ACT 1, SCENE 1

Flavius and Murellus, two tribunes, talk with some commoners, Before delving into political intrigue, the play opens with the
including a carpenter and a cobbler, to find out why crowds of perspective of working-class Romans, who are happy to join in
people are flooding the streets of Rome. After a pun-filled public celebrations even if they aren’t primarily interested in
exchange, the cobbler reveals that they are celebrating politics. Their wordplay sets the tone for Shakespeare’s clever use of
Caesar’s triumphal return. language throughout the play.

Murellus asks why they celebrate Caesar—do they not Pompey had previously co-ruled with Caesar, but then they
remember Pompey? Didn’t they once anticipate Pompey’s became enemies; Caesar has just defeated Pompey’s faction. The
triumphal procession with equal joy, yet now they celebrate general public is fickle in their attitudes toward their leaders,
Pompey’s death at Caesar’s hands? Murellus tells the suggesting that the coming drama surrounding Caesar will be
commoners to beg the gods’ forgiveness for their ingratitude. more like distant entertainment that doesn’t touch commoners’
daily lives.

As the commoners leave and Flavius and Murellus part ways, Lupercal was an ancient Roman feast of purification and fertility,
Flavius encourages his friend to remove any decorations he so Murellus fears offending the gods. But for Flavius, the bigger
finds on images of Caesar. Murellus hesitates, given that it’s the concern is that Caesar might become arrogant, using the support as
feast of Lupercal, but Flavius tells him that doesn’t matter. They an excuse for seizing greater power.
agree to drive other commoners off the streets so the popular
enthusiasm won’t go to Caesar’s head.

ACT 1, SCENE 2
Caesar, Antony, Brutus, Cassius, and others enter. Caesar Caesar believes in superstitions associated with the Lupercalia race,
tells his wife, Calpurnia, to stand in Antony’s path when he and hopes that adherence to this one will result in an heir—
runs his race. He tells Antony to touch Calpurnia as he runs showing that he’s concerned for his succession as emperor.
by, since this is believed to cure a woman’s infertility. Antony
agrees.

Caesar hears someone calling shrilly in the crowd—it’s a Caesar is superstitious enough to give the soothsayer a hearing, yet
soothsayer, telling him, “Beware the ides of March.” Caesar also believes himself invulnerable to harm. The question of fate’s
summons the soothsayer before him, but then dismisses role in Caesar’s future will recur throughout the play.
him, saying that the man is a “dreamer.”
Despite Cassius’s urging, Brutus declines to watch the race.
Brutus has a self-reflective, principle-driven personality. Cassius, on
Cassius observes that Brutus has seemed aloof lately.
the other hand seems to be motivated solely by self-interest, and
Brutus assures Cassius that he shouldn’t take this personally;
he knows how to subtly manipulate a conversation. Here, rather
he is distracted by his own thoughts, “with himself at war.”
than blatantly flattering Brutus, he appeals to Brutus’s sense of
Cassius replies that he wishes Brutus could see his own
responsibility for the welfare of Rome as a whole.
“hidden worthiness,” which so many prominent Romans
recognize.
Brutus fears that Cassius is trying to lead him astray, but
Cassius assures him that he’s no flatterer, and Brutus should
trust his perspective.

They hear shouting, and Brutus fears that the people have Cassius is attuned to Brutus’s moods and uses that awareness to
hailed Caesar as king. When Cassius says that it sounds as if put words in Brutus’s mouth, steering the conversation in the
Brutus is against that possibility, Brutus admits that this is true, direction he wants. The exchange also highlights Brutus’s internal
although he loves Caesar. Brutus urges Cassius to tell him conflict between his affection for Caesar and his political ideals.
what’s on his mind—whatever it is. If it’s for the good of Rome, His loyalty to Rome is his greatest motivation.
he’ll accept it, since he loves honor more than he fears death.

Cassius says that honor is just what he wants to discuss with Again, Cassius steers the conversation in a direction—namely
Brutus. Both he and Brutus, he argues, were born just as free toward honor—that he believes will be effective in swaying
as Caesar. He recalls a story about racing Caesar across the Brutus to his side. He argues that he and Brutus are no different
Tiber River and having to rescue an exhausted Caesar from from Caesar—and that, in particular, the “godlike” Caesar is no less
drowning. Now, Caesar is “become a god, and Cassius is / A human than they are.
wretched creature” who must submit to Caesar’s will. He
describes other instances of weakness he’s observed in
Caesar.

They hear another burst of applause. Cassius tells Brutus that Cassius continues to try to subtly influence Brutus, arguing that
“the fault […] is not in our stars, / But in ourselves”; that, in it’s their own fault, not fate’s, if they allow Caesar to triumph as
other words, it’s their fault if they are beneath Caesar. He king. Brutus seems conflicted, granting some of Cassius’s argument,
argues that the people of Rome should be ashamed if they yet uncomfortable with his insinuations—namely, that they should
only have enough room for one great man. Brutus replies that move against Caesar’s supposed ambition.
he understands what Cassius is getting at and that they’ll
discuss it later. He adds that he would rather be a mere
villager than be ruled by a king.

The Lupercalia race has ended. Brutus points out to Cassius Caesar perceives Cassius’s ambition, showing that he is politically
that Caesar, Calpurnia, and Cicero look angry and distraught. savvy and perhaps ambitious himself. But Caesar also believes he’s
Meanwhile, Caesar tells Antony that he wishes he were invulnerable to Cassius’s schemes, suggesting that Caesar is
surrounded by “fat,” satisfied men, unlike Cassius, who has a arrogant.
“lean and hungry” look—that is, he’s dangerous. Nevertheless,
Caesar doesn’t fear him, “for always I am Caesar.”
Caesar and his train exit, but Brutus tugs on Casca’s cloak,
Unlike the other characters, Casca speaks in prose instead of in
detaining him. He asks Casca why Caesar looked so sad. Casca
verse, an indication that he adheres to Cynic philosophy, in
explains that Caesar was offered a crown by Antony three
contrast to Brutus’s Stoicism and Cassius’s Epicureanism. In
times; each time, Caesar refused it, but he appeared less
keeping with that outlook, he interprets Caesar’s behavior as only
reluctant to accept it each time. After the third refusal, Caesar
reluctantly declining the honor of kingship. Like his deafness,
swooned from “the falling sickness.” Casca observes that the
Caesar’s epilepsy contrasts with his self-perception as invulnerably
rabble responded to Caesar as they would to “the players in the
powerful. The people respond to Caesar’s behavior as to a
theater.”
celebrity’s, without awareness of the moment’s political gravity.

Casca says that when Caesar perceived that the people were Cicero’s speech highlights the importance of language and rhetoric
glad he’d refused the crown, he asked Casca to cut his throat. in influencing public opinion. It’s suggested, though, that most
When he recovered from his swoon, he said that his words people are unable to understand him, and that public opinion is in
should be attributed to his illness. Cicero also made a speech fact divided—with rebellion like Murellus’s and Flavius’s being
in Greek, which Casca was unable to understand, and Murellus firmly suppressed.
and Flavius were executed for defacing Caesar’s statues.
Casca categorizes all of this as “foolery.”

Brutus and Cassius agree to meet tomorrow to talk further. Cassius continues to appeal to Brutus’s sense of duty toward Rome,
Cassius urges him to “think of the world” until then. After which he symbolically equates with “the world” as a whole.
Brutus leaves, Cassius muses that Brutus is noble, but that Privately, he believes that the success of his cause depends on
even the noblest can be seduced. Tonight, Cassius will leave “seducing” and tricking Brutus, whose integrity far surpasses his
a few letters for Brutus, as if written by different citizens, own.
praising Brutus’s reputation and hinting at Caesar’s ambition.
Cassius this thinks this will surely help cause against Caesar.

ACT 1, SCENE 3
There’s thunder and lightning as Casca and Cicero enter. The confluence of supernatural events foretells the historical
Casca is disturbed by the earth’s shaking and the fire dropping significance of Caesar’s murder, and it also raises the question of
from the heavens. He speculates that it’s either civil war among fate’s role—do these omens predict inevitable events, or will the
the gods, or else humans have provoked the gods to destroy omens create an expectation of consequential events in people’s
them. He also saw a slave’s hand burn unharmed, a lion minds?
strolling down the street, and an owl hooting at noon. Casca
concludes that this collection of omens can be no natural
coincidence. Cicero agrees that it’s all quite strange, but that
people are prone to misconstrue signs.

Cicero exits, and Cassius comes to see Casca. Cassius says that Cassius’s approach here is similar to his conversation with Brutus
he has been walking fearlessly through the stormy night, and earlier—he doesn’t name Caesar directly, but insinuates that Caesar
that Casca wouldn’t be afraid, either, if he understood the is a threat to Rome. He also categorizes strength and resistance to
meaning behind these “instruments of fear and warning”— tyranny as inherently masculine traits and passivity as “womanish”
namely, that there’s “a man no mightier than thyself or me […] or feminine.
yet prodigious grown.” Romans’ willingness to put up with such
a man shows that they have grown “womanish.”
Casca mentions the rumor that the Senators are going to
Again, as he did with Brutus earlier, Cassius sounds out Casca’s
crown Caesar as king tomorrow. Cassius says that, in that
leanings before telling him about the plot, casting Caesar as a
case, he will commit suicide sooner than submit to tyranny. He
tyrant and resistance to Caesar as a moral duty. Cassius is a master
adds that maybe he shouldn’t speak like this in front of Casca,
of manipulation.
if Casca doesn’t mind such “bondage.” But Casca says that if
there’s a faction that’s preparing to overthrow tyranny, he’s
willing to follow them all the way. Then Cassius tells him about
the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar.

They’re interrupted by Cinna, a member of the conspiracy. The conspirators move forward in their plans to trick Brutus over
Cassius gives Cinna some fake letters to leave where to their side. The element of trickery shows that they know their
Brutus will find them. Then Cassius and Casca agree to plans are dishonorable, yet winning Brutus’s honorable nature is
confront Brutus at his house and win him over to the vital to the success of their plot.
conspiracy, confident that he’s nearly persuaded already.

ACT 2, SCENE 1
Brutus, unable to sleep, paces in his orchard. He talks to Ironically, Brutus is the first character in the play to explicitly
himself, reasoning that he has nothing against Caesar state that Caesar must be killed. Unlike the other conspirators,
personally. However, kingship might change Caesar, leading he isn’t concerned about the personal repercussions of the act,
him to abuse his power. Caesar, then, should be regarded as but about whether killing Caesar is the right thing to do for
a “serpent’s egg” that must be crushed before it has the Rome.
chance to hatch.

Lucius, a servant, brings Brutus a letter he found on the Meteors, even in Shakespeare’s time, were believed to herald
windowsill. Brutus reads the letter by the light of whizzing important events. By Cassius’s design, the letter contains gaps
meteors. It says, “Awake, and see thyself! Shall Rome, etc. which Brutus fills in—without his supplied interpretation, it would
Speak, strike, redress!” Brutus interprets this to mean that he, be meaningless. The “Tarquin” refers to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus,
like his ancestors who drove out the Tarquin, should act to the final king of Rome, whose overthrow in 509 B.C.E. led to the
prevent Rome from falling under the sway of a king. establishment of the Republic.

Brutus has asked Lucius to confirm the date; Lucius checks the The “ides of March,” the day that the soothsayer warned Caesar
calendar and says that it is indeed the 15th of March. As Lucius about, has come. The unsettled state of Brutus’s body and mind,
answers a knock at the door, Brutus reflects that he hasn’t slept brought on by a crisis of conscience, symbolizes the restless state of
since Cassius spoke to him of the conspiracy. While Rome at large.
anticipating the assassination, Brutus feels as though there is a
rebellion in the “little kingdom” of his body.

Cassius has arrived, and Lucius reports that he is Brutus’s commitment to killing Caesar is motivated by his sense of
accompanied by others who are concealed in their cloaks. As moral duty, so he is disturbed by the secretive, underhanded
Lucius lets the group in, Brutus reflects on the “monstrous” behavior of his co-conspirators—hence his rejection of an oath.
nature of conspiracy. When Cassius comes in, he introduces
the other conspirators: Trebonius, Decius, Casca, Cinna, and
Metellus. Brutus shakes hands with them, but when Cassius
proposes an oath, Brutus objects that the corruption of the
times should be motivation enough to follow through on their
plot, and that Romans should be able to trust one another’s
word.
Cassius suggests that Cicero be included in the plot, and the
Cicero was one of the most revered, eloquent orators in the history
others agree, Metellus pointing out that Cicero’s age and
of Rome, so the conspirators’ desire to use his influence makes
rhetorical skill will win others to the cause. Brutus rejects this
sense. However, Brutus’s objection, along with his previous rejection
idea, saying that Cicero isn’t a follower.
of an oath, shows that he’s emerging as a leader of the conspirators.
It also further illustrates his commitment to principle rather than
mere populism.

Cassius suggests that Mark Antony be killed as well, since he’s In a heavily consequential decision, Brutus rejects the idea of
so close to Caesar. Again, Brutus objects, arguing that they murdering Mark Antony on the grounds that it’s motivated not by
must be “sacrificers, but not butchers.” They must kill Caesar duty to Rome (like their murder of Caesar), but by blind wrath and
“boldly, but not wrathfully.” Anyway, he concludes, Antony will bloodthirst. Ironically, his insistence on moral restraint will lead to
be powerless—like a limb without a head—once Caesar is dead. his own death.

The clock strikes three. Cassius says that it’s doubtful whether The striking of a mechanical clock is an anachronism, as such clocks
Caesar will go to the Capitol today—he’s grown so didn’t exist in ancient Rome. Shakespeare likely included this detail
superstitious lately. Decius offers to make sure Caesar goes. not only to give the audience a sense of pacing and immediacy, but
They discuss bringing Caius Ligarius into the conspiracy, and to make the action seem more in sync with to the contemporary
Brutus says he will take care of this. The conspirators part for time period when the play was performed. The conspirators’ plans
the night. go forward, albeit amid much uncertainty—will Decius’s and
Brutus’s errands succeed? The outcome seems to rest on more than
abstract Fate.

Portia enters, asking Brutus about his strange behavior lately— Portia’s speech uses logic to prove her trustworthiness. She uses her
he’s been so restless and distracted. She pleads with Brutus relationships to noblemen—her father (the Roman statesman Cato)
to tell her what is bothering him and who the visitors were. She and Brutus himself—to demonstrate her strength, taking for
says that although she is a woman, she is Cato’s daughter and granted the contemporary belief in women’s weakness. Her self-
Brutus’s wife, and therefore she is stronger than women in injury shows that “masculine” strength was associated with self-
general. In fact, she has wounded herself in the thigh to prove sacrifice and the ability to withstand violence and pain.
her strength and loyalty. There is a knock at the door, so
Brutus promises he will unburden his thoughts to her later.

Caius Ligarius enters. He is sick but eager to be involved in The metaphor of bodily sickness symbolizes the illness of Rome
the plot—“a piece of work that will make sick men whole.” He itself; killing Caesar will “heal” the body politic. Thunder
and Brutus set off together in Caesar’s direction, the sound of continues to be a portent of the ominous deed to come.
thunder in the background.
ACT 2, SCENE 2
There’s more thunder and lightning. Julius Caesar enters in his
nightgown, unable to sleep. Calpurnia has been talking in her Omens continue to fill the sky. Calpurnia's apparent gift for
sleep, dreaming of his murder. Caesar sends a servant to order prophecy aligns her with the supernatural elements of the play and
the priests to do sacrifices and report back to him the results of contrasts her with the logical Portia. Caesar’s superstition is on
their auguries. display; in light of the soothsayer’s warning, the portents, and his
wife’s dream, he appears to be uneasy about what the day will
bring.

Calpurnia enters and tells Caesar that he mustn’t leave the Caesar suspects that the omens are for him and that Calpurnia is
house today. Although she has “never stood on ceremonies,” right, but his ego wins out—he wants to appear invincible, so he has
she’s frightened by reports of a lioness birthing in the streets, to venture out of the house anyway. He is trapped by his
blood drizzling from the sky, and ghosts roaming about. Caesar invulnerable self-image. He justifies his behavior by claiming that
replies that the gods’ purposes can’t be avoided; he will leave fate is inevitable, and that the signs don’t necessarily apply to him.
anyway, because these omens aren’t just signs for him, but for
the world in general. Death is inevitable and comes to everyone
when it’s fated to come.

The servant returns with a worrying omen—the sacrificed Though the supernatural warnings are mounting, Caesar twists
animal was found to contain no heart, indicating that Caesar their interpretation in his favor, needing to project invulnerability.
shouldn’t leave the house. Caesar rebuffs this interpretation, Calpurnia sees through this façade and offers him a way out.
saying the heartless sacrifice is a warning against cowardice. The fact that Caesar gives in to Calpurnia’s worries suggests that
He is “more dangerous than [danger] itself” and will go forth. he is not as confident as his outward arrogance would suggest.
Calpurnia replies that Caesar’s wisdom is being outweighed by
his confidence. She begs him to stay home, saying Caesar can
use her fear as an excuse, and he relents.

Decius arrives to accompany Caesar to the Senate House. Caesar keeps trying to balance between his superstition and his ego
Caesar tells Decius to inform the Senate that he chooses not to —he asserts his will to redirect attention from his apparent
come. Decius insists on being given a reason for Caesar’s weakness. In keeping with his mission, Decius picks up on Caesar’s
absence—otherwise he’ll be laughed at when he delivers the superstition and fear by offering a flattering interpretation of the
message. Caesar replies that his will is reason enough. dream that will compel Caesar to go anyway. The flattery works,
However, he privately admits that Calpurnia has asked him to suggesting that Caesar does harbor ambition and will ignore his
stay home because of her dream of Caesar’s statue spurting own instincts in order to further his political agenda.
blood. Decius replies that this dream is actually fortunate—it
signifies that Caesar’s blood will revive Rome. Besides, the
Senate is planning to give Caesar a crown today, and if
Caesar stays away, they might change their minds. Caesar
quickly decides to go after all.

The rest of the conspirators enter, followed by Antony. Caesar Antony’s late appearance after a night of partying reinforces the
greets them all and teases Antony about his late-night partying. other men’s perception that he is harmless. Caesar’s jovial greetings
Then he invites them all inside for a drink of wine before they heighten the dramatic irony, while the audience is aware of what’s
depart for the Senate together. Privately, Brutus laments what about to happen and witnesses Brutus’s anguish over it.
he and his fellow conspirators are about to do.
ACT 2, SCENE 3
Artemidorus enters, reading a paper. He’s written a letter to
Caesar, warning him to beware of Brutus and the other It’s not clear how Artemidorus learned about the plot, but his
conspirators. He will offer the paper to Caesar when he passes willingness to intervene shows that Roman attitudes toward Caesar
by. If Caesar doesn’t read the note and live, he thinks, then are not united. At the same time, there’s an ambivalent attitude
“the Fates with traitors do contrive.” toward “the Fates,” which Caesar believes can still override human
initiative.

ACT 2, SCENE 4
Portia sends Lucius to the Capitol to learn whether the Portia’s anxiety contrasts with her earlier steadiness and strength.
conspirators have been successful. Nervous, she struggles to As before, she describes mental resolve and physical weakness in
direct Lucius without giving away what she knows of the terms of masculinity and femininity.
conspiracy. Aside, she complains that it’s hard to have “a
man’s mind but a woman’s might.”

The soothsayer passes by. He tells Portia that he fears harm to The press of the crowd, and Portia’s mounting panic, build up
Caesar, though he doesn’t know for sure that it will come to urgency and tension in the play. The soothsayer’s efforts to warn
pass. He goes on to find a position outside of the pressing Caesar suggest that his death isn’t inevitable, since if it were, there
throng from which he can speak to Caesar. Feeling faint, would be no point in warning him. Thus fate remains an
Portia urges Lucius on to the Capitol. ambivalent force in the play, as it is unclear whether falling into the
plot is Caesar’s own fault or his predetermined destiny.

ACT 3, SCENE 1
With a flourish of trumpets, Caesar, Antony, the conspirators, The chaos outside the Capital continues to build tension. Caesar’s
the soothsayer, senators, and petitioners enter. Caesar words sound triumphant, as if the soothsayer has been proven
observes that “the ides of March are come,” and the soothsayer wrong, but the soothsayer gives a more ambiguous response,
replies that, nevertheless, they are not yet gone. Artemidorus suggesting that Fate might yet prevail. Ironically, Caesar’s seemingly
urges Caesar to read his letter first, but Caesar says that a suit noble refusal to prioritize his own welfare over that of others helps
concerning himself should be read last. Cassius urges Caesar seal his fate.
to enter the Capitol rather than receiving petitions in the street.

Popilius wishes Cassius well in his “enterprise,” prompting The various conspirators get into position. The several moving parts,
fears that the conspirators have been found out. Brutus urges as well as the possibility that the plot has been discovered and
Cassius to stay calm. Trebonius pulls Mark Antony out of the could yet be undermined, adds to the dramatic tension and
way, and Decius and Metellus Cimber press close to Caesar. suggests that human action might be an even more important
Cinna tells Casca to prepare to strike first. factor than fate.
Caesar asks what business he and the Senate must address.
Caesar presents himself as immoveable, which brings out his
Metellus Cimber kneels before Caesar to present the case of
arrogance, but also sets up a sharp contrast with his imminent
his banished brother, Publius Cimber. Caesar tells him that
removal. It also contrasts with Brutus’s belief that Caesar is
“base spaniel fawning” will do nothing to change his mind
changeable and bound to become tyrannical, which was his entire
about the situation. Then, Brutus and Cassius kneel, too.
justification for killing Caesar.
Caesar tells them all that he is “constant as the North Star,”
and Cimber will remain banished.

The rest of the conspirators kneel, and Casca strikes first, When Caesar sees his friend Brutus joining the attack, he seems to
stabbing Caesar. As the rest of the conspirators stab him, too, give up any resistance, shocked by the betrayal. Though Brutus’s
Caesar addresses Brutus—“Et tu, Bruté?”—and dies. justification for the killing was coldly logical, the effects are felt as
unavoidably personal.

The conspirators proclaim liberty from tyranny as the Capitol The killers’ proclamations of “liberty” are ironically unpersuasive, as
descends into a panic. They send Publius to reassure the it’s not made clear from what, exactly, they’ve liberated the people.
people that no harm will befall anyone else. Brutus suggests The literal bloodbath also contrasts grimly with the celebratory tone
that the conspirators bathe their hands and weapons in of Caesar’s last public appearance. Cassius’s words show that the
Caesar’s blood and walk through the marketplace proclaiming conspirators conceive of their act as having great historical
“peace, freedom, liberty!” As they wash themselves with blood, significance (as well as being an ironic reference to the play itself).
Cassius remarks that this “lofty scene” will be replayed many
times in the future.

Antony’s servant enters with a passionately-worded appeal, Even before Antony appears, the contrast between his more
saying that Antony will support Brutus if he is allowed to safely passionate rhetoric and Brutus’s cooler logic is evident. Antony’s
approach and be given a satisfactory explanation for Caesar’s ability to persuade Brutus even without being present
death. Brutus readily grants this, although Cassius doesn’t foreshadows his further manipulation of Brutus as the play goes
entirely trust Antony. on.

Antony enters and is moved by the sight of Caesar’s body. He Antony’s flair for the dramatic comes through in his passionate
tells the conspirators that if they intend his death as well, appeal to the conspirators. Brutus remains confident that a logical
there’s no better moment than now, at the site of Caesar’s explanation will smooth over lingering mistrust and establish unity.
death. Brutus replies that they desire no such thing, and that if He doesn’t account for the possibility that Antony will succeed in
Antony could see their hearts, he’d know that they’ve acted out swaying the people in a different direction.
of pity for Rome in general and that they receive him with love.
He adds that they will explain their reasoning to Antony after
they have appeased the fearful crowds.

Antony shakes hands with the conspirators, while apologizing Ever more suspicious than Brutus, Cassius questions Antony’s
to Caesar’s spirit for making peace with his murderers. Cassius loyalty in light of his continued outspoken devotion to Caesar. By
interjects to ask whether they can rely on Antony as a friend. contrast, Brutus readily grants Antony a public platform. Because
Antony assures them that they can, if indeed they can convince he’s so logic-driven, Brutus doesn’t consider other’s more emotional
him that Caesar was dangerous and thus that his death was motives. He therefore doesn’t recognize the potential risks of this
justified. Moreover, he asks if he might speak at Caesar’s move, or indeed that a mere explanation of his reasoning will truly
funeral. Brutus grants this request immediately. suffice to satisfy Antony.
Cassius takes Brutus aside, warning him that he doesn’t know
Cassius, adept at using speech to manipulate others (as he did with
what he’s doing—the people will be moved against them by
Brutus), is more perceptive regarding the persuasive power of
Antony’s funeral speech. Brutus replies that, by speaking first,
Antony’s passionate rhetoric. Brutus, on the other hand, is naïve—
he’ll explain the reason for Caesar’s death and also that Antony
he thinks that cold logic will suffice to win the people, and he
only speaks by permission—thus Antony’s speech will turn out
underestimates the emotional power Antony’s words will have.
to the conspirators’ advantage after all. Cassius doesn’t like
this plan, but when Brutus tells Antony that he must only praise
Caesar and not blame the conspirators, Antony agrees.

After the others leave, Antony speaks over Caesar’s corpse, Octavius Caesar is Caesar’s nephew and adopted heir, but he’s
prophesying that brutal civil war will break out across Italy, politically inexperienced. Antony, on the other hand, has a
urged on by Caesar’s vengeful spirit. Then a servant of perceptive read of what’s at stake—he knows that Rome’s future
Octavius Caesar enters, telling Antony that Octavius is on his depends on whomever manages to win the hearts of the people at
way to Rome. Antony tells the servant that after his funeral Caesar’s funeral.
speech, they’ll have a better sense of the people’s reaction,
and then the servant can tell Octavius whether he can safely
enter Rome or not. They carry out Caesar’s body.

ACT 3, SCENE 2
A crowd of plebeians follows Brutus and Cassius, demanding Brutus appeals to the people’s reason—they should believe him on
satisfaction. Half of them follow Cassius to hear his the basis of his honor, and judge him intellectually. This says much
explanation, and half follow Brutus. Brutus begins to speak, about Brutus’s outlook—he’s primarily driven by logic, so he
asking his countrymen to believe him out of respect for his assumes that this will prove most effective with his audience, too.
honor, and to use their wisdom to judge him. He explains that He lays out a clear-cut, logical case for Caesar’s assassination for
he rose against Caesar not because he loved Caesar less than the sake of Rome. Notably, in response, the people praise Brutus
anyone present, but because he loved Rome above all. Insofar himself instead of responding primarily to Brutus’s reasoning. This
as Caesar was good, Brutus honors him, but insofar as he was suggests that people tend to respond to superficial appearances
ambitious, Brutus slew him. He, too, should be slain for the more readily than to logic. Finally, Brutus’s arrogance is apparent
good of Rome, should the day come when that’s necessary. in that he takes for granted that Antony’s speech will post no
The people shout their approval of Brutus. As Mark Antony threat to him.
enters with Caesar’s body, Brutus departs, charging the
crowds to hear what they’ve given Antony permission to say.

As Antony ascends the pulpit, the plebeians talk among The first part of Antony’s speech demonstrates how easily the
themselves, saying that Antony had better not speak ill of public is swayed. At first, they appear to be convinced of Caesar’s
Brutus, and that Rome is blessed to be rid of Caesar. Antony ambition and Brutus’s honor. Ironically, Antony claims not to be
begins, “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. / I praising Caesar and, in fact, to be praising Brutus instead—showing
come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.” He restates Brutus’s his giftedness at subtly moving others’ opinions through his use of
charge that Caesar was ambitious, observing that “Brutus is an language—and tears. By the time he pauses to weep, the crowd’s
honorable man,” a line he repeats several times. He also makes opinion has effectively been reversed; they even praise Antony as
several observations about Caesar’s so-called “ambition”—that “rational,” despite his appeal to emotions over logic, and shift their
he wept for the poor, for example, and that he refused the loyalty from Brutus to him.
crown. At one point, he weeps himself, prompting several
plebeians to remark that “there is much reason in his sayings,”
that Caesar was wronged indeed, and that no man is nobler
than Antony.
When Antony resumes his speech, he says that he would
It’s clear that, no matter how much he protests otherwise, Antony
sooner wrong the dead than wrong the “honorable” Brutus and
is using rhetorical tricks—crying, making suggestive asides,
Cassius by stirring the public to mutiny. Then he shows them
“suddenly” remembering to pull out Caesar’s will—to stir the people’s
Caesar’s will, but declines to read it aloud, claiming that
passions and eventually provoke a riot. Gathering around Caesar’s
Caesar’s love for them would inflame the people too much.
corpse is also a powerful way of embodying opposition to the
However, the people shout to hear the will read, denouncing
“traitors.”
the conspirators as traitors and murderers. They beg Antony to
descend from the pulpit, and they all gather in a ring around
Caesar’s body.

Antony tells the people to get ready to cry. He points out Antony’s masterful oratory performance continues, as he appeals
Caesar’s mantle and recalls the first time Caesar ever wore it, to the people’s love of Caesar while simultaneously stoking feelings of
pointing out the rips in the fabric caused by various vengeance against the men who killed him and manipulating them
conspirators—“the unkindest cut of all” having been given by to transfer their loyalty to Antony. The sight of Caesar’s marred
Brutus. As the people weep, Antony lifts the mantle so they can body is symbolic of an attack on Rome itself, which pushes the
see Caesar’s body itself. The people cry out for revenge, people to mutiny.
swearing to follow Antony to the death.

Antony reminds the people that they haven’t heard the will yet. Antony has cleverly kept back the reading of the will until the
He reads it: Caesar has left each man some money, as well as all people have already been incited to a fever pitch. Now, persuaded
of his property, to be used as recreational parks. The people of Caesar’s love for them, they head off in pursuit of the
are pleased, preparing to take Caesar’s body and also burn conspirators—and Antony’s triumphant words confirm that this
down the traitors’ houses. As they go, Antony remarks, was his intention all along. Octavius apparently ignored Antony's
“Mischief, thou art afoot; / Take thou what course thou wilt.” instructions, coming to Rome before word was sent. It’s also worth
Meanwhile, the servant returns and reports that Octavius is noting that Shakespeare manipulates time here—in history, Brutus
now in Rome, and that Brutus and Cassius have fled the city. and Cassius remained in Rome for a year after Caesar's murder. By
Antony attributes their flight to his success in stirring up the condensing the span of events, Shakespeare again adds a sense of
people against them. dramatic immediacy to the play’s action.

ACT 3, SCENE 3
Cinna the poet enters, on his way to Caesar’s funeral, followed This is the first (and last) comic scene since the punning exchange
by the plebeians. The plebeians interrogate Cinna, and when that began the play. It breaks the tension before Act 4 and
they learn his identity, they egg each other on to “tear him.” bolsters the image of the plebeians as a mindless herd.
When Cinna tells them that he is Cinna the poet, not Cinna the
conspirator, they attack him anyway, for being a bad poet.

ACT 4, SCENE 1
Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus enter. They are discussing This is a very different image of Antony from two scenes ago. Rather
which members of the conspiracy ought to be executed. When than Caesar's passionate friend, he is now a cold and sly politician,
they send Lepidus on an errand to fetch Caesar’s will—they’re willing to use others as he sees fit. Octavius, by the way, is paying
planning to change some of the provisions it contains—Antony attention—he will eventually betray Antony and take sole power in
explains to Octavius that Lepidus is only there to be “led or Rome, as shown in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra.
driven, as we point the way.”
ACT 4, SCENE 2
In an army camp near Sardis, Brutus, Lucius, Lucilius, and
other soldiers meet Titinius and Pindarus. Brutus talks with the Suspicion is growing between Brutus and Cassius. Whereas in their
others about a disagreement with Cassius. Aside, Brutus tells earlier exchange, Cassius accused Brutus of being aloof and distant,
Lucilius that Cassius is starting to seem fake and overly now Brutus suspects Cassius’s excessive politeness as a front for his
courteous, and that he doesn't trust him like he used to. underlying disloyalty.

Cassius arrives and accuses Brutus of having done him wrong. Cassius seems annoyed by Brutus’s outward show of innocence and
Brutus, surprised, says that he doesn’t even wrong his nobility, a further sign of deteriorating trust between the men. They
enemies, so how could he wrong a “brother”? Cassius reacts try to keep their conflict out of public sight.
impatiently. They withdraw to Brutus’s tent so that the army
won’t overhear their argument. Lucilius and Titinius stand
guard.

ACT 4, SCENE 3
Cassius explains that Brutus has wronged him by Earlier, when Cassius and Brutus disagreed over whether to
condemning Lucius Pella for taking bribes, whereas assassinate Antony, a rift appeared; it reasserts itself here. The
Cassius’s letters in Lucius’s defense were ignored. Brutus conflict is between Brutus’s stubborn sense of honor and Cassius’s
accuses Cassius of letting people off for offenses in exchange cold pragmatism.
for bribes. He says that since they killed Caesar for justice’s
sake, they shouldn’t “contaminate” their cause by accepting
bribes now—Brutus would “rather be a dog […] than such a
Roman.”

Cassius is insulted and says that he's an abler soldier As the two men argue about Caesar, they begin to mirror him.
than Brutus. Brutus disagrees, saying he is not afraid of Cassius's dramatic gesture of baring his chest and asking for death
Cassius. Cassius says that even Caesar never insulted him this is similar to Caesar’s gesture when he thought the crowd was glad
way, and Brutus says that Cassius was too afraid of Caesar to he’d refused the crown. Brutus's refusal to repeal the officer's
give him reason. Brutus continues, saying that Cassius denied punishment is identical to the argument Caesar made just before
him money for his army, even though Cassius is richer than he, his murder (that he was as fixed in his judgments as the North
because of his corruption. Cassius says that Brutus is being Star). Caesar, then, was a successful politician because he combined
unfair. Brutus accuses Cassius of loving flattery. Cassius elements of both Brutus and Cassius.
makes a show of asking Brutus to kill him, if he really thinks
him so dishonorable.

Brutus tells Cassius to sheathe his dagger, explaining that his Like the last comic scene with Cinna the poet, this brief interlude
quick temper is just as quickly expired. Cassius apologizes for breaks tension before the focus changes. The original actor may
his hasty temper, too, and they shake hands. Outside, a poet have impersonated one of Shakespeare's rivals.
speaks to the guards, saying that in light of their mutual grudge,
it’s not wise for the two to be left alone. Brutus and Cassius
emerge and mock the poet’s poor rhymes, sending him away.

Brutus and Cassius dismiss their guards and servant. Brutus Portia's suicide refreshes the audience's sympathy for Brutus, and
explains that his temper stems from grief—Portia is dead. She helps explain the argument that just occurred, since losing his
killed herself by swallowing coals when she feared that Antony temper is so uncharacteristic of Brutus. Like the time she stabbed
and Octavius would defeat Brutus. Cassius is horrified; Brutus herself in the thigh, Portia’s manner of death is gruesome, as if
doesn’t want to discuss it further. They drink wine in honor of intended as final proof of her “unfeminine” toughness.
their reconciliation.
Titinius and Messala enter, and the men compare notes
By implication, Antony governs in a far more tyrannical manner
regarding the advance of Octavius and Mark Antony. Messala
than Caesar was accused of doing. Brutus, not normally given to
reports that Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus are reported to
acting, puts on a show of stoicism regarding Portia’s death,
have executed a large number of senators, including Cicero.
suggesting that he’s more deeply affected by the event than he dares
Messala also reports Portia’s death, and Brutus stoically
let on. Brutus also employs his superior logic to successfully argue
accepts the news, not revealing that he already knew. Brutus
for the army’s next movements.
and Cassius debate whether it’s best to march to Philippi to
confront Antony and Octavius. Cassius thinks it’s best for them
to remain well-rested, in a defensive position, while Brutus
argues that if Antony’s army marches to meet them, they’ll
collect allies along the way, arriving in strengthened numbers.
Cassius concedes to Brutus’s reasoning, and they bid one
another goodnight.

Two servants, Varrus and Claudio, and Lucius enter Brutus’s Caesar’s ghost implies that by killing him, Brutus has done
tent. Lucius plays a song, and everyone but Brutus is soon something wicked, and his appearance seems like an omen of
asleep. Brutus settles down to read, but the Ghost of Caesar Brutus’s death. Here, however, Brutus does not seem much affected
suddenly appears, calling himself “Thy evil spirit, Brutus.” The by the warning.
ghost tells Brutus that they will meet again at Philippi; then he
vanishes. Brutus wakes the others, who deny having seen
anything. Then Brutus sends word to Cassius that they should
prepare to march.

ACT 5, SCENE 1
Octavius, Antony, and their army are waiting on the battlefield. Just as omens can have ambiguous meanings for the characters,
Antony thinks that Brutus and Cassius are attacking them in but definite ones for the audience, characters' speech can work the
order to make themselves look braver than they are. same way. Octavius's remark has a double meaning, since he will
A messenger alerts them that the opposing army is eventually betray Antony and rule alone as Augustus Caesar.
approaching. Antony gives Octavius an order about how to
advance his troops, which Octavius disputes. When Antony
asks why Octavius is arguing with him, he replies, "I do not
cross you, but I will do so.”

Brutus’s and Cassius’s army meets Antony’s and Octavius’s At this point, the conflict between the two sides is a power
army on the battlefield, and they exchange taunts. Brutus and struggle, not primarily a matter of ideological disagreement. In
Cassius mock Antony as an untested soldier, a bee who is all contrast to his earlier high-minded principles, Brutus seems to be no
“buzz” and no sting. Antony and Octavius call Brutus and longer fighting for the good of Rome, but mainly for self-
Cassius hypocrites and traitors. Antony and Octavius exit in preservation.
disgust.
As Brutus steps aside with Lucilius, Cassius talks with
This exchange highlights the different philosophical schools to
Messala. Cassius says that, although he’s an Epicurean and
which Brutus and Cassius belong. Cassius, as an adherent of
previously gave little credit to omens, he has changed his mind
Epicureanism (which rejected the idea of divine intervention in
—carrion birds have been flying above the army and looking
human events), never previously believed in omens. However, the
down at them as if they’re prey. When Brutus returns, Cassius
events of this momentous day make him rethink his stance.
says that, although he’s hopeful about the battle, in the event
Brutus, as a Stoic, does not believe in suicide, but holds that people
that they lose, this will be the last time he and Brutus speak
should calmly accept whatever life brings. To some extent, his
together.
remark here belies the manner of his eventual death.
Brutus says that if they lose, his Stoic outlook will prevent him
from committing suicide. However, neither will he be content
to be led as a defeated captive through the streets of Rome.
The two say farewell to each another.

ACT 5, SCENE 2
In the midst of the battle, Brutus sends Messala in haste with While this maneuver successfully overcomes Octavius’s troops, it
orders for Cassius’s forces. Octavius’s forces appear to be also leaves Cassius vulnerable to Antony's troops. This illustrates
vulnerable, so now is the time to pour all of Cassius’s forces the shifting fortunes of the battlefield and supports the larger
into the attack. theme that human choices often yield unforeseen, fateful
consequences.

ACT 5, SCENE 3
Cassius and Titinius enter, with Cassius carrying a battle flag. Cassius’s army is being weakened both by cowardly deserters and
Cassius tells Titinius that when his own flag-bearer started by his overly-hasty actions against Octavius’s forces; now, Antony’s
running away, Cassius killed him for his cowardice. Titinius forces are surrounding them. Cassius also interprets the situation
says that Brutus gave his orders too soon, giving Antony’s men with undue haste, concluding that the battle is lost and
an opportunity to surround them. Pindarus enters, urging accordingly committing suicide. While suicide is not out of line
Cassius to quickly retreat—Antony’s forces are overrunning with Cassius's Epicurean beliefs, faith in omens is, and Cassius's
them. As Titinius rides off to scout out the situation further, hasty assessment of the battle's outcome is apparently influenced
Cassius reflects that on this, his birthday, his life has run its full by his interpretation of the carrion birds he saw earlier.
course. Pindarus reports that Titinius has been taken captive
by the enemy. Appealing to Pindarus’s personal loyalty to him,
Cassius orders Pindarus to stab him to death. Pindarus does
so, with the same sword Cassius used to stab Caesar. Then, in
grief, he flees Rome forever.

Titinius and Messala enter. Messala tells Titinius that Octavius The outcome of the battle is a draw—half of each army has been
has been overthrown by Brutus, just as Cassius has been defeated. The omen Cassius saw was paradoxical. It influences him
overthrown by Antony. Then they discover Cassius’s body on to believe the battle was completely lost when in fact it wasn't, so
the ground. Titinius grieves his friend’s death: “the sun of Rome he kills himself, which causes his forces to lose the battle. Cassius
is set” because Cassius didn’t trust that Titinius would be would have been victorious if he hadn’t misconstrued the signs and
successful in his scouting errand. Messala shares his grief, despaired prematurely, setting off a chain of disasters.
lamenting that despair moves people to irreparable error.
Messala goes to give Brutus the sorrowful news while Titinius
searches for Pindarus. However, alone with Cassius’s body,
Titinius lays his victory garland on Cassius’s brow and then kills
himself with Cassius’s sword.
Brutus, Messala, and several others enter. When they discover
Brutus's comment reflects not so much a superstitious fear of
both Cassius’s and Titinius’s slain bodies, Brutus laments that
Caesar's ghost as a growing belief that the conspirators’ deaths are
Caesar’s ghost “walks abroad and turns our swords / In our
deserved. In keeping with Brutus’s adherence to principle
own proper entrails,” and that Rome will never produce an
throughout the play, here he demonstrates his belief that situations
equal to Cassius. He sends Cassius’s body outside the camp
that originate in wrong action can never be righted. Nevertheless,
for burial and leads the others off for a second fight.
he plans to see the battle through beyond its present standstill.

ACT 5, SCENE 4
Brutus, Messala, Cato, and other soldiers enter the field. This scene contrasts Brutus’s principled nature with Antony’s
Brutus urges his men to be courageous. Cato fights boldly and calculating one. Just as Brutus once spared Antony, Antony now
is killed, and Lucilius, pretending to be Brutus, is taken spares Lucilius. But while Brutus spared Antony because he believed
captive. Then Antony enters and, recognizing Lucilius, spares he was as noble as Brutus himself, Antony spares Lucilius for
his life and orders that he be treated kindly, in hopes that he pragmatic reasons: he thinks he can turn him into an ally.
will become an ally.

ACT 5, SCENE 5
Brutus enters with several friends; battle-weary, they sit down Unlike Pindarus when he assisted Cassius’s suicide, Brutus's men
together to rest. Tearfully, Brutus speaks to three different are reluctant to participate in his death, showing their esteem for
companions—Clitus, Dardanius, and Volumnius—asking each of him. Brutus's dying words indicate that, unlike Cassius, he kills
them in turn to kill him. To Volumnius, Brutus explains that himself not to avoid the humiliation of capture, but because he
Caesar’s ghost has appeared to him again, and that he knows believes his actions deserve death. If his suicide is a just punishment
his hour has come. They each refuse his request, urging him to rather than an avoidance of future events, then it could be argued
keep running from the enemy. Brutus declines and bids each of that Brutus does not exactly violate his Stoic belief that suicide is
them farewell, explaining that now he only desires rest. Finally, improper. Rather, it’s in keeping with Brutus’s honorable principles.
he asks Strato to hold Brutus’s sword while Brutus runs upon it.
Strato agrees, and Brutus kills himself, saying, “Caesar, now
rest. I killed you half as willingly as I kill myself.”

Octavius enters with Antony, Messala, Lucilius (both captives), Even Brutus’s enemies affirm the difference between Brutus and the
and other soldiers. They see Strato with Brutus’s body, and other conspirators. The closing focus on the ironic difference
Strato explains to them the circumstances of Brutus’s suicide. between Brutus's great virtue and his disastrous end provides a
Antony declares that Brutus was “the noblest Roman of them good argument for seeing the play as the tragedy of Brutus, rather
all,” since he was the only conspirator who did not act out of than that of Caesar. Octavius, now the highest-ranking character,
envy of Caesar; instead, he acted from lofty ideals. Octavius speaks the closing lines—he will go on to be the first emperor of the
agrees, making plans for Brutus’s honorable burial. They all Roman Empire.
leave to celebrate their victory in battle.