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Cyber Stalking

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DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-2803-8.ch004

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Chapter XXVII
Cyber Stalking:
A Challenge for Web Security

Alok Mishra
Atilim University, Turkey

Deepti Mishra
Atilim University, Turkey

abstract

Cyber stalking is a relatively new kind of cyber terrorism crime. Although it often receives a lower priority then
cyber terrorism it is an important global issue. Due to new technologies, it is striking in different forms. Due to
the Internets provision of anonymity and security it is proliferating quickly. Technology and tools available to
curb it have many limitations and are not easy to implement. Legal acts to protect people from cyber stalking are
geographically limited to the concerned state or country. This chapter reviews cyber stalking, its approaches,
impacts, provision of legal acts, and measures to be taken to prevent it. There is an immediate need for research
in the various dimensions of cyber stalking to assess this social problem.

IntroductIon followed and pursued online. Their privacy is invaded,

their every move watched. It is a form of harassment,
A survey of Fortune 1000 companies found an annual and can disrupt the life of the victim and leave them
64% growth rate in cyber attacks being carried out feeling very afraid and threatened. Many authors, have
through the Internet (Bagchi & Udo, 2003). The New defined cyber stalking, as the use of electronic com-
York state police cyber terrorism unit takes into account munication including, pagers, cell phones, e-mails and
cyber stalking as a part of their cyber crime investi- the Internet, to bully, threaten, harass, and intimidate
gation. The behaviour of stalking has been reported a victim (CyberAngels, 1999; Dean, 2000; Ellison &
since the 19th-century (Lewis, Fremouw, Ben, & Farr, Akdeniz, 1998; Laughren, 2000; Ogilvie, 2000). Thus
2001). The Internet has provided users with new op- it is a kind of cyber attack which may lead to cyber
portunities (Miller, 1999) yet, many users are unaware terrorism. With the growing economic dependency on
that the same qualities found off-line exist online information technology (IT), civilian infrastructures
(Lancaster, 1998). Cyber stalking is when a person is are increasingly the primary targets of cyber attacks.

Copyright © 2008, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Cyber Stalking

This growing reliance on IT has increased exposure research to determine the incidence of cyber stalking
to diverse sources of cyber war threats. Cyber stalking (Ogilvie, 2000).
is an important global issue and an increasing social However depending on the use of the internet,
problem (CyberAngels, 1999; Ellison, 1999; Ellison there are three primary ways of cyber stalking (Ogil-
& Akdeniz, 1998; Report on Cyberstalking, 1999) vie, 2000):
creating new offenders’ and victims’ (Wallace, 2000).
For instance, in Stalking and Harassment, one of a • E-mail stalking: This is direct communication
series of Research Notes published on behalf of The through e-mail. Which is the most easily avail-
Scottish Parliament in August 2000, stated: “Stalking, able form for harassment. It is almost similar
including cyberstalking, is a much bigger problem to traditional stalking in some aspects. One
than previously assumed and should be treated as may send e-mail of a threatening, hateful, or
a major criminal justice problem and public health obscene nature, or even send spam or viruses
concern.” (Bocij, 2004). Another detailed definition to harass others. For example, in India in 2004
of cyber stalking that includes organisations by Bocij two MBA students sent e-mails to their female
and McFarlane (2002) is: classmate to intimidate her. The free availability
of anonymisers and anonymous remailers (which
A group of behaviours in which an individual, group shield the sender’s identity and allow the e-mail
of individuals or organisation, uses information and content to be concealed) provide a high degree
communications technology (ICT) to harass one or of protection for stalkers seeking to cover their
more individuals. Such behaviours may include, but tracks more effectively.
are not limited to, the transmission of threats and false • Internet stalking: There is global communica-
accusations, identity theft, data theft, damage to data tion through the Internet. Here the domain is
or equipment, computer monitoring, the solicitation of more wide and public in comparison to e-mail
minors for intimidation purposes and confrontation. stalking. Here stalkers can use a wide range of
Harassment is defined as a course of action that a activities to harass their victims. For example, a
reasonable person, in possession of the same informa- woman was stalked for a period of six months.
tion, would think causes another reasonable person to Her harasser posted notes in a chat room that
suffer emotional distress. threatened to intimidate and kill her, and posted
doctored pornographic pictures of her on the net
This definition shows cyber stalking may some- together with personal details (Dean, 2000).
times involve harassment carried out by an organisation • Computer stalking: This is unauthorised con-
also. Such behaviour is often termed corporate cyber trol of another person’s computer. In this type of
stalking. This may lead to cyber warfare within the stalking, the stalker exploits the working of the
corporate world. Internet and the Windows operating system in
Typically, the cyber stalker’s victim is new on the order to to assume control over the computer of
Web, and inexperienced with the rules of netiquette the targeted victim. Here the cyber stalker can
and Internet safety. Their targets are mostly females, communicate directly with their target as soon
children, emotionally weak, or unstable persons. It as the target computer connects in any way to
is believed that over 75% of the victims are female, the Internet. The stalker can assume control of
but sometimes men are also stalked. These figures the victim’s computer and the only defensive
are assumed and the actual figures may never be option for the victim is to disconnect and relin-
known since most crimes of this nature go unreported quish their current Internet “address.” In this
(“Cyber Crime,” 2004). To date, there is no empirical way, an individuals Windows-based computer


 Cyber Stalking

connected to the Internet can be identified, and the victim and the extent to which the communication
connected to, by another computer connected to is private or public. Ellison (1999) has classified cyber
the Internet. This “connection” is not the link stalking as either “direct” or “indirect.” For example,
via a third party characterising typical Internet direct cyber stalking includes the use of pagers, cell
interactions; rather, it is a computer-to-computer phones and e-mail to send messages of hate, obsceni-
connection allowing the interloper to exercise ties, and threats to intimidate a victim. Direct cyber
control over the computer of the target. At stalking has been reported to be the most common
present, a reasonably high degree of computer form of cyber stalking with a close resemblance to
savvy is required to undertake this form of off-line stalking (Wallace, 2000). Direct cyber stalk-
explotiation of the Internet and the Windows ing is claimed to be the most common way in which
operating system. However, instructions on how stalking begins. For instance, Working to Halt Online
to use technology in this way are available on Abuse (2003) show the majority of online harassment
the Internet. It is likely that in the future easier or cyber stalking begins with e-mail.
scripts will be made freely available for anyone While indirect cyber stalking includes the use of
inclined to download them. the Internet to display messages of hate, and threats or
used to spread false rumours about a victim (Ellison
Furthermore cyber stalkers can be categorized & Akdeniz, 1998). Messages can be posted on Web
into three types: pages, within chat groups, or bulletin boards. Working
to Halt Online Abuse (2003) statistics show chat rooms,
• The common obsessional cyber stalker: These instant messages, message boards, and newsgroups to
stalkers refuses to believe that their relationship be the most common way that indirect cyber stalking
is over. begins. Ogilvie (2000) claims indirect cyber stalking
• The delusional cyber stalker: They may be has the greatest potential to transfer into real-world
suffering from some mental illness like schizo- stalking. Messages placed within the public space of
phrenia, and so forth,. and have a false belief the Internet can encourage third parties to contribute
that keeps them tied to their victims. They as- in their assault (Report on Cyberstalking, 1999).
sume that the victim loves them even though Therefore, indirect cyber stalking can increase the risk
they have never met. A delusional stalker is for victims by limiting the geographical boundaries of
usually a loner and most often chooses victims potential threats. Consequently, indirect cyber stalking
such as a married woman, a celebrity, a doctor, can have a greater potential than direct cyber stalking to
a teacher, and so forth. Those in the noble and transfer into the real world as it increases the potential
helping professions like doctors, teachers, and so for third parties to become involved (Maxwell, 2001).
forth, are often at risk for attracting a delusional According to Halt Online Abuse (2003) in the year
stalker. They are very difficult to shake off. 2000, 19.5% of online harrassment or cyber stalking
• The vengeful stalker: These cyber stalkers are cases became off-line stalking. Cyber stalking can
angry at their victim due to some minor rea- vary in range and severity and often reflects off-line
son—either real or imagined. Typical example stalking behaviour. It can be seen as an extension to
are disgruntled employee or ex-spouse, and so off-line stalking however, cyber stalking is not limited
forth. by geographic boundaries.

Cyber stalking can take many forms. However, El-

lison (1999) suggests, cyber stalking can be classified
by the type of electronic communication used to stalk


Cyber Stalking

oFFenders and theIr offenders (McCann, 2000). According to (Maxwell,

behavIour 2001) studies of off-line stalking offenders can present
insights to cyber stalkers with some limitations. As
What motivates a cyber stalker? Most studies have earlier observed, only 50% of stalkers are reported to
focused on the off-line stalking offender. Studies, authorities, furthermore, only 25% will result in the of-
(Farnham, James, & Cantrell, 2000; Meloy, 1996; fenders being arrested and only 12% will be prosecuted
Meloy & Gothard, 1995; Mullen, Pathe, Purcell, & (Kamphuis & Emmelkamp, 2000). Researchers have
Stuart, 1999) of off-line stalking offenders have placed claimed that cyber stalkers have similar characteristics
offenders into three main groups. Zona, Sharma, and to the off-line stalkers and most of them are motivated
Lone (1993) grouped off-line stalkers into either the to control the victim (Jenson, 1996; Ogilvie, 2000;
“simple obsessional,” the “love obsessional,” or the Report on Cyberstalking, 1999).
“erotomanic” group. The majority of stalkers are simple
obsessional they have had a prior relationship with
the victim and are motivated to stalk with the aim to vIctIms and theIr
reestablish the relationship or gain revenge once the characterIstIcs
relationship has been dissolved. Mullen, et al. (1999)
claims the majority of simple obsessional stalkers Studies have shown that the majority of victims are
have some form of personality disorder and as a group females of average socioeconomic status, and off-line
have the greatest potential to become violent. The love stalking is primarily a crime against young people, with
obsessional stalkers are those who have never met their most victims between the ages of 18 and 29 (Brown-
victim. The erotomanic group is the smallest among stein, 2000). Stalking as a crime against young people
stalkers and is motivated by the belief that the victim may account for the high prevalence of cyber stalking
is in love with them, as a result of active delusions within universities. For example, the University of
(Zona et al., 1993). Studies show that irrespective of Cincinnati study showed 25% of college women had
the groups, male offenders account for the majority of been cyber stalked (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1997). Also
off-line stalking (Meloy & Gothard, 1995; Mullen et according to Working to Halt Online Abuse (2003)
al., 1999). Furthermore, according to Working to Halt the majority of victims of online harassment or cyber
Online Abuse (2003) statistics show that in the year stalking are between 18 and 30 years of age. Studies
2000, 68% of the online harassers or cyber stalkers that have investigated offenders of off-line stalking
were male. But now that trend is reversing and male found some common symptoms regarding victims,
harassers have decreased (52% in 2003) while female for instance, most are regular people rather than the
harassers have increased (from 27% in 2000 to 38% rich and famous (Brownstein, 2000; McCann, 2000;
in 2003). Another interesting factor which has been Sinwelski & Vinton, 2001). Goode (1995) also sup-
found in common with off-line stalking offenders is ports that up to 80% of off-line stalking victims are
that social factors such as the diversity in socioeco- from average socioeconomic backgrounds. Another
nomic backgrounds and either underemployment or important observation by Hitchcock (2000) is that
unemployment are significant (Meloy, 1996). While 90% of off-line stalking victims are female. While
Kamphuis and Emmelkamp (2000) investigated Halt Online Abuse (2003) reports it to 78% as gender
psychological factors and found social isolation, mal- of victim’s cumulative figure between 2000 and 2003.
adjustment and emotional immaturity, along with an Zona, et al. (1993) reported, 65% of off-line victims
inability to cope with failed relationships common had a previous relationship with their stalker. However
with off-line stalking groups. according to Working to Halt Online Abuse (2003)
Furthermore, off-line stalkers were above intel- statistics it is 51% but not enough to support this reason
ligence and older in comparison to other criminal as a significant risk factor for cyber stalking.


 Cyber Stalking

socIal and psychologIcal technIcal approaches

eFFects For avoIdance

The studies, which have looked at off-line stalking Although tools and techniques are available to protect
and its effects on victims by and large, are of the users, their implementation is not easy and there are
university populations (Maxwell, 2001). For instance, number of limitations. For example, answering ma-
the Fremauw, Westrup, and Pennypacker (1997) study chines and caller identification are two technologies
explored coping styles of university off-line stalking that help to protect against telephone harassment,
victims. They found that the most common way of although these are of limited effectiveness. In contrast,
coping with a stalker was to ignore the stalker and the potential exists online to completely block contact
the second most common way, was to confront the from unwanted mailers with tools for different online
stalker. According to them, victims were least likely media (Spertus, 1996):
to report the off-line stalker to the authorities. Many
victims felt ashamed or were of the belief that the • Programs to read Usenet news support kill files,
stalking was their fault (Sheridan, Davies, & Boon, used to automatically bypass messages listed as
2001). Working to Halt Online Abuse (2003) reports being from a certain individual or meeting other
that the majority of online cyber stalking was handled criteria specified by the user. This allows an
by contacting the Internet service provider (ISP), individual to choose not to see further messages
which accounted for 49% of cases, followed by, 16% in a given discussion “thread” or posted from a
contacting the police. Furthermore, 12% coped by specified user account or machine. People can
other means including ignoring messages, taking civil choose to share their kill files with others in order
action, or not returning to the forum in which the cy- to warn them about offensive individuals.
ber stalking took place. The Report on Cyberstalking • Real-time discussion forums, such as MUDs
(1999) mentions that many victims of cyber stalking and Internet relay chat (IRC), allow a user to
claimed they did not think that they would be listened block receiving messages from a specified
to if they reported the cyber stalking to authorities. user. Similar technology could be used to al-
Mostly victims of cyber stalking were unaware that a low blocking messages containing words that
crime had been committed. Currently there are only the user considers unwelcome. Individuals can
a few studies on the psychological impact on victims also be banned from forums at the operators’
(Maxwell, 2001). Westrup, Fremouw, Thompson, and discretion.
Lewis (1999) studied the psychological effects of 232 • Programs have existed for years to automati-
female off-line stalking victims and found the major- cally discard (file, or forward) e-mail based on
ity of victims had symptoms of depression, anxiety, its contents or sender and are now coming into
and experienced panic attacks. In another study by widespread use. The second generation of filter-
Mullen and Pathe (1997) found that 20% of victims ing tools is being developed. The LISTSERV
showed increased alcohol consumption and 74% of list maintenance software (Lsoft 96) contains
victims suffered sleep disturbances. However social heuristics to detect impermissible advertise-
and psychological effects are interrelated. In a separate ments, and an experimental system, Smokey,
study, David, Coker, and Sanderson (2002) found that recognizes “flames” (insulting e-mail).
the physical and mental health effects of being stalked • Numerous tools exist to selectively prevent
were not gender-related. Both male and female victims access to World Wide Web sites. While the
experienced impaired health, depression, injury, and simplest ones, such as SurfWatch, maintain a
were more likely to engage in substance abuse than central database of pages that they deem unsuit-
their nonstalked peers. able for children, others are more sophisticated.

0
Cyber Stalking

SafeSurf rates pages on several different criteria. enforcement, but by media too. To protect against
Net Nanny provides a starting dictionary of of- off-line stalking or cyber stalking the UK has the
fensive sites, which the user can edit. The user “Protections Against Harassment Act 1997” and the
can also specify that pages containing certain “Malicious Communication Act 1998” (ISE, n.d.). In
words or phrases should not be downloaded. New Zealand the “Harassment Act 1997,” the “Crimes
Act 1961,” the “Domestic Violence Act 1995,” and the
One of the biggest limitations to the above tech- “Telecommunication Act 1987” can apply to online
niques is the computer’s difficulty in determining harassment or cyber stalking (Computers and Crime,
whether a message is offensive. Many of the above 2000). While in Australia, Victoria and Queensland are
tools use string matching and will not recognize a the only states to include sending electronic messages
phrase as offensive if it is misspelled or restated in to, or otherwise contacting, the victim, as elements
other words. Few systems use more sophisticated of the offence for most states cover activities which
techniques. Smokey recognizes that “you” followed “could” include stalking.
by a noun phrase is usually insulting, but such heu- These activities are the following (Ogilive,
ristics have limited accuracy, especially if they are 2000):
publicly known.
• Keeping a person under surveillance
• Interfering with property in the possession of
legal acts provIsIons and the other person, giving or sending offensive
protectIon material
• Telephoning or otherwise contacting a person
Law enforcement agencies now know that cyber stalk- • Acting in a manner that could reasonably be
ing is a very real issue that needs to be dealt with, expected to arouse apprehension or fear in the
from local police departments to state police, the FBI, other person
and the U.S. postal inspection service, among others. • Engaging in conduct amounting to intimidation,
Many are asking their officers to learn how to use the harassment, or molestation of the other person
Internet and work with online victim groups such as
WHOA (Women Halting Online Abuse), SafetyED, Two possible exceptions here are New South Wales
and CyberAngels. Others are attending seminars and and Western Australia, which have far narrower defini-
workshops to learn how to track down cyber stalkers tions of what constitutes stalking. Hence, both states
and how to handle victims (Hitchcock, 2000). identify specific locations such as following or watch-
Legal acts aimed to protect other from off-line ing places of residence, business, or work, which may
stalking are relatively new. Only in the past ten years not include cyber space. While cyber stalking could
have off-line antistalking laws been developed (Goode, be included within “any place that a person frequents
1995). The first “Antistalking” law was legislated in for the purposes of any social or leisure activity,” the
California, in 1990 and in 1998 the antistalking law, prosecution possibilities seem limited. Other difficul-
specified cyber stalking as a criminal act. However, ties may occur in South Australia and the Australian
less than a third of the states in the U.S. have anti- Capital Territory, where there is a requirement that
stalking laws that encompass cyber stalking (Miller, offenders intend to cause “serious” apprehension and
1999). According to Hitchcock (2000) in the U.S. fear. Thus, the magistrates may dismiss cases of cyber
almost 20 states with cyber stalking or related laws, stalking, given the lack of physical proximity between
a federal cyber stalking law is waiting for senate ap- many offenders and victims (Ogilive, 2000).
proval. Several other states with laws pending, cyber There is a significant growth in cyber stalking
stalking is finally getting noticed, not only by law cases in India, primarily because people still use the


 Cyber Stalking

Internet to hide their identities and indulge in online cyber world the lack of global legal protection further
harassment. It is important to note that though cyber adds to an increasing problem. This is even true in the
stalking has increased, the number of cases reported case of cyber warfare and cyber terrorism. Unlike off-
is on the decline. This could be because of the failure line stalking there are no geographical limitations to
of the law in dealing with this crime. The Information cyber stalking. Although some countries and/or states
Technology Act 2000 does not cover cyber stalking have responded to the increase of cyber stalking by the
and the Indian Penal Code 1860 does not have a modification of current antistalking laws, laws crimi-
specific provision that could help victims of cyber nalizing cyber stalking by and large are limited to the
stalking. The government has now thought it fit to country and/or state and are ineffective within the cyber
enact a distinct provision relating to cyber squatting. world. Further more according to Ogilvie (2000) while
The provision is mentioned in the proposed Commu- the criminalisation of threatening e-mails would be a
nications Convergence Bill 2001 which has been laid reasonably easy fix, it does not overcome the primary
before Parliament, and the Parliamentary Standing difficulties in legislating against cyber stalking, which
Committee on Information Technology has already are the inter-jurisdictional difficulties. While in many
given its detailed report and recommendations on the ways cyber stalking can be considered analogous to
proposed law to the government. The relevant provi- physical world stalking, at other times the Internet
sion relating to cyber stalking in the convergence bill needs to be recognised as a completely new medium
is as follows: of communication. It is at this point that legislating
against cyber stalking becomes difficult. For example,
Punishment for sending obscene or offensive mes- according to Ogilvie (2000) if a stalker in California
sages: uses an international service provider in Nevada to
connect to an anonymiser in Latvia to target a victim
Any person who sends, by means of a communication in Australia, which jurisdiction has responsibility for
service or a network infrastructure facility: regulating the cyber stalking? This is a major constraint
to be taken into consideration while formulating laws
a. any content that is grossly offensive or of an to curb cyber stalking. Neverthless, the implementation
indecent obscene or menacing character; of legal acts to protect from off-line stalking or cyber
b. for the purpose of causing annoyance, inconve- stalking remains dependent on victims to report the
nience, danger, obstruction, insult, injury, crimi- offence and the concerned authorities ability to gain
nal intimidation, enmity, hatred or ill-well, any adequate evidence (Maxwell, 2001).
content that he knows to be false or persistently
makes use for that purpose of a communication
service or a network infrastructure facility, shall preventIon strategIes
be punishable with imprisonment which may be
extended upto three years or with fine which As we know, prevention is always better than the
may be extended to approximate USD 4,25000 cure and just a little care makes accidents rare. The
or with both. This is one of the heaviest fines best way to avoid being stalked is to always maintain
known in criminal jurisprudence in India. a high level of safety awareness. The suggestions
regarding staying safe online by Hitchcock (2000)
It is hoped that when it does come into effect, are as follows:
victims of cyber stalking can breathe a sigh of relief
(“No Law,” 2004). 1. Use your primary e-mail account only for mes-
Currently, there is no global legal protection against sages to and from people you know and trust.
cyber stalking (Ellison & Akdeniz, 1998). Within the


Cyber Stalking

2. Get a free e-mail account from someplace like tackle cyber stalking are geographically limited to
Hotmail, Juno, or Excite, and so forth, and use the concerned state or country. Therefore, there is an
that for all of your other online activities. urgent need to make global legislation for handling
3. When you select an e-mail username or chat cyber warfare and cyber terrorism. Organizations like
nickname, create something gender-neutral and the UN and Interpol should initiate this. In address-
like nothing you have elsewhere or have had ing cyber stalking, new and innovative legislations,
before. Try not to use your name. technologies, and investigative countermeasures will
4. Do not fill out profiles for your e-mail account, almost certainly be mandatory. We hope that informa-
chat rooms, IM (instant messaging), and so tion system security professionals will move in this
forth. direction. Researchers will also put their efforts for
5. Do set your options in chat or IM to block all empirical studies in various aspects of cyber stalking
users except for those on your buddy list. to know more about it, which will help technologist,
6. Do learn how to use filtering to keep unwanted lawmakers and others to make a real assessment.
e-mail messages from coming to your e-mail-
box.
7. If you are being harassed online, try not to reFerences
fight back. This is what the harasser wants—a
reaction from you. If you do and the harassment Brownstein, A. (2000). In the campus shadows, women
escalates, do the following: are stalkers as well as the stalked. The Chronicle of
a. Contact the harasser and politely ask them Higher Education, 47(15), 4042.
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Bagchi, K., & Udo, G. (2003). An analysis of the
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growth of computer and ınternet security breaches.
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Communications of the Association for Information
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Systems, 12(46), 129.
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District Attorney’s office and/or State At- to build theory. http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/is-
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Bocij, P., & McFarlane, L. (2002, February). Online
SafetyED or CyberAngels
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[HM Prison Service, London]. Prison Service Journal,
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 Cyber Stalking

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 Section IV
Technical Aspects of
Handling Cyber Attacks

The security measures used for handling cyber attacks are divided into three broad categories: technical, human
and organizational. We must stress the importance of the application of each of these to any measures when using
a system approach. This means that the evaluation of any possible use of a given measure must be governed by
an effective means to secure any system. Unfortunately, such an approach is not used very often. The piecemeal
approach to handling these issues is dominant in most organizations. Piecemeal means that the implementation
of a given security measure is examined only from the perspective of a particular issue, and does not consider a
holistic approach to comprehensive security.
In this section, the following opinions and views on the organizational and technical aspects of handling cyber
warfare and cyber terrorist attacks are presented:

Chapter XXVIII
Cyber Security Models / Norman F. Schneidewind............................................................................................228

Chapter XXIX
Cyber War Defense: Systems Development with Integrated Security / Murray E. Jennex...............................241

Chapter XXX
Anti-Spam Approaches Against Information Warfare / Hsin-Yang Lu, Chia-Jung Tsui, and
Joon S. Park .........................................................................................................................................................254

Chapter XXXI
Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks: Prevention, Intrusion Detection, and Mitigation / Georg Disterer,
Ame Alles, and Axel Hervatin..............................................................................................................................262

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