the System menu, point to Preferences and then click Appearance. The
Appearance Preferences dialogue box opens.

Nice to Know: You can also right-click the desktop and select Change
Desktop Background to open the Appearance Preferences dialogue box.
Figure 3: Changing the Desktop Wallpaper

The background changes immediately.

Nice to Know: To view the name of the wallpaper, move the pointer over
its name.
Figure 4: Applying Preference Change
Click Close in the Appearance Preferences dialogue box to apply the
changes. In addition to the wallpapers available with Ubuntu, you can
download wallpapers from other sources and add them to the available
wallpapers list in the Appearance Preferences dialogue box.
Figure 5: Opening Wallpaper Source
1. Open the Web site http://art.gnome.org/ and click Backgrounds.
2. Download the wallpaper of your choice.
3. On the System menu, point to Preferences and then click Appearance.
The Appearance Preferences dialogue box opens.
Figure 6:Adding a New Wallpaper
In the Add Wallpaper dialogue box, select the downloaded image and
click Open.

Figure 7: Selecting Downloaded Wallpaper

This step adds the image as new wallpaper.
• Click Close in the Appearance Preferences dialogue box to accept the
changes. You can now view the new desktop background.

Figure 8: Added Wallpaper

Nice to know: You can, of course, use a picture from any other source
to use as your desktop background. Many popular online photo
collaboration sites allow visitors to download and use their content
for personal use. Many people also use their own digital photographs
as backgrounds.

To change the color of the background:

Figure 9: Changing Background Color

On the System menu, point to Preferences and then click
Appearance to open the Appearance Preferences dialogue box.

31
Click the Background tab and select the wallpaper No Wallpaper.
You can only view colors if you have not set any desktop
wallpaper.

The Colors box provides three types of background: Solid color,

Horizontal gradient and Vertical gradient.
Select the desktop color of your choice and then click the color
chip next to the Colors box. The Pick a Colour dialogue box
opens.

Figure 10: Selecting a colour Option

Select a colour or the attributes of a colour such as hue and saturation
to create a colour of your choice. Click OK. The desktop reflects the
new settings immediately.

Figure 11: Specifying Colour

Click Close to close the Appearance Preferences dialogue box.

Figure 12: Changed Background Colour

Customizing the Theme (Buttons & icon set c)

The desktop theme controls the visual appearance of the buttons, scroll
bars, icons, panels, borders etc. A number of themes are provided with
Ubuntu.

On the System menu, point to Preferences and click Appearance. The

Appearance Preferences dialogue box opens.
On the Theme tab, select the theme of your choice. The desktop reflects
the theme automatically. To customize your theme further, click
Customize. The Customize Theme dialogue box opens

Figure 13: Customizing Desktop Theme

• The default selection is Controls tab. The setting on the Controls
tabbed page defines the visual appearance of windows, panels and
applets. Select a control from the Controls list. You will see an
immediate change in the appearance of the open windows.
Figure 14: Selecting Theme Controls
ClickCloseintheCustomiseThemedialoguebox.Tosavethetheme,cl
ickSaveAsintheAppearancePreferences
dialogue box. The Save Theme As dialogue box opens.

32
Figure 15: Saving a Modified Theme
Provide a name for the theme in the Name
box and a description,
if you want, in the Description box. Click Save.

Figure 16: Specifying Theme Name and Description

In the Appearance Preferences dialogue
box, click Close.
If you open a menu or window, you can see the changes in their
appearance.

Figure 17: Selecting the Downloaded Theme

You can apply a new theme or retain the current theme. Click Apply
New Theme to apply the new theme. The screen will reflect the new
theme immediately.

Figure 18: Applying New Theme

Click Close in the Appearance Preferences dialogue box.
If you open any menu or window, it will reflect the selected theme.

Figure 19: Launching Screensaver Preferences Dialogue Box

A screensaver displays (often moving) images on the screen when your
computer is switched on but not in use. To go back to the workspace, you
can move the mouse or press any key on the keyboard.
On the System menu, point to Preferences and click Screensaver. The
Screensaver Preferences dialogue box opens.
Select a screensaver from the list. You can preview the screensaver in
the right pane.
Figure 24: Customising Screensaver Settings
The Regard the computer as idle after slider specifies when a screensaver
starts to work if the computer is not in use. The default time is set to 10
minutes. You can use this slider to select how long the computer needs to
be idle before the screensaver activates.
Figure 25: Launching Screen Resolution Preferences Dialogue Box
Customizing the Screen Resolution
The screen resolution determines how large or small an item looks on the
screen.
On the System menu, point to Preferences and then click Screen
Resolution. The Screen Resolution Preferences dialogue box opens.
The default resolution is 1280x1024.
You can change the resolution in the Resolution box.

33
 Figure 26: Customising Screen Resolution
Click Apply. The Keep Resolution dialogue box opens, prompting
you to confirm settings or use the previous resolution and revert to
the original settings. Click Keep resolution to apply new changes.

Figure 27: Resolution Confirmation Dialogue Box

The screen resolution will change.

Exercises:
Set A:

1) What is the default desktop for Ubuntu?

2) Enlist different Desktop environment. Also choose one for your operating system and apply it.
3) Configure panel for your system.
4) Enable Local Menus in Ubuntu.
5) Launch desktop launcher on Ubuntu

Set B:
1) Change your desktop Background and wallpaper.
2) Select color box and Select the desktop color of your choice and apply color to your
background.
3) On the System menu, point to Preferences and click Screensaver. The Screensaver Preferences dialogue
box opens. Select screensaver list and apply any one you like for your system.
4) Customize your window borders and icons.
5) Specifying Theme Name and Description for your system and View an Application in a Modified
Theme

Set C:
1. Launch a Screen Resolution Preferences Dialogue Box and change default resolution by using
Customize Screen Resolution.
2. Change the time and date of your system.

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

34
 Assignment -3

Aim: - To study different basic Linux Commands.

Pre-requisite: Knowledge of Linux operating system environment.

Students should read following topics before solving exercise.

LINUX system will usually offer a variety of shell types:
➢ sh or Bourne Shell: the original shell still used on UNIX systems and in UNIX- related
environments. It is available on every Linux system for compatibility with UNIX
programs.
➢ bash or Bourne Again shell: the standard GNU shell, is the standard shell for common users
on Linux and is a super set of the Bourne shell.
➢ csh or C shell: the syntax of this shell resembles that of the C programming language.
➢ tcsh or Turbo C shell: a superset of the common C shell, enhancing user-friendliness and
speed.
➢ ksh or the Korn shell: A superset of the Bourne shell
All LINUX commands are case sensitive single words optionally having arguments. One of the argument
is options which starts with “–“sign immediately followed by one or more characters indicating option.
The wild-cards or Meta characters “*” and “?” Have similar meaning as in DOS. The “*” character matches
any number of characters while”?” matches a single character. The backquote “ ` ” is another metacharacter.
Shell executes the command enclosed in backquote in its place. Any wild-card is escaped with a \ character
to be treated as it is.

Terminal Control Characters

Character Meaning
^h Backspaces one column.

^u Ctrl U erases everything from the current cursor

position to the beginning of the line.
^d Ctrl D tells the terminal that it should register a EOF
on standard input, which bash interprets as a desire to
exit. Ctrl D means end of file.
^c Ctrl C is used to kill a process with the signal
SIGINT , and can be intercepted by a program so it
can clean its self up before exiting, or not exit at all.
^s Ctrl S. Stop all output to the screen. This is
particularly useful when running commands with a lot
of long, verbose output,
^q Ctrl Q Resume output to the screen after stopping it
with Ctrl S.
^z Ctrl Z is used for suspending a process by sending it
the signal SIGSTOP , which cannot be intercepted by
the program.

35
Command Meaning Example

bc A calculator that reads from standard E.g

input $echo “100 / 3 ”| bc
man Show documentation for a command
$man cat
printf Format and print data E.g. printf ‘My name is %s’ ‘Ashwini’
date Print or parse date strings To display Date
date
Display the date by parsing a given
string with
date –d
Eg.
date –d ‘2013-01-03’
echo Print arguments to standard output To Print “something” to screen
$echo “something”
whoami Print your username. E.g. who am i
cal Displays calender of current month E.g $cal
tty Displays Current terminal E.g.$tty
info Info documents are sometimes more E.g. $ info date
elaborate than the man pages. These are
like web pages. Internal links are
present within the info pages.
uname Displays the information about the 1) $uname[option]
system. E.g.
$ uname –a
2) It prints all the system
information.
$ uname –s
3) It prints Kernel Name.
$ uname –n
4) It prints hostname of network
node.
stty It is used to change and print terminal E.g.
line settings. • $ stty –all
This option print all current settings in
human-readable form.
• $stty–g
This option will print all current
settings in a stty-readable form.
• $stty --help
This option will display this help and
exit.
script script command in Linux is used to script [options] [file]

36
 make typescript or record all the E.g.
terminal activities. After executing $ script information.txt
the script command it starts recording The output will contain content of
everything printed on the screen Information.txt file,created by script
including the inputs and outputs until command.
exit. -c
command
This option is used when we want to
run a particular command.
$ script –c cal calender.txt
-e
–return
This option simply return exit code of
the child process.
-f
–flush
This option is used to run flush output
after each write.
tput Using tput you can control the color • Set the Cursor Position using
and cursor of your terminal. tput cup.
E.g.$ tput cup 2 3
• Clear the Screen Using tput
clear
E.g.$tput clear
• Get the Number of Columns
and Lines of a Terminal
E.g. $ tput cols
$tput lines
• Change the Terminal
Background Color using
tputsetb
E.g. $tputsetb 4
• Change the Foreground Color
using tputsetf
E.g. $tputsetf 4

exit exit command in linux is used to exit E.g. $ exit

the shell where it is currently running. Exit command with parameter
$ exit 100
After pressing enter, the terminal
window will close and return a status of
100. Return status is important because
sometimes they can be mapped to tell
error, warnings and notifications.

37
General Purpose Commands

Understanding environmental variables

Environment variables are dynamic values which affect the processes or programs on a computer. They
exist in every operating system, but types may vary. Environment variables can be created, edited, saved,
and deleted and give information about the system behavior.

Environment variables can change the way a software/programs behave.

Command Meaning Example

home Gives home path for commands $ HOME

path Gives search path for commands $ PATH
user Gives current user’s name $ USER
uid Gives user id of current user. $ UID
editor Gives deafault file editor. $ EDITOR
term Default terminal emulator. $TERM
The TERM environment variable is used for terminal
handling
ps1 The command prompt and terminal appearance are $ PS1
governed by an environment variable called ps1.
PS1 represents the primary prompt string which is
displayed when the shell is ready to read a command.
ps2 Continuation interactive prompt $ PS2

Files and Directory Handling Commands

Linux Files and directories
Linux defines three main types of files. Linux treats all devices also as files.
➢ Ordinary or regular file -- A file containing data or program
➢ Directory file-- A file containing the list of filenames and their unique identifiers
➢ Special or device file --A file assigned to a device attached to a system
Linux files may or may not have extensions. A file can have any number of dots in its name. Linux file
names are case sensitive. The root directory represented by / is the topmost directory file containing
number of subdirectories which in turn contains subdirectories and files.

Directory Handling Commands

Command Meaning Example

pwd This command displays the present working $ pwd

directory where you are currently in.
mkdir This command will create a new directory, provided $ mkdir
it doesn't exists. FYBCA

38
 cd This command is used to change directory. $ cd /
rmdir $ rmdir
This command will remove/delete an existing FYBCA
directory, provided it is empty.

cd .. This command will take us one level up the directory $ cd ..

tree.

File Handling Commands in Linux

Command Meaning Example

touch It is used to create a file without 1) Command to create file.
any content. The file created using $ touch File_name
touch command is empty. This 2) Command to create multiple files.
command can be used when the $ touch File_name1 File_name2
user doesn’t have data to store at File_name3
the time of file creation. 3) To Change access time of file
$ touch –a
4) To change the modification time
only.
$ touch -m.

cat Cat command reads data from the 1) To read a single file.
file and gives their content as $ cat filename
output. It helps us to create, view, 2) To view multiple files
concatenate files. $ cat filename1 filename2
3) To view contents of a file
preceding with line numbers
$ cat-n filename
4) Cat command can append the
contents of one file to the end of
another file.
$ cat file1 >>file2
5) Cat command can display content
in reverse order using tac
command.
$ tac filename

cp This command is used to copy files $ cp [option] source destination

or group of files or directory $ cp [option] source directory
$ cp [option] source-1 source-2 source-n
directory

39
ls ls is a Linux shell command that 1) List files with ls with no option.
lists directory contents of files and $ ls
directories. 2) Open Last Edited File
$ls -t
3) Display All Information About
Files/Directories
$ls –l
4) isplay File Size in Human
Readable Format
$ls –lh
5) Order Files Based on Last
Modified Time
$ls –lt
6) Display Hidden Files
$ls -a

mv mv is used to move one or more mv [option]source

files or directories from one place destination
to another in file system E.g.
$ mv a.txt geek.txt
rm rm command is used to remove rm [option] …file…
objects such as files, directories, E.g. $ rm a.txt b.txt
symbolic links and so on from the
file system
file file command is used to determine file [option] [filename]
the type of a file.
head The head command, as the name head [option] …file…
implies, print the top N number of E.g. $ head state.txt
data of the given input. By default,
it prints the first 10 lines of the
specified files.
tail The tail command, as the name tail [option] …file…
implies, print the last N number of E.g. $ tail state.txt
data of the given input. By default
it prints the last 10 lines of the
specified files.
more more command is used to view the more [-options]
text files in the command prompt, [num][+/pattern][+linenum] [filename]
displaying one screen at a time in
case the file is large
less less command is linux utility which less filename
can be used to read contents of text
file one page(one screen) per time.
find It can be used to find files and $ find [where to start searching from]
directories and perform subsequent [expression determines what to find] [-
operations on them. options] [what to find]

40
diff diff stands for difference. This diff [option] file1 file2
command is used to display the
differences in the files by
comparing the files line by line.
cmp cmp command in Linux/UNIX is $cmp [OPTION]... FILE1 [FILE2 [SKIP1
used to compare the two files byte [SKIP2]]]
by byte and helps you to find out
whether the two files are identical
or not.
comm comm compare two sorted files line $comm[option]….file1 file2
by line and write to standard output
the lines that are common and the
lines that are unique.
tar The Linux ‘tar’ stands for tape $ tar [options] [archive file]
archive, is used to create Archive [file or directory to be archived]
and extract the Archive files.
zip zip is used to compress the files to zip [option] zipfilefiles_list
reduce file size and also used as file E.g. $ myfile.zip filename.txt
package utility.
unzip unzip will list, test, or extract files unzip myfile.zip
from a ZIP archive
passwd passwd command in Linux is used $ passwd
to change the user account
passwords.
patch Patch is a command that is used to patch [options] [original filename]
apply patch files to the files like [patchfile]]
source code, configuration. Patch
files holds the difference between
original file and new file.

Exercises:
Set A:

1) Explore all the UNIX commands given in this manual.

2) Create a directory.
3) Create a subdirectory in the directory created.
4) Change your current directory to the subdirectory.
5) Display the calendar for the current month.
6) Get a directory listing of the parent directory.
7) How many users were logged onto your system?
8) Display your name in the form of a banner.
9) Display the name of device name of your terminal.
10) Move to the root directory.

41
 Set B:
1. Create a directory named FYBCA under that create a 3 directories CO, RDBMS and O.S. Create
files under subdirectories CO and RDBMS and move these files to O.S.
2. Display username, user id, hostname, kernel name along with system information.
4. Display list of all files ending with .txt from current working directory.
5. Copy the file MyFile.txt to directory assignment1 and rename it to t_1.txt.
6. Display last modification and access time of particular file.
7. Create file student.txt and display size of file in bytes.
8. Display first and last 5 lines of student.txt
9. Prepare two text files and check output of diff, comm and cmp commands.

Set C:
1. Make a list of all filenames in /etc that contain the string samba.
2. Make a sorted list of all files in /etc that contain the case insensitive string samba.
3. Write a line that receives cities.txt file and sort that file.
4. Accept text file and display second to the seventh character of that file.
5. Create a text file which contains name of cities include city name pune in that file Display Pune
along with previous and next city name.
6. Put a sorted list of all logged on users in onlineusers.txt.
7. Accept the file and display that file along with line numbers.

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

42
 Assignment 4

Aim: To study redirection and simple filters in Linux commands.

Pre-requisite: Knowledge of Basic Linux Commands.

The student should read following topics before starting exercise.

Redirection and pipes
Redirection is a feature in Linux such that when executing a command, you can change the standard
input/output devices. The basic workflow of any Linux command is that it takes an input and give an
output.

With redirection, the above standard input/output can be changed. The default files where a command
reads its input, sends its output and error messages are called standard input(stdin), standard output(stdout)
and standard error(stderr) respectively.

By default all the above three files are attached with the terminal on which the command is executing.
Therefore, every command, by default, takes its input from the keyboard and sends its output and error
messages to the display screen. Redirection is used to detach default file from the command and attach
some specific file.

Pipes allow you to send output of one command as input to the other command. The commands that are
connected via a pipe are called filters.

In addition to redirecting input/output to a named file, you can connect two commands together so that the
output from one program becomes the input of the next program. Two or more commands connected in
this way form a pipe. To make a pipe, put a vertical bar (|) on the command line between two commands.
When a pipe is set up between two commands, the standard output of the command to the left of the pipe
symbol becomes the standard input of the command to the right of the pipe symbol.
Command Symbol Description Format & Example
Input Redirection < Redirection It detaches $cat < abc.txt
the keyboard from the Takes its input from
standard input of abc.txt and the output
command and attaches by default is
specific file on console. The
effect is same as $cat
tempfile
Output Redirection > It detaches the console $cat > file1
from Takes its input from
the standard output of keyboard by default
command and attaches and writes the output
specific file to file1, effectively
whatever typed
at the keyboard goes
into tempfile
$cat file1 abc.txt >

43
 file2
The contents of file1
and abc.txt will be
concatenated and
send to file2
$cat file1 > /dev/lp0
The contents of file
file1 will be sent to
printer instead of
console
Output Redirection >> In output redirection the $cat file1 > file1
without overwriting file is cleared before The file1 contents
writing to it. will be cleared
The >> is used so that $cat file2 >> file2
output is appended and The file2 will have
not overwritten its contents appended
to it
Pipe | The pipe character | is $ ls –l | grep “abc”
used Displays the line in
between two commands the output of ls –l
so containing pattern abc
that output of first
command
is send as input to the
second
command

Filters in Linux
When a program takes its input from another program, performs some operation on that input, and writes
the result to the standard output (which may be piped to yet another program), it is referred to as a filter.
Linux has a number of filters.
• grep: Find lines in stdin that match a pattern and print them to stdout.
• sort: Sort the lines in stdin, and print the result to stdout.
• uniq: Read from stdin and print unique (that are different from the adjacent line) to stdout.
• cat: Read lines from stdin (and more files), and concatenate them to stdout.
• more: Read lines from stdin, and provide a paginated view to stdout.
• cut: Cut specified byte, character or field from each line of stdin and print to stdout.
• paste: Read lines from stdin (and more files), and paste them together line-by-line to stdout.
• head: Read the first few lines from stdin (and more files) and print them to stdout.
• tail: Read the last few lines from stdin (and more files) and print them to stdout.
• wc: Read from stdin, and print the number of newlines, words, and bytes to stdout.
• tr: Translate or delete characters read from stdin and print to stdout.

44
In previous assignment, cat ,head, tail, more , pg, tr etc are covered.
Some of the most commonly used filters are explained below:
• wc
• sort
• unique
• grep
• cut
• paste

wc command
wc stands for word count. As the name implies, it is mainly used for counting purpose.
It is used to find out number of lines, word count, byte and characters count in the files specified in the file
arguments .By default it displays four-columnar output.First column shows number of lines present in a
file specified, second column shows number of words present in the file, third column shows number of
characters present in file and fourth column itself is the file name which are given as argument
Syntax:
wc [OPTION]... [FILE]...

Options :
1. -l: This option prints the number of lines present in a file. With this option wc command displays two-
columnar output, 1st column shows number of lines present in a file and 2nd itself represent the file name.
2. -w: This option prints the number of words present in a file. With this option wc command displays
two-columnar output, 1st column shows number of words present in a file and 2nd is the file name.
3. -c: This option displays count of bytes present in a file. With this option it display two-columnar output,
1st column shows number of bytes present in a file and 2nd is the file name.
4. -L: The ‘wc’ command allow an argument -L, it can be used to print out the length of longest (number
of characters) line in a file.
$ cat state.txt
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

$ wc state.txt
5 7 63 state.txt

$ wc -l state.txt
5 state.txt

$ wc -w state.txt
7 state.txt

$ wc -c state.txt
63 state.txt

45
$ wc -L state.txt
17 state.txt

SORT command
SORT command is used to sort a file, arranging the records in a particular order. By default, the sort
command sorts file assuming the contents are ASCII. Using options in sort command, it can also be used
to sort numerically.
Syntax :
sort [options] [files]

Sort Options:
Some of the options supported are:
sort -b: Ignore blanks at the start of the line.
sort -r: Reverse the sorting order.
sort -o: Specify the output file.
sort -n: Use the numerical value to sort.
sort -M: Sort as per the calendar month specified.
sort -u: Suppress lines that repeat an earlier key.
sort -k POS1, POS2: Specify a key to do the sorting. POS1 and POS2 are optional parameters and are
used to indicate the starting field and the ending field indices. Without POS2, only the field specified by
POS1 is used. Each POS is specified as “F.C” where F represents the field index, and C represents the
character index from the start of the field.
sort -t SEP: Use the provided separator to identify the fields.
Examples
Assume the below initial contents of file1.txt for the following examples
01 Priya
04 Shreya
03 Tuhina
02 Tushar

Sort with default ordering:

$ sort file1.txt
01 Priya
02 Tushar
03Tuhina
04 Shreya
In this example, the sorting is first performed using the first character. Since this is the same for all lines,
the sorting then proceeds to the second character. Since the second character is unique for each line, the
sorting ends there.

Sort in reverse ordering:

$ sort -r file1.txt
04 Shreya
03Tuhina
02 Tushar
01 Priya

46
In this example, the sorting is done similar to the above example, but the result is in the reverse order.

Sort by the second field:

$ sort -k 2 file1.txt
01 Priya
04Shreya
03Tuhina
02 Tushar

Now assume the original file2.txt is as below

01 Priya
01 Pooja
01 Priya
01 Pari

Sort with default ordering

$ sort file2.txt
01 Pari
01 Pooja
01Priya
01Priya
Sort suppressing repeated lines
$ sort -u file2.txt
01 Pari
01 Pooja
01Priya

Uniq Command
The uniq command in Linux is a command line utility that reports or filters out the repeated lines in a file.
In simple words, uniq is the tool that helps to detect the adjacent duplicate lines and also deletes the
duplicate lines. uniq filters out the adjacent matching lines from the input file(that is required as an
argument) and writes the filtered data to the output file .

Syntax of uniq Command :

$uniq [OPTION] [INPUT][OUTPUT]]
The syntax of this is quite easy to understand. Here, INPUT refers to the input file in which repeated lines
need to be filtered out and if INPUT isn’t specified then uniq reads from the standard input. OUTPUT
refers to the output file in which you can store the filtered output generated by uniq command and as in
case of INPUT if OUTPUT isn’t specified then uniq writes to the standard output.

The options of uniq command are:

c : Count of occurrence of each line.
d : Prints only duplicate lines.
D : Print all duplicate lines
f : Avoid comparing first N fields.
i : Ignore case when comparing.

47
s : Avoid comparing first N characters.
u : Prints only unique lines.
w : Compare no more than N characters in lines

Uniq Command Examples:

First create the following example.txt file in your unix or linux operating system.
> cat example.txt
Unix operating system
unix operating system
unix dedicated server
linux dedicated server

1. Suppress duplicate lines

The default behavior of the uniq command is to suppress the duplicate line. Note that, you have to pass
sorted input to the uniq, as it compares only successive lines.
$ uniq example.txt
unix operating system
unix dedicated server
linux dedicated server
If the lines in the file are not in sorted order, then use the sort command and then pipe the output to the
uniq command.
$sort example.txt | uniq
2. Count of lines.
The -c option is used to find how many times each line occurs in the file. It prefixes each line with the
count.
$ uniq -c example.txt
2 unix operating system
1 unix dedicated server
1 linux dedicated server

3. Display only duplicate lines.

You can print only the lines that occur more than once in a file using the -d option.
$ uniq -d example.txt
unix operating system

$ uniq -D example.txt
unix operating system
unix operating system

The -D option prints all the duplicate lines.

4. Skip first N fields in comparison.

The -f option is used to skip the first N columns in comparison. Here the fields are delimited by the space
character.
$uniq -f2 example.txt
unix operating system

48
unix dedicated server

In the above example the uniq command, just compares the last fields. For the first two lines, the last
field contains the string "system". Uniq prints the first line and skips the second. Similarly it prints the
third line and skips the fourth line.

5. Print only unique lines.

You can skip the duplicate lines and print only unique lines using the -u option
$uniq -u example.txt
unix dedicated server
linux dedicated server

grep command
The grep filter searches a file for a particular pattern of characters, and displays all lines that contain that
pattern. The pattern that is searched in the file is referred to as the regular expression (grep stands for
globally search for regular expression and print out).
Syntax:
grep [options] pattern [files]
Options Description
-c : This prints only a count of the lines that match a pattern
-h : Display the matched lines, but do not display the filenames.
-i : Ignores, case for matching
-l : Displays list of a filenames only.
-n : Display the matched lines and their line numbers.
-v : This prints out all the lines that do not matches the pattern
-e exp : Specifies expression with this option. Can use multiple times.
-f file : Takes patterns from file, one per line.
-E : Treats pattern as an extended regular expression (ERE)
-w : Match whole word
-o : Print only the matched parts of a matching line,with each such part on a separate output line.
Sample Commands

Consider the below file as an input.

$cat > geekfile.txt
unix is great os. unix is opensource. unix is free os.
learn operating system.
Unix linux which one you choose.
uNix is easy to learn.unix is a multiuser os.Learn unix .unix is a powerful.

1. Case insensitive search : The -i option enables to search for a string case insensitively in the give file.
It matches the words like “UNIX”, “Unix”, “unix”.

$grep -i "UNix" geekfile.txt

Output:
unix is great os. unix is opensource. unix is free os.
Unix linux which one you choose.

49
uNix is easy to learn.unix is a multiuser os.Learn unix .unix is a powerful.
2. Displaying the count of number of matches : We can find the number of lines that matches the given
string/pattern
$grep -c "unix" geekfile.txt
Output:
2

3. Display the file names that matches the pattern : We can just display the files that contains the given
string/pattern.
$grep -l "unix" *
or
$grep -l "unix" f1.txt f2.txt f3.xt f4.txt
Output:
geekfile.txt

4. Checking for the whole words in a file : By default, grep matches the given string/pattern even if it
found as a substring in a file. The -w option to grep makes it match only the whole words.
$ grep -w "unix" geekfile.txt
Output:
unix is great os. unix is opensource. unix is free os.
uNix is easy to learn.unix is a multiuser os.Learn unix .unix is a powerful.

5. Displaying only the matched pattern : By default, grep displays the entire line which has the matched
string. We can make the grep to display only the matched string by using the -o option.

$ grep -o "unix" geekfile.txt

Output:
unix
unix
unix
unix
unix
unix

6. Show line number while displaying the output using grep -n : To show the line number of file with the
line matched.
$ grep -n "unix" geekfile.txt
Output:
1:unix is great os. unix is opensource. unix is free os.
4:uNix is easy to learn.unix is a multiuser os.Learn unix .unix is a powerful.
7. Inverting the pattern match : You can display the lines that are not matched with the specified search
sting pattern using the -v option.

$ grep -v "unix" geekfile.txt

Output:
learn operating system.

50
Unix linux which one you choose.
8. Matching the lines that start with a string : The ^ regular expression pattern specifies the start of a line.
This can be used in grep to match the lines which start with the given string or pattern.

$ grep "^unix" geekfile.txt

Output:
unix is great os. unix is opensource. unix is free os.

9. Matching the lines that end with a string : The $ regular expression pattern specifies the end of a line.
This can be used in grep to match the lines which end with the given string or pattern.
$ grep "os$" geekfile.txt

10. Specifies expression with -e option. Can use multiple times :

$grep –e "Agarwal" –e "Aggarwal" –e "Agrawal" geekfile.txt
11. -f file option Takes patterns from file, one per line.

$cat pattern.txt
Agarwal
Aggarwal
Agrawal

$grep –f pattern.txt geekfile.txt

cut command
The cut command in UNIX is a command for cutting out the sections from each line of files and writing
the result to standard output. It can be used to cut parts of a line by byte position, character and field.
Basically the cut command slices a line and extracts the text. It is necessary to specify option with
command otherwise it gives error. If more than one file name is provided then data from each file is not
precedes by its file name.

Syntax:
cut OPTION... [FILE]...
When using the cut command you must use one and only one of the following options:

• -f (--fields=LIST) - Select by specifying a field, a set of fields, or a range of fields. This is the
most commonly used option.
• -b (--bytes=LIST) - Select by specifying a byte, a set of bytes, or a range of bytes.
• -c (--characters=LIST) - Select by specifying a character, a set of characters, or a range of
characters.
• Other options are:

• -d (--delimiter) - Specify a delimiter that will be used instead of the default “TAB” delimiter.
• --complement - complement the selection. When using this option cut will display all bytes,
characters or fields except the selected

Let us consider two files having name state.txt and capital.txt contains 5 names of the Indian states and

51
capitals respectively.
$ cat state.txt
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Without any option specified it displays error.
$ cut state.txt
cut: you must specify a list of bytes, characters, or fields
Try 'cut --help' for more information..

List with ranges

$ cut -b 1-3,5-7 state.txt
Andra
Aruach
Assm
Bihr
Chhtti
$ cut -c 2,5,7 state.txt
nr
rah
sm
ir
hti
Above cut command prints second, fifth and seventh character from each line of the file.

$ cut -f 1 state.txt
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

If -d option is used then it considered space as a field separator or delimiter:

$ cut -d " " -f 1 state.txt
Andhra
Arunachal
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

Command prints field from first to fourth of each line from the file.
Command:
$ cut -d " " -f 1-4 state.txt
Output:

52
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

$ cut --complement -d " " -f 1 state.txt

Pradesh
Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh

Paste Command
Paste command is one of the useful commands in Unix or Linux operating system. It is used to join files
horizontally (parallel merging) by outputting lines consisting of lines from each file specified, separated
by tab as delimiter, to the standard output. When no file is specified, or put dash (“-“) instead of file
name, paste reads from standard input and gives output as it is until a interrupt command [Ctrl-c] is
given.
Syntax:
paste [OPTION]... [FILES]...
The options of paste command are:
• -d : Specify of a list of delimiters.
• -s : Paste one file at a time instead of in parallel.
• --version : version information
• --help : Help about the paste command.

Let us consider three files having name state, capital and number. state and capital file contains 5 names
of the Indian states and capitals respectively. number file contains 5 numbers.
$ cat state
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Andhra Pradesh
Bihar
Chhattisgrah
$ cat capital
Itanagar
Dispur
Hyderabad
Patna
Raipur
Without any option paste merges the files in parallel. The paste command writes corresponding lines
from the files with tab as a deliminator on the terminal.

$ paste number state capital

1 Arunachal Pradesh Itanagar

53
2 Assam Dispur
3 Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad
4 Bihar Patna
5 Chhattisgrah Raipur
In the above command three files are merges by paste command.

$ paste -d "|" number state capital

1|Arunachal Pradesh|Itanagar
2|Assam|Dispur
3|Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad
4|Bihar|Patna
5|Chhattisgrah|Raipur

More than one character is specified

$ paste -d "|," number state capital
1|Arunachal Pradesh,Itanagar
2|Assam,Dispur
3|Andhra Pradesh,Hyderabad
4|Bihar,Patna
5|Chhattisgrah,Raipur

First and second file is separated by '|' and second and third is separated by ','.
After that list is exhausted and reused.

2. -s (serial): We can merge the files in sequentially manner using the -s option. It reads all the lines from
a single file and merges all these lines into a single line with each line separated by tab. And these single
lines are separated by newline.

$ paste -s number state capital

1 2 3 4 5
Arunachal Pradesh Assam Andhra Pradesh Bihar Chhattisgrah
Itanagar Dispur Hyderabad Patna Raipur

In the above command, first it reads data from number file and merge them into single line with each line
separated by tab. After that newline character is introduced and reading from next file i.e. state starts and
process repeats again till all files are read.

Combination of -d and -s: The following example shows how to specify a delimiter for sequential
merging of files:

$ paste -s -d ":" number state capital

1:2:3:4:5
Arunachal Pradesh:Assam:Andhra Pradesh:Bihar:Chhattisgrah
Itanagar:Dispur:Hyderabad:Patna:Raipur

54
 Exercises:
Set A

1. Create any text file and count number of bytes, words, lines and length of longest line in file.
2. Count number of files in current working directory.
3. Redirect output of long listing of directories in abc.txt
4. Count number of users who are logged in and store output in a.txt
5. Displays a list of directories and how much space they consume, sorted from the largest to the smallest.
6. Concatenate two files a.txt , b.txt into third file c.txt
Set B
1. Create the following text file a.txt and write commands based on it.
Unix distributed 05 server
Linux virtual 3 server
Unix distributed 05 server
Distributed processing 6 system
a) Sort the above file in alphabetical order.
b) Sort the above file in descending order.
c) Sort the above file in numerical order.
d) Sort the above file on second field.
e) Sort the above file on second and fourth filed on reverse order.
f) Remove duplicate entries from above file and store in c.txt

2. Create the following text file a.txt and write commands based on it
welcome to ostechnix
welcome to ostechnix
Linus is the creator of Linux.
Linux is secure by default
Linus is the creator of Linux.
Top 500 super computers are powered by Linux
a) Write a linux command to remove consecutive duplicate lines.
b) Write a linux command to display only uniq lines.
c) Write a linux command to display only duplicate lines
d) Write a linux command to display number of occurrences of each line in a file.
e) Write a linux command to display limit the comparison to first 4 characters of lines in a file and
display the repeated lines.
f) Write a linux command to avoid the comparison with the first 4 characters of lines in a file.
3. Create the following text file a.txt and write commands based on it
This is line 1 UNIX UNIX
This is line 2 unix
This is line 3 Unix Unix
This is line 4 hello
a) Write a linux command to display lines that search pattern “unix” .
b) Write a linux command to display lines that search pattern “unix” in case-insensitive manner .
c) Write a linux command to display line numbers that search pattern “unix”
d) Write a linux command to display count of lines that search pattern “unix”
e) Write a linux command to display lines that does contain pattern “unix”
f) Write a linux command to display lines that contains starting letter U and ending with letter x.

55
Set C
1. Create file as follows and write commands for same.
$ cat file.txt
unix or linux os
is unix good os
is linux good os
a) Write a linux command to print characters of 4th position.
b) Write a linux command to print characters by range 4-7.
c) Write a linux command that prints the second field in each line by treating the space as delimiter.
2. Create file as follows and write commands for same.
Linux
Unix
Solaris
HPUX
AIX
a) Write a linux command to join all lines separated by tab.
b) Write a linux command to join all lines separated by comma.
c) Write a linux command to merge a file by pasting the data into 2 columns
d) Write a linux command to merge a file by pasting the data into 2 columns using a colon separator

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

56
 Assignment 5

Aim: To study File permission, Process Management, Device Configuration, Network

Configuration and System Security Linux Commands.

Pre-requisite: Knowledge of Basic Linux Commands.

The student should read following topics before starting exercise.

❖ File Permissions

Linux is a multi-user operating system. In Multi user environment more than one user can access
one operating system. So practically there is requirement to protect the users from each other.
Linux provides different types of commands to prevent access from unauthorized user. These
commands are related to set permissions for file.

In Linux operating system, each file and directory has3 types of owner:

➢ User:A user is the owner of the file. By default, the person who created a file becomes its
owner. Hence, a user is also sometimes called an owner.
➢ Group: A user- group can contain multiple users. All users belonging to a group will have
the same access permissions to the file. Suppose you have a project where a number of
people require access to a file. Instead of manually assigning permissions to each user, you
could add all users to a group, and assign group permission to file such that only this group
members and no one else can read or modify the files.
➢ Other:Any other user who has access to a file. This person has neither created the file, nor
belongs to a user or group who could own the file. Practically, it means everybody else.
Hence, when you set the permission for others, it is also referred as set permissions for the
world.

Every file and directory in your Linux system has following 3 types permissions defined
for all the 3 owners discussed above:

➢ Read (r): This permission give you the authority to open and read a file. Read permission
on a directory gives you the ability to lists it’s content.
➢ Write (w): The write permission gives you the authority to modify the contents of a file.
The write permission on a directory gives you the authority to add, remove and rename files
stored in the directory.
➢ Execute (x):In Linux, you cannot run a program unless the execute permission is set. If the
execute permission is not set, you might still be able to see/modify the program
code(provided read & write permissions are set), but cannot run program.

To check the permission for file by typing ls –l command

57
We will see how the first portion of ls command is interpreted. It consists of a character indicating
the file type, followed by three sets of three characters that conveythe reading, writing and execution
permission for the owner, group, and other.

Following are 3 commands to change File Permissions:

1. chmod :chmodstands for 'change mode'. Using the command, we can set permissions (read,
write, execute) on a file/directory for the owner, group and other.
Syntax:
chmod permissions filename
There are 2 ways to use this command.
a. Absolute(Numeric) mode
In this file permissions are not represented using 3 digit octal number.

Number in umber in Binary Permission Type Meaning

Octal
0 000 No Permission ---
1 001 Execute --x
2 010 Write -w-
3 011 Write + Execute -wx
4 100 Read r--
5 101 Read + Execute r-x
6 110 Read + Write rw-
7 111 Read + Write + Execute rwx

58
 Here are examples of chmod using Absolute mode.

➢ chmod 766 first.txt

Before chmod first.txt file has – rw- r- -r- -permission,
Read + Write for Owner, Read for Group and other
After chmod command,
Read + Write + Execute for Owner, Read + Write for Group and other
We can check this by using ls -l command.
➢ chmod 711 first.txt
Read + Write + Execute for Owner, Execute for Group and other

➢ chmod –R 777 fybca

Here fybca is a directory. We are setting Read + Write + Execute. –R is used to set permissions
recursively for subdirectories of fybca.

NOTE:
Becoming a Super user for a short while
It is often necessary to become the superuser to perform important system
administration tasks, but as you have been warned, you should not stay logged in as
the superuser. There is a program that can give you temporary access to the superuser's
privileges. This program is called su (short for substitute user) and can be used in
those cases when you need to be the superuser for a small number of tasks. To become
the superuser, simply type the su command. You need to typesuperuser's password.
After executing the su command, you have a new shell session as the superuser. To
exit the superuser session, type exit and you will return to your previous session.
[me@linuxbox me]$ su
Password:
b. Symbolic mode
[root@linuxbox me]#

In the Absolute mode, you change permissions for all 3 owners. In the symbolic mode, you can modify
permissions of a specific owner. It makes use of mathematical symbols to modify the file permissions.

Operator Description
+ ds a permission to a file or directory
- moves the permission
= ts the permission and overrides the permissions set earlier.

59
 The various owners are represented as -
u User/Owner
g Group
o Other
a all

Here are some examples using Symbolic mode

➢ chmodo+r first.txt

Beforechmod
[root@linuxbox me]$ls -l
-rwx - - x- -x 1 root root 16 NOV 6 10:19 first.txt

After chmod
[root@linuxbox me]$ ls -l
-rwx r—x r—x 1 root root 16 NOV 6 10:19 first.txt

➢ chmod a-x first.txt

Removing Execute permission for all users

2. chown :chown means change owner. You can change the owner of a file by using the
chown command.In order to change the owner of a file, you must be the superuser. To do this
use su command, then we executed chown, and finally we typed exit to return to our previous
session.
Example:
[me@linuxbox me]$ su
Password:
[root@linuxbox me]# chown fybca12 first.txt
[root@linuxbox me]# exit
[me@linuxbox me]$
Beforechown
[root@linuxbox me]$ ls -l
-rwx - - x- -x 1 rootroot 16 NOV 6 10:19 first.txt

Afterchown
[root@linuxbox me]$ ls -l
-rwx - - x- -x 1 fybca12 root 16 NOV 6 10:19 first.txt

3. chgrp :The group ownership of a file or directory may be changed with chgrp.

60
 Example:
[me@linuxbox me]$ su
Password:
[root@linuxbox me]# chgrp fybca12 first.txt
[root@linuxbox me]# exit
[me@linuxbox me]$

Before chgrp
[root@linuxbox me]$ ls -l
-rwx - - x- -x 1 fybca12root 16 NOV 6 10:19 first.txt

Afterchgrp
[root@linuxbox me]$ ls -l
-rwx - - x- -x 1 fybca12 fybca12 16 NOV 6 10:19 first.txt

❖ Linux process management commands

What is a Process?

An instance of a program is called a Process. In simple terms, any command that you give to your
Linux machine starts a new process.

Types of Processes:
1. Foreground Processes: They run on the screen and need input from the user.
E.g. Office Programs
2. Background Processes: They run in the background and usually do not need user input. E.g.
Antivirus program.
Following are the Linux commands for Process Management:
Command Usage Example

bg To run process in background. If you [root@linuxbox me]# gedittry.c

start a foreground program/process [root@linuxbox me]# bg
from the terminal, then you cannot
work on the terminal, till the program bg command moves current process in
is up and running. A particular task background.
may take lots of processing power and
may even take hours to complete. You
do not want your terminal to be held
up for such a long time. To avoid such
a situation, you can run the program
and send it to the background so that
terminal remains available to you
using bg command.

61
 fg It is used to continue a program which [root@linuxbox me]# fg
was stopped and bring as foreground
process. command moves last process to
foreground.

ps This command stands for 'Process root@tryit-hip:~# ps

Status'. It is similar to the "Task PID TTY TIME CMD
176 ? 0:00:00 bash
Manager" that pop-ups in a Windows 184 ? 00:00:00 ps
Machine when we use Ctrl+Alt+Del. 196 ? 00:00:05
This command is similar to 'top' firefox
command but the information
You can also check the process status of a
displayed different way. singleprocess,

root@tryit-hip:~# ps 176
PID TTY STAT
TIMECOMMAND
176 ? Ss 0:00
bash

kill The kill command can terminates a root@tryit-hip:~# kill 196

process for specified process ID
Where 196 is Proccess ID of firefox

free This command shows the free and root@tryit-hip:~# free

used memory (RAM) on the Linux
system. free -m to display output in MB
free -g to display output in GB

nice The highest nice value is 19, which

inversely gives process the lowest nice root@tryit-hip:~# nice –n 19
priority. The lowest nice value is -20, bash
which inversely gives a process the
It will change the priority of
highest nice priority. bash process to 19 means lower
priority.
The default value of all the processes
is 0.

To change priority of process

nice -n 'Nice value'
process name

➢ top: This utility tells the user about all the running processes on the Linux machine.

62
 Press 'q' on the keyboard to move out of the process display.

Field Description Example

PID The process ID of each task 96
User The username of task owner root
PR Priority Can be 20(highest) 20 or -20(lowest) 20
NI The nice value of a task 0
VIRT Virtual memory used (kb) 1130396
RES Physical memory used (kb) 40328
SHR Shared memory used (kb) 23852
Status
There are five types:
'D' = uninterruptible sleep
S 'R' = running
'S' = sleeping
S
'T' = traced or stopped
'Z' = zombie
%CPU % of CPU time 0.0
%MEM Physical memory used 16.1
TIME+ Total CPU time 0.00.39
Command Command name lxd

➢ at :The at command schedules a command to be run once at a particular time. For scheduling a
job using at command use shell script file. Specify commands in script file and run at particular
time.

63
 Example:

vi Hello.sh

echo “Hello”

Save Hello.sh

Now in terminal type :

[root@linuxbox me]# at Hello.sh now
It will show output immediately

[root@linuxbox me]# at Hello.sh 11:20

Output will be displayed at 11:20am

You can check schedule status of Hello.sh file using atq Command
[root@linuxbox me]# atq
12 2019-05-10 11:20 root

Linux Network Configurations commands

Command Usage Example

ifconfig It is used to get IP address [root@localhost]#ifconfig

of the system
ping PING (Packet INternet [root@localhost]#ping
Groper) command is to 192.168.26.100
test connectivity
between two nodes. Ping [root@localhost]#ping
use ICMP www.google.com
(Internet Control Message
Protocol) to communicate
to other devices.
You can ping host name
of ip address.
ftp
File Transfer Protocol [root@localhost]#ftp
is used for logging in and 192.168.26.100
establishing a connection
with a remote host. Specify username and password
Uploading or Downloading
file to/from remote host. Use following commands to get data from remote
Syntax: server.
ipaddress or hostname
dir – Display listing of files in
current directory

64
 cd “dirname” – To change the
directory

put filename – Upload file from

local to remote computer

get filename –Download file from

remote to local computer

quit – logout

Use passive command if you get any

error of firewall
telnet It helps to connect to a [root@localhost]#telnet
remote Linux computer, 192.168.26.100
run programs remotely and
conduct administration Specify username and password
This utility is similar to the
Remote Desktop. Use logout for exit
Syntax: Now executelinux commands to access data of
telnet ipaddress or remote server. Commands are executed on remote
hostname machine and not on local computer.
ssh SSH which stands for [root@localhost]#ssh
Secure Shell, It is used to 192.168.26.100
connect to a remote
computer securely. Specify username and password
Compare to Telnet, SSH is
secure wherein the client Use logout for exit
/server connection is Now execute linux commands to access data of
authenticated using a remote server.
digital certificate and
passwords are encrypted.
Hence it's widely used by
system administrators to
control remote Linux
servers.
Syntax:
sshipaddress or hostname
host host performs DNS
lookups, [root@localhost]#hostwww.google.com
converting domain names
to IP addresses and vice Displays the IPv4 and IPv6
versa. address.
[root@localhost]#host 74.125.25.147

splays the domain name.

65
 uuenode It is used to encode oot@localhost]#uuencodefirst.txt
contents of file. So that encode.txt
contents are secured.
rst.txt is a plain text file
encoded to encode.txt
uudecode It is used to decode root@localhost]#uudecodeencode.txt
contents of file. try.txt

encode.txt is decoded and stored

in try.txt

❖ Linux commands to manage local accounts

These commands are used to manage local accounts or users like creating new user, modifying or
deleting user account.

Command Usage Example

useradd Create a new user or [root@localhost]#useradd
account fybca12

Add fybca12 user with default

setttings

[root@localhost]#useradd
fybca12 –d /home/fybca12

Create a new user’s home dir in

/home

[root@localhost]#useraddfybca12
-s /bin/csh

Set C Shell as the default

login shell for the fybca12

usermod Modify user account [root@localhost]#usermod -d

/home2/fybca12fybca12

Create the new home Dir for

fybca12 in /home2 & Move old
Dir contents to this Dir.

root@localhost]#usermod -p
$1$d8 fybca12

Set the new passwd for the

fybca12

66
 userdel delete a user account [root@localhost]#userdel –r
and user’s related files fybca12

Delete the user account

together with user’s home
directory and all files inside
it.
passwd It is used to set/reset [fybca12@localhost]#passwd
password for user
account. Specify Password and Retype new
password.
You can set password as
your own without login
[fybca12@localhost]#passwd –d
as root.
Removes the password for
account.

Exercise
SET A
Perform the commands on the system and write the commands.
1. Create three text files one.txt, two.txt, three.txt. Check the permissions of created files.
2. Change permission of one.txt as give read, write, execute access for owner, Read, write for
group and only read for other.
3. Change permission of two.txt as read, write, and execute access for owner, group and other.
4. Change permission of three.txt as read, write access for owner, Read, Execute for group and
only Execute for other.
5. Create directory ‘Assignment’. Create two subdirectories ‘Ass1’, ‘Ass2’ under it. Check the
permission of directory.
6. Change permission of ‘Assignment’ directory. Give read, read, write, and execute access for
owner, group and other including subdirectories also.
7. Change the owner of one.txt to (username)
8. Change the group of two.txt to (username)

SET B

1. Check the processes that are running on the system. Write the details of at least 3 process below.
2. See the details of particular process by specifying Process ID. Write command and details of
particular process.
3. Terminate process.
4. Check the free and used memory status of system in MB and GB.
5. Change the priority of process to -5.
6. Execute top command and see the output.

67
 7. Create trial.txt file. Type 3 echo statements, date, ls command in that file. Schedule the execution
status of that file at 15:30 (ie 3.30pm)
8. Check the schedule status of trial.txt

SET C

1. Check the IP address of your system. Mention the command with IP address.
2. Check the system with IP address is running in LAN.
3. Write a command to domain name of IP address _ connected in
LAN. Write domain name also.
4. Use ftp to upload one.txt to remote server.
5. Download file from remote server using ftp.

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

68
 Assignment 6

Aim: By learning to use Vi editor can benefit user in creating scripts and editing files.
Prerequisites: Basic knowledge of Linux operating System.

What is Vi :
The Default editor that comes with the UNIX operating system is called Vi (Visual) Editor
Using the Vi Text Editor:

➢ Vi is a full-screen text editor that is almost universally available on UNIX-based computer

systems.
➢ The vi editor is the most popular and commonly used Linux text editor
➢ There are also versions of Vi for the IBM PC (and compatibles) and the Macintosh.
➢ Vi is useful for editing program files, entering data, composing mail messages, and plain text
editing.

To Get Into and Out Of Vi

➢ To Start vi
To edit a file with vi, type any of the following commands at the UNIX system prompt.

Sr.No Command Description

1 Vi It creates a new, unnamed file

2 vi filename Creates a new file if it already does not exist, otherwise opens an existing
file.
3 vi -r filename It recovers file from system crash (this may not recover all of the
changes you made to your file in your last editing session)

4 vi -R filename It opens the existing file in Read Only mode

➢ To Exit from Vi
You can save and quit Vi editor from command mode. Before writing save or quit command you have to
press colon (:). Colon allows you to give instructions to Vi.

Following commands are used to exit from Vi editor.

Sr.No Command Description

1 :q Quit without saving

2 :wq Save the file(write) and quit (i.e. save and quit)

69
 3 :w Save the file but keep it open

4 :w fname Write to file called fname (save as)

5 Shift+zz Save the file and quit

6 :q! Quit without saving changes i.e. discard changes

7 :w! Save (and write to non-writable file)

To exit from Vi, first ensure that you are in command mode. Now, type:wq and press enter. It will save
and quit Vi.

Type :wq to save and exit the file.

Important Points to Note

The following points will add to your success with Vi −
• You must be in command mode to use the commands. (Press Esc twice at any time to ensure that
you are in command mode.)
• You must be careful with the commands. These are case-sensitive.
• You must be in insert mode to enter text.

Vi modes:

Vi has two modes:

i) Command mode: While in command mode, everything you type is executed as a command to edit your
document. This mode enables you to perform administrative tasks such as saving the files, executing the
commands, moving the cursor, cutting (yanking) and pasting the lines or words, as well as finding and
replacing. In this mode, whatever you type is interpreted as a command.
ii) Input mode: This mode enables you to insert text into the file. Everything that's typed in this mode is
interpreted as input and placed in the file. While in input mode, everything you type is inserted into your
document (including command mode commands).

NOTE: Vi always starts in the command mode. To enter text, you must be in the insert mode for which
simply type i. To come out of the insert mode, press the Esc key, which will take you back to the command
mode. Change from input mode to command mode, press the Esc key.

Basic Vi Commands:
There are several ways to change from command mode to input mode that is listed below.
1) Entering input mode: (Editing Files)

70
To edit the file, you need to be in the insert mode. There are many ways to enter the insert mode from the
command mode –

Sr.No Command Description

1 i enter input mode(text) before the current cursor location
2 I enter input mode at the beginning of the current line
3 a enter input mode after the current cursor location
4 A enter input mode at the end of the current line
5 o create a new line below the cursor location and enter input mode on it
6 O create a new line above the cursor location and enter input mode on it

To add text you position the cursor over a character and press an “a”. This puts you in a special
mode of operations called “insert mode”. Now everything typed is appended to the text after the
character the cursor was positioned over:

John Joxxyyzzhn
Jim a Jim
Pat Pat
xxyyzz
Steve Steve
~ ~
~ add xxyyz z ~
~ ~
“names” 4 lines 19 characters INSERT

When you are done adding text, you press the ESC key. When you press ESC key, the cursor
moves back to the last character you entered.

Joxxyyzzhn ESC Joxxyyzzhn

Jim Jim
Pat Pat
Steve Steve
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
Exit
from Append
You can even put RETURNs (CR) in the added text, and new lines appear.

71
 Joxxyyzzhn Joxxyyzzone
Jim a twohn
Pat Jim
Steve oneCR Pat
~ twoESC Steve
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
EmbeddedCR

The appending started between the z and hn of the first line, causing the hn to be carried to the
next line when the CR i.e. () was pressed.

1. Perform the following changes to your file. Specify the command and the resulting text as an
answer.
Action Command typed Result
Change Jim in line 3 to Jirem
Insert a new line “Tom and Jerry”
after line number 3.
Insert a new line at the end
2) Deleting Characters and Words
Here is a list of important commands, which can be used to delete characters, wordsand lines in an open
file −
Sr.No Command Description
1 x Deletes the single character under the cursor location.
2 X Deletes the character before the cursor location
3 Nx Delete N Character,starting with character under cursor
4 dw Deletes from the current cursor location to the next word
5 dNw Deletes N words beginning with character under cursor
6 d^ Deletes from the current cursor position to the beginning of the line
7 d$ Deletes from the current cursor position to the end of the line
8 D Deletes from the cursor position to the end of the current line
9 dd Deletes the current lin.
10 3dd It deletes 3 lines
11 dw Delete word
12 4dw Delete 4 words

1. Create a file in Vi editor. Perform the following operation by specifying the command and the resulting
text asanswer.
Action (from current cursor position) Command typed Result
Delete 2 characters
Delete 3 characters from 3rd line
Delete 1stline
Delete 4thline

72
3) Copy, Paste, Undo and Repeat Commands
You can copy lines or words from one place and then you can paste them at another place using the
following commands –
Sr.No Command Description
1 yy Copies the current line.
2 Nyy Copy the next N lines, including the current line, into the buffer.
2 yw Copy one word
3 p(lowercase) Paste the copied text after the cursor.
4 P(Uppercase) Paste before the current line
5 9yy Yank current line and 9 lines below.
6 U Undo the last command
7 .(dot) Repeat the last command

1. Create a file in Vi editor. Perform the following operation by specifying the command and the resulting
text as answer.
Action (from current cursor Command typed Result
position)
Cutline 2, 3 and put those after two line
Copy line 3 and put it after line 4.
Undo all the changes
Locate the content at line 2

4) Changing the text

Sr.No Command Description
1 r Replace a single character under cursor
2 R Overwrites multiple characters beginning with the character currently
under the cursor. You must use Esc to stop the overwriting.
3 s Replaces the current character with the character you type. Afterward, you
are left in the insert mode.
4 S Deletes the line the cursor is on and replaces it with the new text. After
the new text is entered, vi remains in the insert mode.

5) Moving Cursor within a File:

To move around within a file without affecting your text, you must be in the command mode (press Esc
twice). The following table lists out a few commands you can use to move around one character at a time
–

Sr.No Command Description

1 k Moves the cursor up one line
2 j Moves the cursor down one line
3 h Moves the cursor to the left one character position.
4 i Moves the cursor to the right one character position

73
 5 0(Zero) Move Cursor to start of the current line(the one with the arrow)
6 $ Move Cursor to the end of the current line
7 w Move cursor to beginning of next word
8 b
9 :0<return> or 1G Move cursor to first line in the file
10 :n<return>or nG Move cursor to line ‘n’ in file
11 :$<return> or G Move cursor to last line in file
12 nj, move more than one column or line at a time
nk,
nh,
nl

1. Create a file in Vi editor. Perform the following operation by specifying the command and the resulting
text asanswer.

Action (from current cursor position) Command typed Result

Move _3_ lines down
Move 4 columns right
Move 4 columns left
Move 3 lines up

6) Searching a String:

In command mode, with the help of '/’, string can be searched in forward direction and with the help of ? ,
string can be searched in backward direction. For example, /abc will do a forward search for string abc
whereas? abc will do a backward search for string abc.

Sr.No Command Description

1 /string String can be searched in forward direction
2 ?string String can be searched in backward direction
3 /^string String can be searched in forward direction at the beginning of a line
4 /string$ String can be searched in forward direction at the end of a line
5 N Go to the next occurrence of searched string
6 /\<he\> Search for the word he (and not for there, here, etc.)
7 /pl[abc]ce Search for place, plbce, and plcce

1. Create a fileMy_college in Vi editor. Perform the following operation by specifying the command and
the resulting text asanswer.

74
 Action (from current cursor position) Command typed Result
Search for keyword “College”
Search keyword “College” in forward
direction

7) ReplacingText:

The substitution command (:s/) enables you to quickly replace words or groups of words within your files.
Following is the syntax to replace text –

Syntax is - :s/old_string/new-string/g

The g stands for globally. The result of this command is that all occurrences on the cursor's line are
changed.

For example:
1) :s/java/os
Here “java” represents old string and “os” represents new string. It replaces each “java” string in a line
with “os”string.

2) :s/geeksforgeeks/gfg/

Input Screen:

75
Output Screen

3) :%s/pattern/replace/
It replaces every occurrence of a string in the entire text.
For example -- :%s/gfg/geeksforgeeks/
4) :1,$ s/old_string/new string/
It replaces the old string start from first line by new string to the last line.

For Example -

: 1, $ s/readable/changed/

Input Screen:

76
Output Screen:

8) Control Commands (Scrolling Commands) : There are following useful commands which can used
along with Control Key:

Sr.No Command Description

1 CTRL+d Move Forward ½ screen or Scroll Down (half a screen)
2 CTRL+f Move Forward one full screen
3 CTRL+u Move Backward ½ screen or Scroll Up( half a screen)
4 CTRL+b Move backward one full screen.
5 CTRL+e Moves screen up one line.
6 CTRL+y Moves screen down one line.

Exercise:
Set A:

1. Create a file by name Mycollege.txt with at least 25 lines long using vi editor’s input
commands -“a” and “i”.Also try there place mode by examining the toggle feature of “i”
character.
2. Create a file by name with least25lineslongusingvieditor’sinputcommands–“a” and
“i”.Also try search command on the file.

Set B
1CreateafilebyInput devices.txt with least25lineslongusingvieditor’sinputcommands and try the
following using Vi commands
a) Move to the first line of the file.
b) Insert a blank line below the 3rd line
c) Delete any 3 lines
d) Join any two lines together
e) Restore the single deleted line
f) Search the keyword “dev” from a file.
2. Create a file name containing five lines and execute the following set of commands

77
 of vi editor and describe the result on thepaper.

Sr. No Command
1 cc
2 D
3 C
4 s
5 S
6 rchr
7 R

Set C:
1Createafilebyname My_country.txt with least25lineslongusingVieditor’sinputcommands and
try the following using Vi commands
a) Move to the first line of the file
b) Replace each occurrence of word “College” with Institute.
c) Move to the beginning of 2nd line.
d) Apply control command on file.
e) Search a keyword “India” overall in a file.
f) Copy and paste any 4 lines from a file.

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

78
 Assignment 7

Aim: To study basic commands of shell programming.

Pre-requisite: Knowledge of Linux commands and vi/emac editor.

If you are using any major operating system you are indirectly interacting to shell. If you are running
Ubuntu, Linux Mint or any other Linux distribution, you are interacting to shell every time you use
terminal. So let us discuss about linux shells and shell scripting.
A shell in a Linux operating system takes input from you in the form of commands, processes it, and then
gives an output. It is the interface through which a user works on the programs, commands, and scripts. A
shell is accessed by a terminal which runs it.
There are mainly 4 important types of shells that are widely used.
They include:
• Bourne Shell (sh)
• C Shell (csh)
• Korn Shell (ksh)
• Bourne Again Shell (bash)
When you run the terminal, the Shell issues a command prompt (usually $), where you can type your
input, which is then executed when you hit the Enter key. The output or the resultis thereafter displayed
on the terminal.
Different statements used in shell script are,
Statement Usage Example

Read Reading values from standard input read first_name

read salary

echo To display output to user. echo “ What’s your name?”

a=10
echo “val = $a”

Expr Write the result of the expression on the standard mult=`expr $x * $y`
output. This command is primarily intended for x=`expr $x + 1`
arithmetic and string manipulation (convert string to
integer.)

Test Evaluates expression on its right a=1; b=2;

or evaluates expression within test $a –eq $b ; echo “*”
square brackets read ch
if [ $ch =”y” –o $ch =”Y” ]
then
……
Exit

79
 Set Assign a value to a shell variable (or multiple values set val = 7
to multiple variables). set without arguments set new_val = “like seven”
displays the names and values of all shell variables, echo $new_val
sorted by name

Unset Delete a shell variable. This does not just clear the $a=”unset example”
variable, but makes it “not exist”. echo $a
All variables are removed by "unset * unset $a
echo $a

Exercises
Set A:

1. Write a shell script to evaluate basic arithmetic operations.

2. Write a shell script to calculate simple interest.
3. Write a shell script to find area and perimeter of rectangle.
4. Write a shell script to calculate the gross salary.
5. Write a shell script to find area of circle by accepting input radius.

Set B:

1. Write a shell script to view contents of a file proceeding with line numbers.
2. Write a shell script to show the list of users logged into the system.
3. Write a shell script to append the contents of one file to the end of another file.
4. Write a shell script to display file in reverse order.
5. Write a shell script to accept a file name and display number of words in a file.
(use wc command)
6. Write a shell script to accept a directory name and display its contents.
(use ls command)
7. Write a shell script to find size of given file.
8. Write a shell script to print out the length of longest (number of characters) line in a file.
9. Write a shell script to display the file names that matches the given pattern.
10. Write a shell script to accept a file name and a pattern. Display lines from the file in which the
pattern is present along with line number. (use grep command)
11. Write a shell script to accept a name, and create a copy of it named as this name- (hypen)copy
in the same directory . (use cp command)
12. Write a shell script that displays a list of files in current directory to which the user has read, write
and execute permissions.

80
SET C:
1. Write a shell script to display the lines that are not matched with the specified search sting
pattern.
2. Write a shell script to copy all files of the source directory to the destination directory.

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

81
 Assignment 8

Aim: To study different conditional statements and command line arguments in shell
programming.
Pre-requisite: Knowledge of Linux commands and vi/ emac editor.

The student should read following topics before starting exercises.

Conditional Statements:
Shell scripts often need to be constructed to execute different instructions depending on the value of specific
control variables. The different paths of execution are specified using conditional statements. There are
total 5 conditional statements which can be used in bash programming
• if statement
• if-else statement
• if..elif..else..fi statement (Else If ladder)
• if..then..else..if..then..fi..fi..(Nested if)
• switch statement

Conditional statement Syntax Example

if statement if [ expression ] Script to check two variables are equal or
if statement, if a particular then not
test is true, then perform a statement #Initializing two variables
given set of actions. fi a=10
b=20

#Check whether they are equal

if [ $a == $b ]
then
echo "a is equal to b"
fi

#Check whether they are not equal

if [ $a != $b ]
then
echo "a is not equal to b"
fi
if-else if [ expression ] Script to check if an input number is
If specified condition is not then positive or not:
true in if part then else part statement1 echo “Enter a number”
will be execute. else read num
statement2 if [ $num -gt 0 ]
fi then
echo “It is a positive number” else
echo “It is not a positive integer”
fi

82
 if..elif..else..fi statement if [ expression1 ] Script to check if an input number is
(Else If ladder) then positive, zero or negative:
use multiple conditions in statement1 echo “Enter a number”
one if-else block, then elif statement2 read num
keyword is used in shell. If . if [ $num -gt 0 ]
expression1 is true then it elif [ expression2 ] then
executes statement 1 and 2, then echo “It is a positive number” elif [
and this process continues. statement3 $num -eq 0 ]
If none of the condition is statement4 then
true then it processes else . echo “num is equal to zero” else
part else echo “It is not a positive integer”
statement
fi
if..then..else..if..then..fi..fi. if [ expression1 ] Script to illustrate use of nested if
.(Nested if) then else
Nested if-else block can be statement1
used when, one condition is statement2 echo "Enter Your Country:"
satisfies then it again checks . read cn
another condition. In the else
syntax, if expression1 is if [ expression2 ] if [$cn -eq 'India']
false then it processes else then then
part, and again expression2 statement3 echo "Enter Your State:"
will be check. . read st
fi if [$st -gt 'Gujarat']
then
echo "Welcome to Gujarat"
elif
echo "You are Not Gujarati"
fi
elif
echo "Other Country"
fi
switch statement case $[ variable_name ] in Script to illustrate Case Statement
case statement works as a value1) Example
switch statement if Statement 1
specified value match ;; echo "Enter Country Code:"
with the pattern then it value2) read co
will execute a block of Statement 2
that particular pattern. ;; case $co in
When a match is found all value3) 'IN') echo "India"
of the associated Statement 3 ;;
statements until the ;; 'PK') echo "Pakistan"
double semicolon (;;) is value4) ;;
executed. Statement 4 *) echo "Enter Vailid Country Code"
A case will be terminated ;; ;;
when the last command is valueN) esac

83
 executed. Statement N
If there is no match, the ;;
exit status of the case is zero *)
Default Statement
;;
esac
File-based condition • -a file Returns true if file Script to illustrate file based
File-based conditions are exists conditions.
unary expressions and • -b file Returns true if file ls -l
often used to examine a exists and is a block special read -p "Enter a file name: " filename
status of a file. file if [ -e $filename ]
• -c file Returns true if file then
exists and is a character echo "file exists!"
special file if [ -r $filename ]
• -d file Returns true if file then
exists and is a directory status="readable "
• -e file Returns true if file fi
exists if [ -w $filename ]
• -r file Returns true if file then
exists and is readable status=$status"writable "
• -s file Returns true if file fi
exists and has a greater size if [ -x $filename ]
that zero then
status=$status"executable"
• -s file Returns true if file
fi
exists and has a greater size
echo "file permission: "$status
that zero
else
• -w file Returns true if file
echo "file does not exist"
exists and is writable
fi
• -x file Returns true if file
exists and is executable
• -N file Returns true if the
file exists and has been
modified since it was last
read
Arithmetic-based • -eq Equal Script to illustrate arithmetic based
Condition • -ge Greater Than conditions
or Equal read -p "Enter an integer: " int1
• -gt Greater Than if [ $int1 -eq 0 ]
• -le Less Than or then
Equal echo "Zero"
• -lt Less Than elif [ $int1 -lt 0 ]
• -ne Not Equal then
echo "Negative"
else
if [ $((int1%2)) -eq 0 ]
then

84
 echo "Even"
else
echo "Odd"
fi
fi
String-based Condition • == Returns true if Script to illustrate string based
The string-based the strings are equal conditions
condition returns a • != Returns true if read -p "First String: " str1
binary expression as a the strings are not read -p "Second String: " str2
result meaning, it returns equal if [ -z "$str1" ]
true if the specified • -n Returns true if the then
condition is satisfied string to be tested is echo "The 1st string is null"
otherwise, it returns not null elif [ -z "$str2" ]
false. • -z Returns true if the then
string to be tested is echo "The 2nd string is null"
null else
if [ $str1 == $str2 ]
then
echo "The strings are equal"
else
echo "The strings are not equal"
fi
fi

Command Line Arguments:

Command line arguments (also known as positional parameters) are the arguments specified at the
command prompt with a command or script to be executed. The locations at the command prompt of the
arguments as well as the location of the command, or the script itself, are stored in corresponding variables.
These variables are special shell variables. Below picture will help you understand them.

85
 Within the command script, the passed parameters are accessible using ‘positional parameters’. These
range from $0 to $9, where $0 refers to the name of the command itself, and $1 to $9 are the first through
to the ninth parameter, depending on how many parameters were actually passed.

Example:

$ sh welcome fybca

Here $0 would be assigned sh

$1 would be assigned welcome

$2 would be assigned fybca

Example : Let’s create a shell script with name “command_line_agruments.sh”, it will show the command
line argruments that were supplied and count number of agruments, value of first argument and Process
ID (PID) of the Script.

echo “There are $# arguments specified at command line”

echo “the arguments supplied are : $*”
echo “the first argument is : $1”
echo “The PID of script is:$$”

After running script , output will be

linuxvina@localhost:~$ ./command_line_agruments.sh Linux AIX HPUX VMware

There are 4 arguments specified at the command line.
The arguments supplied are: Linux AIX HPUX VMware
The first argument is: Linux
The PID of the script is: 16316

Shifting Command Line Arguments

The shift command is used to move command line arguments one position to the left. During this move, the
first argument is lost. i.e. $2 will be shifted to $1 all the way to the tenth parameter being shifted to $9.
The following “command_line_agruments.sh” script below uses the shift command:

echo “There are $# arguments specified at command line”

echo “the arguments supplied are : $*”
echo “the first argument is : $1”
echo “The PID of script is:$$”
shift
echo “the new first argument after the first shift is :$1”
shift
echo “the new first argument after the second shift is :$1”

After running script , output will be

86
linuxtvina@localhost:~$ ./command_line_agruments.sh Linux AIX HPUX VMware
There are 4 arguments specified at the command line
The arguments supplied are: Linux AIX HPUX VMware
The first argument is: Linux
The Process ID of the script is: 16369
The new first argument after the first shift is: AIX
The new first argument after the second shift is: HPUX

Exercises
Set A:
1. Write a shell script to check whether two numbers are same or different.
2. Write a shell script to check whether given number is odd or even.
3. Write a shell script to display “Good Morning”, “Good afternoon” , and “Good Evening”
depending on the hour .
4. Write a shell script to test a given file and return a message whether the file is a block device, a
character device or a normal file.
5. Write a shell script that accepts file name as argument and converts all of them to uppercase,
provided they exist in the current directory.
6. Write a shell script that accept directory name, if directory does not exist then it will create
directory of same name.
Set B:
1. Write a shell script to accept argument string on command line, and display present working
directory if argument string is “current” ,display parent directory if argument string is “parent” and
display the contents of root directory if argument string is “root” .
2. Write a shell script to accept an extension name such as txt on command line and display the
contents of all files with this extension, if there exists a file with this extension or give appropriate
message.
3. Write a shell script to accept as argument an extension name such as .txt and move the contents of
all files with this extension to a directory by the same name.
4. Write a shell script to accept a file name, and display file details if the file exists and a suitable
message if it does not.
5. Write a shell script which receives two file names as arguments. It should check whether the two
file contents are same or not. If they are same then second file should be deleted.
6. Write a shell script to check whether file is readable, writable or both or executable.

Set C:
1. Write a shell script that computes the gross salary of a employee according to the following rules:
i) If basic salary is < 1500 then HRA =10% of the basic and DA =90% of the basic.
ii) If basic salary is >=1500 then HRA =Rs500 and DA=98% of the basic
The basic salary is entered interactively through the key board.
2. Write a shell script that accepts a file name, starting and ending line numbers as arguments and
displays all the lines between the given line numbers.
3. Write a shell script that accept number and display whether that number is single digit, two digit
or three digit.

87
 4. Write menu driven program to perform arithmetic operations like +, - , *, /
5. Write menu driven program to perform the following tasks
a) Show today’s date and time
b) Show files in current working directory.
c) Show calendar
d) Start editor to write letters
6. Write menu driven program to perform the following tasks
a) Create directory
b) Creating file
c) Displaying contents of file
d) Copying file into another file
e) Displaying files in directory

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

88
 Assignment 9

Aim: To study different looping control structures in shell programming.

Pre-requisite: Knowledge of conditional statements.

The student should read following topics before starting exercises.

Looping Control Structures:

Looping control structure, also known as Repetition control structure, is a type of control structure in
programming languages that is used to simplify repetitive or recursive tasks. The following are looping
control structures which can be used in shell programming
• while statement
• until statement
• for statement

To alter the flow of loop statements, two commands are used they are,
• break
• continue

looping Control structure Syntax Example

Script to illustrate while loop which prints

1 to 10.
While statement while [condition] i=1
executes an action as do while [ $i -le 10 ]
long as its test command Statement to be executed do
is true. done echo $i
i = `expr $i + 1`
done
Script to illustrate until loop which
prints 1 to 10.
until statement
until [condition]
The until loop is useful i=1
do
when you need to execute a until [ !$i -lt 10 ]
Statement to be executed
set of commands until a do
done
condition is true echo $i
i=`expr $i + 1`
done
for - in statement Script to illustrate use for loop
For - in is designed for use for variable in list
with lists of values; the do for no in {1..10}
variable operand is commands do
consecutively assigned the done echo $no
values in the list. done

89
 a=0

break statement while [ $a -lt 10 ]

The break statement is used do
to terminate the execution of echo $a
the entire loop, after break if [ $a -eq 5 ]
completing the execution of then
all of the lines of code up to break
the break statement fi
a=`expr $a + 1`
done
The continue statement is
similar to the break
command, except that it for a in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
causes the current iteration do
of the loop to exit, rather if [ $a == 5 ]
than the entire loop. then
continue
continue
This statement is useful fi
when an error has occurred echo "Iteration no $a"
but you want to try to done
execute the next iteration of
the loop.

Exercises
Set A:
1. Write a shell script to find factorial of number.
2. Write a shell script to find sum of digits.
3. Write a shell script to print multiplication table using command line arguments.
4. Write a shell script sum.sh that takes an unspecified number of command line arguments (up to 9) of
int and finds their sum. Modify the code to add a number to the sum only if the number is greater than
10.
5. Write a shell script that accepts two integers as its arguments and computers the value of first number
raised to the power of the second number.
6. Write a shell script to display first 10 odd numbers and their sum.
Set B:
1. Write a shell script which will print the numbers 1 - 10 (each on a separate line) and whether they are
even or odd.
2. Write a shell script to display all the *.conf file that begins with either a, b, or, c or d under / etc
directory.
3. Write a shell script to display days of week and adds “(WEEKEND)” to Sat and Sun, and “(weekday)”
to rest of the days. Output should be following:
Day 1 : Mon (weekday)

Day 5 : Fri (weekday)

90
 Day 6 : Sat (WEEKEND)
Day 7 : Sun (WEEKEND)
4. Write a shell script that will report the number of lines in each file within the current directory.
5. Write a shell script that accepts any number of arguments and prints them in a reverse order.
6. Write a shell script which will take a single command line argument (a directory) and will print
each entry in that directory. If the entry is a file it will print its size. If the entry is a directory it will print
how many items are in that directory.

Set C :
1. Write a shell script that takes a name of a folder as a command line argument, and produce a file
that contains the names of all sub folders with size 0 (that is empty sub folders)
2. Write a shell script that takes a name of a folder, and delete all sub folders of size 0
3. Write a shell script that will take an input file and remove identical lines (or duplicate lines from
the file)
4. Write a shell script that deletes all lines containing a specified word in one or more
files supplied as arguments to it.
5. Write a shell script which accepts a filename, displays menu with following options, accepts user
choice as number and takes appropriate action
a) Display the file contents
b) Display the file Size in blocks
c) Display the number of words in file
d) Display last five lines of the file
e) Display first ten lines of the file

6. Write a shell script that displays menu with following options, accepts user choice as number and
takes appropriate actions
a) Displays the No of users logged in
b) Display the login id of user logged i
c) Display the present working directory
d) Display the home directory of logged in user
e) Display the path

Assignment Evaluation

0: Not Done [ ] 1: Incomplete [ ] 2: Late Complete [ ]

3: Needs Improvement [ ] 4: Complete [ ] 5: Well done [ ]

Signature of the instructor: Date:

91