Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 1

Unit1: Introduction

What we are meaning by Fluids?

Fluid may be defined as a substance which deforms continuously (flows)
when subjected to shearing forces, or
A fluid is a substance which capable of flowing

A fluid has no definite shape unless it is supported (conforms to the shape of the
containing vessel)

Mechanics is the field of science focused on the force, energy, motion,

deformation interactions of material bodies based on their properties.

What are we meaning by Fluid Mechanics?

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids, how they move, how they mix, how they
interact with or how they effect on the bodies submerged within, and how they
interact with and effect on the bodies that attached them and their reflections on
human activities.

Fluid mechanics may be defined also as that branch of engineering science that
deals with the behavior of fluid under the condition of rest and motion

Fluid mechanics may be divided into three parts: Statics, Kinematics, and
Dynamics

Statics Deals with fluid at rest in equilibrium state, no force no acceleration

Kinematics Deals With flow behaviors of fluid like velocity, acceleration and flow
patterns.
Dynamics Deals with the effects of flow behaviors on fluid surroundings like
forces and momentum exchange
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 2

The matter states

The matter or substance is classified on the bases of the spacing between the
molecules of the matter as follows:

Matter or
Substance

Fluid State Solid State

Liquid Gaseous
State State

 In solids, the molecules are very closely spacing and then inter-molecules
cohesive forces is quite large, and then possess compact and rigid form.
 Whereas in liquids these spacing are relatively large, and then less inter-
molecules cohesive forces between them, and then can move freely, but it still
has a definite volume (no definite shape, has free interface).
 While these forces is extremely small in gasses, and then have greater
freedom of movement so that the gas fill the container completely in which
they are placed (no definite volume, no definite shape, and no free interface).
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 3

Gas
Attribute Solid Liquid

Typical
Visualization

Liquids take the

shape of the
Macroscopic Solids hold their shape; Gases expand to fill a
container and will
Description no need for a container closed container
stay in open
container
Liquids typically
Molecules have low Molecules move around
flow easily even
mobility because they freely with little interaction
Mobility of though there are
are bound in a structure except during collisions;
Molecules strong
by strong intermolecular this is why gases expand to
intermolecular forces
forces fill their container
between molecules
Medium; e.g.,
Often high; e.g., density Small; e.g., density of air at
Typical Density density of water is
of steel is 7700 kg/m3 sea level is 1.2 kg/m3
1000 kg/m3
Small—molecules
Molecular Small—molecules are are held close Large—on average,
Spacing close together together by molecules are far apart
intermolecular forces
Effect of Shear
Produces deformation Produces flow Produces flow
Stress
Produces deformation Produces
Produces deformation
Effect of Normal that may associate with deformation
associated with volume
Stress volume change; can associated with
change
cause failure volume change
High; decreases as
Low; increases as
Viscosity NA temperature
temperature increases
increases
Difficult to Easy to compress; bulk
Difficult to compress;
compress; bulk modulus of a gas at room
Compressibility bulk modulus of steel is
modulus of liquid conditions is about
160 × 109 Pa
water is 2.2 × 109 Pa 1.0 × 105 Pa
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 4

System of units
M KS system of units
This is the system of units where the metre (m) is used for the unit of length,
kilogram (kg) for the unit of mass, and second (s) for the unit of time as the
base (primary) units.
CGS system of units
This is the system of units where the centimetre (cm) is used for length, gram
(g) for mass, and second (s) for time as the base (primary) units.
International system of units (SI)
SI, the abbreviation of La Systeme International d’Unites, is the system
developed from the MKS system of units. It is a consistent and reasonable
system of units which makes it a rule to adopt only one unit for each of the
various quantities used in such fields as science, education and industry.
There are seven fundamental SI units, namely: metre (m) for length,
kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric
current, kelvin (K) for thermodynamic temperature, mole (mol) for mass
quantity and candela (cd) for intensity of light. Derived units consist of these
units.
BASIC (PRIMARY) DIMENSIONS

Dimension Symbol Unit (SI)

Length L meter (m)

Mass M kilogram (kg)
Time T second (s)
Temperature θ kelvin (K)
Electric current i ampere (A)
Amount of light C candela (cd)
Amount of matter N mole (mol)
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 5

Fluid properties

General fluid (liquid) properties:

1. M ass Density: the density (also known as specific mass or density) of a
liquid defined as the mass per unit volume at a standard temperature and
pressure. It is usually denoted by Latin character ρ (rho). Its unit are Kg/m3
𝑚
𝜌=𝑉
𝜌 of water = 1000 kg/m3 at 4oC and 1 Atm. (see tables A.2-5)
𝜌 = 𝑓(𝑃, 𝑇)
2. Weight Density: (also known as specific weight) is defined as the weight per
unit volume at the standard temperature and pressure, it is usually denoted as
γ. its unit ere N/m3.
𝑊
𝛾 = 𝑉 =𝜌×𝑔
Where g gravitational acceleration=9.81 m/s2
γ of water = 9810 N/m3 at 4oC and 1 Atm. (see tables A.2-5)
𝛾 = 𝑓(𝑃, 𝑇, 𝑔)
3. Specific Volume: It is defined as a volume per unit mass of fluid, It is denoted
by v
𝑉 1
𝑣= 𝑚
= 𝜌
Its unit are m3/Kg.
4. Specific Gravity: It is defined as the ratio of the specific weight of the fluid to
the specific weight of a standard fluid
For liquids the standard fluid is pure water at the specified temperature, and
denoted by Sg
𝛾𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
i.e. 𝑆𝑐 = )
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑇
For Gasses the standard fluid is air
- As identical to specific gravity, Relative Density may come as the ratio of the
density of the fluid to the density of a standard fluid
For liquids the standard fluid is pure water at the specified temperature, and
denoted by rd
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
i.e. 𝒓𝒅 = )
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑇
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 6

Example2
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 7

Example 3: Calculate the Specific weight, specific mass, specific volum and the
total weight of the crude oil truk having a volume of 36m3 and S = 0.85 at 4 oC and
the empty truck weigh = 16 T
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 8

5. Viscosity: it is a property of a real fluid (an ideal fluid has no viscosity) which
determine its resistance to shearing stresses. It is primarily due to cohesion,
adhesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers.

1 - For solids, shear stress reflect on magnitude of

angular deformation (τ ~ angular deformation, θ)

2 – For many fluids shear stress is proportional to

the time rate of angular deformation (τ ~ dθ/dt)

δu δt 𝒅𝜽 u(y)
τα
𝒅𝒕
Vel ocity profile
u = δu
du

dy 𝒅𝒖
δθ δθ τ=μ
δy 𝒅𝒚

δx No s lip at wall

u=0 0
τ
When tow layer of fluid at the distance of δy apart, move one over the other at
different velocities, say u and u+δu, the viscosity together with relative velocity
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 9

causes shear stress acting between layers. With respect to the distance between
these two layers δy, the shear stress, τ, proportional to angular deformation
𝛿𝜃
𝜏∝
𝛿𝑡
From the geometry of Fig. we see that
𝛿𝑢 𝛿𝑡
tan 𝛿𝜃 =
𝛿𝑦
In the limit of infinitesimal changes, this becomes a relation between shear strain
rate and velocity gradient:
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑢 𝛿𝑢
= 𝜏∝
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝛿𝑦
Newton’s law of viscosity: the shear stresses on a fluid element layers is directly
proportional to the velocity gradient (rate of shear strain). The constant of
proportionality is called the coefficient of viscosity (absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or
simply viscosity) and denoted as μ (mu).
𝑑𝑢
i.e. 𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝜏
Coefficient of Dynamic Viscosity: 𝜇 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
2
Units: N s/m or Pa s or kg/m s
The unit Poise (p) is also used where 10P = 1 Pa·s (1P = 0.1 Pa·s)
Water μ = 8.94 × 10 −4 Pa s at 25 oC
Water μ = 1.00 × 10 −3 Pa s at 20 oC
Mercury μ = 1.526 × 10 −3 Pa s
Olive oil μ = .081 Pa s

Kinematic Viscosity, ν = the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density

𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌
2
Units m /s and Called kinematic viscosity because it involves no
force (dynamic) dimensions .
The unit Stoke (St) is also used where 1St = 10-4 m2/s (1St=cm2/s)
Water ν = 1.7 × 10−6 m2/s. at 0 oC
Water ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2/s. at 20 oC
Air ν = 1.5 × 10−5 m2/s.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 10

 The fluid is non-Newtonian if the relation between shear stress and shear
strain rate is non-linear
 Typically, as temperature increases, the viscosity will decrease for a liquid, but
will increase for a gas.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 11

: Example4
In figure if the fluid is oil at 20oC (µ = 0.44 Pa.s). What shear stress is required to move the
upper plate at 3.5 m/s?
D=7mm

Solution:
𝑑𝑢 3.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝜏=𝜇 = 0.44 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 × 7 = 220 𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑦
1000 𝑚

Example 5

A board 1 m by 1 m that weighs 25 N slides down an inclined ramp (slope = 20°) with a
velocity of 2.0 cm/s. The board is separated from the ramp by a thin film of oil with a
viscosity of 0.05 N.s/m2. Neglecting edge effects, calculate the space between the board
and the ramp.

Problem Definition
Situation: A board is sliding down a ramp, on a thin film of oil.
Find: Space (in m) between the board and the ramp.
Assumptions: A linear velocity distribution in the oil.
Properties: Oil, μ = 0.05 N・ s/m2.
Sketch:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 12

Plan
1. Draw a free body diagram of the board, as shown in “sketch.”
· For a constant sliding velocity, the resisting shear force is equal to the component of weight parallel to the
inclined ramp (equilibrium condition must be exist).
· Relate shear force to viscosity and velocity distribution.
2. With a linear velocity distribution, dV/dy can everywhere be expressed as ΔV/Δy, where ΔV is the velocity of
the board, and Δy is the space between the board and the ramp.
3. Solve for Δy.
Solution
1. Free-body analysis
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑊. sin 20𝑜 = 𝜏 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑑𝑉
𝑊. sin 20𝑜 = 𝜇 𝐴
𝑑𝑦

2. Substitution of dV/dy as ΔV/Δy

∆𝑉
𝑊. sin 20𝑜 = 𝜇 𝐴
∆𝑦
3. Solution for Δy
∆𝑉
∆𝑦 = 𝜇 𝐴
𝑊. sin 20𝑜
0.02
∆𝑦 = 0.05 1 = 0.000117 𝑚 = 0.117 𝑚𝑚
25. sin 20𝑜

Example 6

Oil has dynamic viscosity (μ = 1.0 × 10-3 Pa.s) filled the space between two concentric
cylinders, where the inner one is movable and the outer is fixed. If the inner and outer
cylinders has diameters 150mm and 156mm respectively and the height of both cylinders
is 250mm, determine the value of the torque (T) that necessary to rotate the internal
cylinder with 12 rpm?
Solution:

rpm 12
v  2r   2  0.075  0.09425 m/s
60 60
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 13

T  Chr

  T (2r  h  r ) 1  T (2hr 2 ) 1

dv v
  
dy y
0.09425 𝑁
𝜏 = 10−3 × 0.003
= 31.41667 × 10−2 𝑚2

𝑇 = 31.41667 × 10−2 × 2 × .075 × 𝜋 × .25 × .075 = 2.7 × 10−4 𝑁. 𝑚

Example 7

Oil has a density of 580 kg/m3 flow through a pipe its diameter 200mm . If it is known from
the pressure calculations for a certain length of the pipe that the shear stress at the pipe
wall equal to 0.07 N/m2, and its known from the velocity calculations through a certain
cross section of the pipe that the velocity profile equation is :

v  1  100r 2

Where the velocity dimension is in m/s and the distance from the center of pipe r in m. If
the flow is laminar, calculate the kinematic viscosity for the oil?

Solution:

For laminar flow:

dv
 
dy

the distance from the center of pipe is

r  R y

Where R is the radius of the pipe, y is the distance from the pipe wall toward the pipe
centre.

Where dr  dy and then the above equation become:

dv
  
dr
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 14

And from the section of velocity distribution, the strain in any point equal to:
dv
 200r
dr

then the shear stress in any distance from the pipe center is expressed as:
  200r

whereas τ at the wall equal to 0.07 N/m2 then by substitution this value in the last equation
we obtain follows:
0.07 N .s
  0.0035 Pa.s
20 m 2

and the kinematic viscosity is :

 0.0035N .s.m 2 8 N .s.m 8 m

2
   4.1176  10  4.1176  10
 850kg.m 3 kg s

Example 8

The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is given by u= 2y+y 2 where u is the velocity in
m/s at a distance y meters above the plate surface. Determine the velocity gradient and
shear stresses at the boundary and 1.5m from it. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.9
N.s/m2
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 15
Example 9

Example 10

Example 11

H.W

ans 1.015 pa.s

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 16

6. Surface Tension: Surface tension is a property of liquids which is making what is

like a thin tensioned membrane at the interface between the liquid and another fluid
(typically a gas). Surface tension has dimensions of force per unit length and
denoted as, σ (Sigma), and its unit is N/m.

 It is a fluid (liquid)-fluid (gas) interface property

Surface tension is a properties of certain fluid-fluid interface

water-air ….. 0.075 N/m at 20oC Water-air …. 0.056 N/m at 100oC
mercury-air … 0.1 N/m
Pressure inside water droplet:

Fp

2πRσ

let P= The pressure inside the drop

d= Diameter of droplet
σ= Surface tension of the liquid (water-air interface)

From sectional free body diagram of water droplet we have

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 17

1. ΔP between inside and outside = P-0 =P

𝜋
2. Pressure force =𝑃 × 4 𝑑 2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
3. Surface tension force acting around the circumference= 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑,
under equilibrium condition these two forces will be equal and opposite, i.e.
𝜋
𝑃 × 4 𝑑 2 = 𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑
𝜎 × 𝜋𝑑 4𝜎
𝑃= 𝜋 =
𝑑 2 𝑑
4
From this equation we show that (with an increase in size of droplet the pressure
intensity is decreases)
 Derive P for air bubble with the help of figure below

Example 1:

If the surface tension of water-air interface is 0.069 N/m, what is the pressure inside the
water droplet of diameter 0.009 mm?

Solution:

Given d= 0.009 mm; σ= 0.069 N/m

The water droplet has only one surface, hence,

4𝜎 4 × 0.069 𝑁 𝒌𝑵
𝑃= = = 30667 = 𝟑𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒐𝒓 𝒌𝑷𝒂
𝑑 0.009 × 10−3 𝑚2 𝒎𝟐
Surface Tension - Capillarity
 Property of exerting forces on fluids by fine tubes and porous media, due to both
cohesion and adhesion (surface tension)
 Cohesion < adhesion, liquid wets solid, rises at point of contact
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 18

 Cohesion > adhesion, liquid surface depresses at point of contact, non-wetting fluid
 The contact angle is defined as the angle between the liquid and solid surface.
 Capillarity is a fluid (liquid)-surface property
 Meniscus: curved liquid surface that develops in a tube
weight of fluid column = surface tension pulling force

𝜌𝑔(𝜋𝑅 2 ℎ) = 2𝜋𝑅𝜎 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

𝟐𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
𝒉=
𝝆𝒈𝑹

● Expression above calculates the approximate capillary rise in a small tube

● The meniscus lifts a small amount of liquid near the tube walls, as r increases this amount may

become insignificant
● Thus, the equation developed overestimates the amount of capillary rise or depression,

particularly for large r.

● For a clean tube, = 0o for water, = 140o for mercury
● For r > ¼ in (6 mm), capillarity is negligible ● Its effects are negligible in most engineering
situations.
● Important in problems involving capillary rise, e.g., soil water zone, water supply to plants

● When small tubes are used for measuring properties, e.g., pressure, account must be made for

capillarity

Example 2: (Example 2.4 Textbook)

To what height above the reservoir level will water (at 20°C) rise in a glass tube, such as
that shown in Figure below, if the inside diameter of the tube is 1.6 mm?

Problem Definition

Situation: A glass tube of small diameter placed in an open reservoir of water induces
capillary rise.
Find: The height the water will rise above the reservoir level.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 19

Properties: Water (20 °C), Table A.5, σ = 0.073 N/m; γ = 9790 N/m3.
Plan
1. Perform a force balance on water that has risen in the tube.
2. Solve for Δh.
Solution
1. Force balance: Weight of water (down) is balanced by surface tension force (up).

Because the contact angle θ for water against glass is so small, it can be assumed to be
0°;
therefore cos θ ≈ 1. Therefore:

2. Solve for Δh

Example 3:

A clean tube of diameter 2.5 mm is immersed in a liquid with a coefficient of surface

tension = 0.4 N/m. the angle of contact of the liquid with the clean glass can be assumed to
be 135o. The density of the liquid= 13600 kg/m3. What would be the level of the liquid in
tube relative to free surface of the liquid inside the tube?
Solution:

Given d= 2.5 mm, σ= 4 N/m, = 135o; ρ = 13600 kg/m3

Level of the liquid in the tube, h:

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 20

𝟐𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
𝒉=
𝝆𝒈𝑹
4 × 0.4 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠135
ℎ=
(9.81 × 13600) × 2.5 × 10−3
= −3.3910−3 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 − 3.39𝑚𝑚

Negative sign indicates that there is a capillary depression (fall) of 3.39 mm.

Example 4: Derive an expression for the capillary height change h, as shown, for a
fluid of surface tension σ and contact angle between two parallel plates W apart.
.Evaluate h for water at 20°C (σ=0.0728 N/m) if W = 0.5 mm

Solution: With b the width of the plates into the paper, the capillary forces on each wall
together balance the weight of water held above the reservoir free surface:

ℎ𝑏𝜌𝑔𝑊 = 2(𝜎𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)
𝟐(𝝈𝒄𝒐𝒔∅)
𝒉=
𝝆𝒈𝑾

for water at 20°C (σ=0.0728 N/m, 𝛾 = 9790 𝑁/𝑚3) and W = 0.5 mm.
𝟐 × (𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟖 × 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟎))
𝒉= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝒎 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎𝒎
𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓

H.W
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 21

The (fluid at rest), fluid statics, or hydrostatics

Pressure is defined as the ratio of normal force to area at a point, or may be

defined as the normal force that’s applied toward the unit area, and
denoted by P. Its units are N/m2 or what is called Pascal, Pa.
Highlights
 Fluid exerted, in general, both normal (due to their weights) and
shearing forces (primary due to their viscosity) on surfaces (any
plane) that are contacted with (or submerged in) it.

 The normal forces that are exerted by fluid weights is called the
fluid pressure force and fluid pressure or intensity of fluid pressure.
So the pressure can be defined also as the weight of fluid
column intensity above a certain area.

 The source of pressure and its effects and its variation of a fluid at
rest is due only to the weight of the fluid.

 Pressure is a scalar quantity; that is, it has magnitude only.

 Pressure is not a force; rather it is a scalar that produces a

resultant force by its action on an area.

 The resultant force is normal to the area and acts in a direction

toward the surface (compressive).

 Fluids at rest cannot resist a shear stress; in other words, when

a shear stress is applied to a fluid at rest, the fluid will not remain
at rest, but will move (flow) because of the shear stress.

 Hydrostatics is the study of pressures throughout a fluid at rest

 The controlling laws are relatively simple, and analysis is based on
a straight forward application of the mechanical principles of force
and moment.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 22

Pressure Units
 Some units for pressure give a ratio of force to area. Newtons per
square meter of area, or pascals (Pa), is the SI unit. The
traditional units include psi, which is pounds-force per square inch,
and psf, which is pounds-force per square foot.
 Other units for pressure give the height of a column of liquid.
Engineers state that the pressure in the balloon is 20 cm of water:
When pressure is given in units of “height of a fluid column,” the
pressure value can be directly converted to other units using Table
below.

Pressure Units

m of water
technical torr (Torr) pound-
Pascal atmospher
bar (bar) atmosphere force /in2
(Pa) e mmHg
(at) (psi)
(atm)

1.0197×10− 9.8692×10− 7.5006×10− 145.04×10− 10.19×10−5

1 Pa 1 N/m2 10−5 5 6 3 6

10.1936
1 bar 100,000 1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.5037744
106 dyn/cm2

1 at 98,066.5 0.980665 1 kgf/cm2 0.96784 735.56 14.223 9.9966

1 atm 101,325 1.01325 1.0332 1 atm 760 14.696 10.33

1.3595×10− 1.3158×10− 1 Torr; 19.337×10− 13.59×10−3

1 torr 133.322 1.3332×10−3 3 3 3
≈ 1 mmHg

70.307×10− 68.046×10− 0.703

1 psi 6.894×103 68.948×10−3 3 3 51.715 1 lbf/in2

1m 1 m water
9813.54 0.0981 0.10003 0.0968 73.584 1.4225
water

Example 1: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 10−5 bar = 10.197×10−6 at = 9.8692×10−6

atm , etc.

A pressure of 1 atm (Standard atmospheric pressure) can also be stated as:

 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 23

1.013 25 bar
1013.25 hectopascal (hPa)
1013.25 millibars (mbar, also mb)
760 torr [B]
≈ 760.001 mm-Hg, 0 °C≈ 1.033 227 452 799 886 kgf/cm²
≈ 1.033 227 452 799 886 technical atmosphere
≈ 1033.227 452 799 886 cm–H2O, 4 °C
Pressure at Point
 At a point, fluid at rest has the same
pressure in all direction.
To prove this, a small wedge-shaped free θ
body element is taken at the point
(x,y,z) in a fluid at rest.

∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 ∙ 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − 𝑃𝑠 ∙ 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑧 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

=0 ………1

1
∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑃𝑦 ∙ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − 𝑃𝑠 ∙ 𝛿𝑠𝛿𝑧 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 ∙ 𝛾 = 0 … … … … 2
2
For unit width of element in z direction, and from the geometry of wedge we
have the follows:
𝛿𝑠 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝛿𝑦 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿𝑠 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝛿𝑥 … … … … 3
Substitute of eq.3 in eqs. 1 and 2 and rearrange the terms yields:
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑠
1
𝑃𝑦 ∙ 𝛿𝑥 = 𝑃𝑠 ∙ 𝛿𝑥 + 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑥 ∙ 𝛾
2

At a point the element limits to have an infinitesimal dimensions and then we

1
can eliminate the term ( 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑥 ∙ 𝛾) from the above equation because of it’s a
2
higher order of differential values. Thus we have at final that:
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑦
Where 𝜃 is an arbitrary angle, these results gives an important first principle of
hydrostatics:

At a point, fluid at rest has the same pressure in all direction.

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 24

Pressure variation:
 For static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation (depth) change
within fluid.

To prove this real, we take a cubic fluid element as shown

While fluid at rest, applying the

equations of equilibrium on the
element. That’s yield:
1. In vertical direction-y:

∑ 𝑓𝑦 = 𝑃𝑦 ∙ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − (𝑃𝑦 +
𝛿𝑃𝑦 ) ∙ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 ∙ 𝛾 =
0
𝑃𝑦 ∙ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − 𝑃𝑦 ∙ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 − 𝛿𝑃𝑦
∙ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
− 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 ∙ 𝛾
=0
→ 𝛿𝑃𝑦 ∙ 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 = −𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 ∙ 𝛾
→ 𝛿𝑃𝑦 = −𝛾 ∙ 𝛿𝑦
For certain fluid surface elevation, when the direction of 𝛿𝑦 downward
away from surface (means in the negative direction of y), this called the
depth difference and denoted as 𝛿h, so the last above equation
become:
𝛿𝑃𝑦 = 𝛾 ∙ 𝛿ℎ
these results gives an important second principle of hydrostatics:
 For static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation (depth) change
within fluid by rate equal to specific weight 𝛾 of that fluid.
 In a fluid, pressure decreases linearly with increase in elevation (height,
y or z) and versa visa.
 In most textbooks and reference applications, they are use z-coordinate
instead of y-coordinate as vertical direction axis so:
∆𝑃𝑦 = −𝛾 ∙ ∆𝑦 becomes ∆𝑃𝑧 = −𝛾 ∙ ∆𝑧
 Second principle of hydrostatics means that for any two point in a same
continuous fluid A and B:
∆𝑃𝐴−𝐵 = −𝛾 ∙ ∆𝑧𝐴−𝐵
𝑃𝐵 − 𝑃𝐴 = −𝛾 ∙ (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 )
𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐴 H
+ 𝑧𝐵 = + 𝑧𝐴 = 𝐻
𝛾 𝛾
 This is the hydrostatics equation
and H called the hydrostatics
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 25

pressure head or what is called piezometric head. With liquids we

normally measure from the surface.
 Open free surface pressure in liquids mostly is atmospheric, Patmospheric.
 For constant density fluids, and if taking the free surface pressure
(atmospheric pressure, Patmospheric) as zero, the pressure at any depth h
becomes:
𝑃ℎ = 𝛾 ∙ ℎ
𝑃ℎ
 Thus ℎ=
𝛾
 Pressure related to the depth, h, of a fluid column referred to as the
pressure head, h.
2. In horizontal direction-x:
∑ 𝑓𝑥 = 𝑃𝑥 ∙ 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − (𝑃𝑥 + 𝛿𝑃𝑥 ) ∙ 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 0
𝑃𝑥 ∙ 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − 𝑃𝑥 ∙ 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 − 𝛿𝑃𝑥 ∙ 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 0
→ 𝛿𝑃𝑥 = 0
This equation means there is no change in horizontal pressure with horizontal
direction.
These results gives an important third principle of hydrostatics:
 For certain continuous static fluid, there is no pressure change in
horizontal direction (explain!)

The above mentioned principles is called Pascal principles.

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 26

Example 2:
A freshwater lake, has a maximum depth of 60m, and the mean atmospheric
pressure is 91 kPa. Estimate the absolute pressure in kPa at this maximum
depth.
Solution
Take γ = 9790 N/m3. With pa = 91 kPa and h = 60 m, the pressure at this
depth will be
p = 91 kN/m2 + (9790 N/m3)(60 m) 1kN/1000N
= 91 kPa + 587 kN/m2 = 678 kPa Ans.
By omitting Patm we could state the result as p = 587 kPa (gage).
Example 3: (EXAMPLE 3.1 LOAD LIFTED BY A HYDRAULIC JACK)
A hydraulic jack has the dimensions shown. If one exerts a force F of 100 N
on the handle of the jack, what load, F2, can the jack support? Neglect lifter
weight.

Problem Definition
Situation: A force of F = 100 N is applied to the handle of a jack.
Find: Load F2 in kN that the jack can lift.
Assumptions: Weight of the lifter component (see sketch) is negligible.
Plan
1. Calculate force acting on the small piston by applying moment equilibrium.
2. Calculate pressure p1 in the hydraulic fluid by applying force equilibrium.
3. Calculate the load F2 by applying force equilibrium.
Solution
1. Moment equilibrium

2. Force equilibrium (small piston)

 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 27

Thus

3. Force equilibrium (lifter)

· Note that p1 = p2 because they are at the same elevation.
· Apply force equilibrium:

 The jack in this example, which combines a lever and a hydraulic machine,
provides an output force of 12,200 N from an input force of 100 N. Thus,
this jack provides a mechanical advantage of 122 to 1 !

Example 4

Solution
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 28

Example 5

For the Cruid Oil Storage tank of 40 m Dia. shown with Floating steel cover of weight about 5000Kn
what would be the oil height from the tank base if maximum presure at the center of the valve not
exeed 1 Bar
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 29

P2 = 35x62.4 = 2184 psf = 15.2psi

H.W

ans
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 30

Pressure Measurements.

●Pressure measurement reads as follows:

1. Relative to absolute zero (perfect vacuum): called absolute pressure
2. Relative to atmospheric pressure: called gage (gauge) pressure

●If P < Patm , we call it a vacuum (or negative or suction) pressure ,

its gage value = how much below atmospheric
●Absolute pressure values are all positive
●While gage pressures may be either:
– Positive: if above atmospheric, or
– Negative (vacuum, suction): if below atmospheric

 Relationship between absolute, gage and atmospheric pressure

reading:
Pabs = Patm + Pgage
Example 4: (EXAMPLE 3.3 PRESSURE IN TANK WITH TWO FLUIDS)
Oil with a specific gravity of 0.80 forms a layer
0.90 m deep in an open tank that is otherwise
filled with water. The total depth of water and oil
is 3 m. What is the gage pressure at the bottom
of the tank?
Problem Definition
Situation: Oil and water are contained in a tank.
Find: Pressure (kPa gage) at the bottom of the
tank.
Properties:
1. Oil (10°C), S = 0.8.
2. Water (10°C), Table A.5: γ = 9810 N/m3.
Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 31

Example 5:
In Fig. the tank contains water and immiscible
oil at 20°C. What is h in cm if the density of
the oil is 898 kg/m3?

at elev 1 P1=P2 at water

Example 6:

Example 7:
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 32

Example 8

Example 9

Example 9 H.W

A closed circular tank filled with water and

connected by a U-piezometric tube as shown ᶲ1cm
in figure. At the beginning the pressure ᶲ50cm
above the water table in the tank is
atmospheric, then the gauge that connected h
with tank read an increasing in pressure that 3cm

caused falling in the water level in the tank

by 3 cm. a) calculate the deference in height
that accrued between water levels inside the
tank and in the external tube leg. b)
Determine the final pressure that was
.reading by the gauge
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 33

Pressure measurement devices:

Absolute pressure measurement
Barometers: The instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure is called
barometer
1. Mercury Barometer: which is illustrated in figure below, which consist of
a one meter length tube filled with mercury and inverted into a pan
that’s filled partially with mercury. The height difference of mercury in
inverted tube respect to outside them reads the atmospheric pressure
value (first was invented by E. Torricelli, 1643).

Values of standard sea-level

atmospheric
pressure=101.325 kPa abs
=1013.25 mbar abs
= 760 mm Hg, Torr
=10.34 m H20

2. Aneroid Barometer: uses elastic diaphragm to measure atmospheric

pressure
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 34

Gage pressure measurement:

1. Manometry
1.1. Piezometer
For measuring pressure inside a vessel or pipe in
which liquid is there, a tube open at the top to
atmosphere may be attached, tapped, to the walls of
the container (or pipe or vessel) containing liquid at a
pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be measured,
so liquid can rise in the tube. By determining the
height to which liquid rises and using the relation P1 =
ρgh, gauge pressure of the liquid can be determined.
Such a device is known as piezometer. To avoid
capillary effects, a piezometer's tube should be about
12mm or greater.
1.2. Manometers
The using of piezometers for high pressures
measurement become impractical and it is useless
for pressure measurement in gases and negative
pressure. The manometers in its various forms is an
extremely useful type of pressure measuring
instrument for these cases.
 Professor John Foss (Michigan State
University) Procedure for manometers
pressure calculation:

𝑷𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 = 𝑷𝒖𝒑 + 𝜸𝒉

𝑷𝒖𝒑 = 𝑷𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 − 𝜸𝒉

Or for successive manometers we can use the

following formula:

where 𝛾𝑖 and hi are the specific weight and

deflection in each leg of the manometer
When liquids and gases are both involved in a manometer problem, it is well
within engineering accuracy to neglect the pressure changes due to the columns
of gas. This is because
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 35

Manometers limitations: manometers suffers from a number of limitations.

1. While it can be adapted to measure very small pressure differences, it

cannot be used conveniently for large pressure differences - although
it is possible to connect a number of manometers in series and to use
mercury as the manometric fluid to improve the range. (limitation)
2. A manometer does not have to be calibrated against any standard; the
pressure difference can be calculated from second and third principles
in hydrostatics. ( Advantage)
3. Some liquids are unsuitable for use because they do not form well-
defined interface. Surface tension can also cause errors due to
capillary rise; this can be avoided if the diameters of the tubes are
sufficiently large - preferably not less than 12 mm diameter.
(limitation)
4. A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which
makes it unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures
5. It is essential that the pipes connecting the manometer to the pipe or
vessel containing the liquid under pressure should be filled with this
liquid and there should be no air bubbles in the liquid.(limitation).

2. Bourdon gage
Curved tube of elliptical cross-section changes curvature with changes
in pressure. Moving end of tube rotates a hand on a dial through a
linkage system. Pressure indicated by gage graduated in kPa or kg/cm2
(=98.0665 kPa) or psi or other pressure units.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 36

Example1: (Piezometers)
In figure pressure gage A reads 1.5 kPa. The
fluids are at 20oC. Determine the elevations z,
in meters, of the liquid levels in the open
piezometer tubes B and C.

Example 2: (U-manometers)
Water at 10°C is the fluid in
the pipe of Fig. 3.11, and
mercury is the manometer
fluid. If the deflection Δh is 60
cm and l is 180 cm, what is the
gage pressure at the center of
the pipe?
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 37

Example 3: (U-manometers)
In Figure fluid 1 is oil (Sg=0.87) and fluid 2 is
glycerin at 20oC (𝛾=12360 N/m3). If Patm=98 kPa,
determine the absolute pressure at point A

Example 4:
(Differential-Manometers)
Pressure gage B in figure is to
measure the pressure at
point A in a water flow. If the
pressure at B is 87 kPa
estimate the pressure at A, in
kPa. Assume all fluids at
20oC.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 38

Example 5: (Differential-Manometers)
In figure all fluids are at 20oC. Determine the pressure difference (Pa) between
points A and B.
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 39

Example 6: (Successive Differential-Manometers)

Example 7: Inverted-Manometers
,For inverted manometer of figure
,all fluids are at 20oC. If pB - pA = 97 kPa
what must the height H be in cm
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 40

Example 8

Example 9

Example 10
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 41

Pressure Forces and Pressure Distributions on Surface

Hydrostatic Force (Force due to the pressure of a fluid at rest)
(e.g Force exerted on the wall of storage tanks, dams, and ships)

Q. How is Hydrostatic Force on the vertical or inclined planes

determined?

Basic conditions for a Plane surface submerged in a fluid

- Force on the surface: Perpendicular to the surface (No  )
- Pressure: Linearly dependent only to the vertical depth

1. On a Horizontal surface (e.g. the bottom of a tank)

Pressure at the bottom, p  h

: Uniform on the entire plane

 Resultant force FP  pA  hA

(A: the bottom area of container)
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 42

2. On an Inclined surface

Consider a plane shown y


- At surface: p = patm x
- Angle  between free surface
& the inclined plane

y axis: Along the surface

x axis: Out of the plane

 Along the vertical depth h

 Pressure linearly changes  Hydrostatic force changes

Differential Force acting on the differential area dA of plane,

dF  (Pressure)  (Area)  (h)  (dA) (Perpendicular to plane)

Then, Magnitude of total resultant force FP

FP  A hdA  A   y sin  dA where h  y sin 

  sin  1st moment of the area about x-axis

- Related with the center of
A ydA
area
yc 
A
where yc: y coordinate of the center of area (Centroid)
 A ydA  yc A
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 43

Example 2
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 44

The location of point of action of FP (Center of pressure, CP)

- Not passing though Centroid!! (Why?)
- Related with the balance of torques due to of FP

i) Position of FP on y-axis

𝒚𝒑 : y coordinate of the point of action of FP

Moment about x axis:

The moment of resultant force = The moment of its components

FP yP  A ydF

(𝛾𝐴𝑦𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )𝑦𝑝 = A  sin y dA   sin A y dA

2 2

 yP 
A
y 2 dA
=
Ix
yc A yc A

where I x  A y 2 dA : 2nd moment of area (Moment of inertia, +ve

always )

or, by using the parallel-axis theorem, I x  I xc  Ayc 2

I xc
 yP =  yc (Always below the centroid !)
yc A
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 45

ii) Position of FP on x-axis

𝒙𝒑 : x coordinate of the point of action of FP

By the similar manner,

The moment of resultant force = The moment of its components

FP xP   xdF
A

(Ay c sin  ) xP    sin  xydA   sin   xydA

A A

 xP =
A
xydA
=
I xy
yc A yc A

where A xydA = Ixy: Area product of inertia (+ve or –ve)

or, by using the perpendicular-axis theorem, I xy  I xyc  Ax c y c

I xyc
 xP =  xc
yc A

CP For a symmetric submerged area, xP = xc (Ixyc = 0)

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 46

Example 3: A tank of oil has a right-

triangular panel near the bottom, as in
,Figure. Omitting Pa, find: a) hydrostatic force and
2) CP on the panel
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 47

Example5
An inclined, circular gate with water on one side as shown in figure.
Determine the total resultant force acting on the gate and the
location of the centre of pressure.
Solution:
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 48

Example 6

H.W

ans
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 49
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 50

 Pressure Prism (Graphical interpretation of pressure distribution)

- Especially applied for a rectangular surfaces (areas)
- Simple method for finding the force and the point of action

Consider the situation shown

 Information from the diagram

- Vertical wall of width b and height h
- Contained liquid with specific weight 
- Pressure: ptop  0 & pbottom   h

From the last section,

h
FP  (hc )  ( A)  pav (at the centroid)area =    A
 2

Let’s define a pressure-area space. (See the right figure above]

1. Horizontal axis: Magnitude of the pressure
2. Vertical axis: Height of the area
3. Axis toward the plane: Width of the area
: Resultant volume (Pressure prism)

 How to find the resultant force FR from the pressure prism

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 51

 How to find the point of action of FR (the point of action)

From the last section,

I xc I xc 1
yP =  yc   h
yc A 1  2
 h (bh)
2 
1 1
(In case of rectangular plate, I xc  Ah 2  bh 3 )
12 12

1 3
bh
12 1 1 1 2
yP =  h  h + h = h (from the top)
1
h  (bh ) 2 6 2 3
2

From the pressure prism

h
YP = Centroid of the pressure prism
h/3
2 1
= h (from the top) = h (above the base)
3 3

XP = Horizontal center
 Special case of a plane surface not extending up to the fluid
surface
- Completely submerged plane (See Figure)

Consider the situation shown

Pressure prism
- Trapezoidal cross section

(1) Resultant force FP

= Volume of the shadow region
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 52

FP = Volume of hexahedron + Volume of prism

 F1( ABDE )  F2(BCD)
1
 (h1 ) A  [ (h2  h1 )]A
2

(2) The location of FR ( y A ) : Consider the moments again

Moment by FP acting at y A
= Moment by F1 at y1 + Moment by F2 at y2

h
FP y P  F1 y1  F2 y 2 where y1  for rectangle
2
2h
y2  for triangle (From the top)
3

 The effect of the atmospheric pressure patm

: Increasing Volume of hexahedron (F1), NOT the prism (F2)

Example 1

Example 2
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 53

Example 3
The dam of figure has a strut AB every 6 m. Determine the compressive force
in the strut, neglecting the weight of the dam.

γ
2?

4?
γ
2?
γ
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 54

:Example 4

By using try and error technique (or other techniques like Newton
Raphson method) we find that y=2.196m
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 55

Example 5:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 56
:Example 6

Example 7:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 57

Forces on Curved Surfaces (Non-planar surfaces)

FP FPy

FPx
y

  
FP  Fpy  Fpx
For unit width of surface
dFpy  P  ds. cos
P y dx  ds. cos
dFpy    y  dx
 F py     y  dx     ydx    

Where ∀ the volume of liquid above the

surface to the zero pressure surface
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 58

 By the same way we find the vertical

component of pressure force if the liquid
exist under the surface by taking the sign
of ∀ as –ve to represent the upward
direction of this force
dFpy  P  ds. cos   P  ds. cos
P  y dx  ds. cos
dFpy    y  dx
 Fpy      y  dx     ydx    

dFpx  P  ds. sin 

P  y dy  ds. sin 
dFpx    y  dy
y2 y2 y2
y2 
 Fpx     y  dy     y  dy    
y1 y1
2 y
1

2 2
y y
 Fpx    2    1
2 2
y2
Where (   ) is the volume of pressure prism
2
on the surface projection on vertical plan

Fpy
 FP  ( Fpx )2  ( Fpy )2 : Magnitude & tan  : Direction &
Fpx
the line of action can be find from the concept of:

Moment of resultant force = The summation of the moments of its

components, i.e. MFP   ( MFpx , MFpy )
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 59

Example 1: A curved surface AB is a circular arc in

its section with radius of 2m and width of 1m into the
paper. The distance EB is 4m. The fluid above surface
AB is water, and atmospheric pressure applied on
free surface of water and on the bottom side of
surface AB. Find the magnitude and line of action of
the hydrostatic force acting on surface AB.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 60

Example 2: A cylindrical barrier in Fig. holds water as

shown. The contact between the cylinder and wall is
smooth. Consider a 1-m length of cylinder; determine (a)
its weight, and (b) the force exerted against the wall.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 61
Example 3

Example 4
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 62
Example 5

Example 6
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 63

Example 7

H.W
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 64

The Buoyant Force

A buoyant force is defined as the upward force that is produced on a body that is
totally or partially submerged in a fluid. Buoyant forces are significant for most
problems as surface ships. In Fig. 3.10a shown, consider a body ABCD submerged
in a liquid of specific weight Ɣ. The pressures acting on the lower portion of the
body create an upward force equal to the weight of liquid needed to fill the volume
above surface ADC.

Fig. 3.10

The upward force is

As shown by Fig. 3.10a, pressures acting on the top surface of the body create a
downward force equal to the weight of the liquid above the body:

Subtracting the downward force from the upward force gives the buoyant force FB
acting on the body:

Hence, the buoyant force (FB) equals the weight of liquid that would be needed to
occupy the volume of the body.
The body that is floating as shown in Fig. 3.10b. Pressure acts on curved surface
ADC causing an upward force equal to the weight of liquid that would be needed to
fill volume VD (displaced volume). The buoyant force is given by
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 65

Hence, the buoyant force equals the weight of liquid that would be needed to
occupy the volume VD. We can write a single equation for the buoyant force:

Stability of Immersed Bodies

When a body is completely immersed in a liquid, its stability depends on the
relative positions of the center of gravity of the body and the centroid of the
displaced volume of fluid, which is called the center of buoyancy.
• If the center of buoyancy is above the center of gravity (Fig. 3.11a), any
tipping of the body produces a righting couple, and consequently, the body
is stable.
• If the center of gravity is above the center of buoyancy (Fig. 3.11c), any
tipping produces an increasing overturning moment, thus causing the body
to turn through 180°.
• Finally, if the center of buoyancy and center of gravity are coincident, the
body is neutrally stable—that is, it lacks a tendency for righting or for
overturning, as shown in Fig. 3.11b.

Fig. 3.11

Stability Floating Bodies

The stability for floating bodies than for immersed bodies is very important
because the center of buoyancy may take different positions with respect to the
center of gravity, depending on the shape of the body and the position in which it is
floating. When the center of gravity G is above the center of buoyancy C (center of
displaced volume) for floating body, the body will be stable and equilibrium. The
reason for the change in the center of buoyancy for the ship is that part of the
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 66

original buoyant volume, as shown in Fig.3.12 by the wedge shape AOB, is

transferred to a new buoyant volume EOD. Because the buoyant center is at the
centroid of the displaced volume, it follows that for this case the buoyant center
must move laterally to the right. The point of intersection of the lines of action of
the buoyant force before and after heel is called the metacenter M, and the distance
GM is called the metacentric height.
• If GM is positive—that is, if M is above G, the body is stable
• If GM is negative, the body is unstable.

Fig.3.12

Consider the prismatic body shown in Fig. 3.12, which has taken a small angle of
heel 𝛼𝛼. First evaluate the lateral displacement of the center of buoyancy CC’, then
it will be easy by simple trigonometry to solve for the metacentric height GM or to
evaluate the righting moment.
The righting couple =𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 sin 𝛼𝛼
Where : W is weight of body and 𝛼𝛼 angle of heel.
The metacenter M distance from center of bouncy (C) or MC
Can be found from:

𝐼𝐼
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = and then 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

Where:
I is the Moment of inertia for the shortest submersed bed about the centroid (m4).
Vd is the submersed volume (m3).
GC is the distance from center of bouncy C to center of gravity G (m).
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 67

Example(1):

Example(2):

Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 68

Example(3):

Solution:

Example(4):

Solution:

Example(5):
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 69

3
𝐼𝐼 60𝑥𝑥25 /12
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = = = 5.55 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 60𝑥𝑥25𝑥𝑥6
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 70

MG=CM-GC = 5.55-3.97 = 1.58 ft.

Example(6):

Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 71

Example(7):

Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 72

Example(8) H.W.:
For the crude oil ship shown: if the empty ship weight =10000T and its length of
200m.
Find the total oil volume of S=0.85 that can be transmitted by the ship in (barrel)
and check the ship stability if SG. at 2 m above water surface.
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 73

Equilibrium of accelerated fluid masses

If a body of fluid is moved at a constant velocity, then it obeys the
equations .derived earlier for static equilibrium
If a body of fluid is accelerated such that, after some time, it has adjusted so that
there are no shearing forces, there is no motion between fluid particles, and it
moves as a solid block, then the pressure distribution within the fluid can be
described by equations similar to those applying to static fluids.

Also, If a=0 the pressure will be hydrostatic

:pressure 0
∴ 𝑝𝑝 = 𝛾𝛾ℎ �1 + � = 𝛾𝛾ℎ
𝑔𝑔
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 74

𝑎𝑎
If the acceleration downward the pressure will decrease in with ratio of :
𝑔𝑔

𝑎𝑎
∴ 𝑝𝑝 = 𝛾𝛾ℎ �1 − �) .....3.23
𝑔𝑔

In case of a mass of fluid is decelerated uniformly vertically downward with

a=g, the pressure at any point:
𝑔𝑔
∴ 𝑝𝑝 = 𝛾𝛾ℎ �1 − � = 0
𝑔𝑔

So, at any point of free falling mass of fluid the pressure equal to zero.
𝑎𝑎
In case of a>g; ∴ 𝑝𝑝 = −𝛾𝛾ℎ �1 − �) .....3.24
𝑔𝑔

Example: 1

Solution
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 75

Uniform horzental accelerationِِ

x
Ɵ

P+P/z
y


y P   P+P/x
A
Mg
az A
A A x

P
x
P

ax

Pressure Variation
Consider the forces acting on a small horizontal element, area A and length x,
with a uniform acceleration ax in the x direction:

p p
F x = [ pA  ( p + x ) A ] =  x A
x x
But Newton's 2nd law gives: F = m a
p p
  A x =  A x a x and hence : =   ax
x x
Now looking at the forces acting on a small vertical element, area A and length
z, with a uniform acceleration ay in the z direction:
p
F z = [ pA  ( p + z ) A ]  M g =  z A a z
z
p p
 A z   A z g = Az a z and hence : =  ( g + az )
z z
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 76

Free Surface Definition

Here, pressure p, is a function of x and y, so, by definition:
p p
p = x + z
x z
p p
dp = dx + dz
x z
dp =    ax dx + (  ( g  az ) dz
p =    ax x   ( g  az ) z  C
This is the pressure distribution in the fluid. The value of C is found by specifying
the pressure at one point. If we apply the point of the center of inclination where
p = Patm at (x, z) = (0, 0), then C = Patm. The final desired distribution is:
p =    ax x   ( g  az ) z  patm
or p =    ax x   ( g  az ) z  0 in gage pressure readings
For free surface p=0 and if we applied this value in the last pressure formula
we find the equation for the free surface as follows:
0 =    ax x   ( g  az ) z
 ax
y= x equation of free surface
( g  az )
And the inclination of this surface find by the derivative of this equation to find
its slope (or tan θ)
dy  ax
 =  tan 
dx ( g  az )
It is clear that if ax ≠ 0, then the isobars will not be horizontal in this case.
Summary of Uniform linear acceleration:
If a container of fluid is accelerated uniformly and horizontally with az = 0, then

the slope of the isobars within the fluid is given by:  = tan 1 a x
g
But in general when there are uniform accelerations in both vertical and

G
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 77

horizontal directions, the slope of the isobars within the fluid is given by

 = tan 1  a x And  = tan 1 a x

( g  az ) g For az=0

 The free surface of a liquid is normally taken as a line of constant pressure

- or isobar - and the equation above gives the surface slope of an
accelerated fluid.
 The resultant acceleration perpendicular on the isobar surfaces is:
G= a x  ( g  az )
2 2 and the presure at any point P P=.G.S

Example: 2 where S=h.cos 

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 78

Example: 3

Solution

Example: 4

Solution
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 79

Example: 5
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 80

Example: 6 H.W
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 81

Uniform rotation about a vertical axis:

If liquid is placed in a container and rotated about a vertical axis at a constant
angular velocity, then after some time it will move as a solid body with no
shearing of the fluid. Under such conditions the liquid is said to be moving as a
"forced vortex" with velocity q =  r at any radius r from the axis. [This contrasts
with "free-vortex" motion in which the fluid velocity varies inversely with
distance from the axis of rotation.]

P+P/r r

z
ω g

A

r
r v r

With  constant, all fluid experiences an acceleration 2r (centrifugal) directed

towards the axis of rotation, and for equilibrium of a typical small horizontal
element:
p
r A =  A r . 2 r
r

p 2
 =  2 r   v
r r
In the vertical direction, the usual expression for pressure distribution in a static
fluid holds:
p
=  g
z
Clearly, in such circumstances, the pressure is varying with both r and y: p = f(r,
y),and
p p
dp = dr + dz
r z
Hence:
dp =  2r. dr - g dz,
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 82

and if using a liquid with constant , this can be integrated:

p = 12   2 r 2   g z + C
This equation can be written similar to hydrostatic equation terms as follows:
𝑝 𝜔2 𝑟 2
+𝑧− =𝐶 (eq. 4.13a in textbook)
𝛾 2𝑔
However, this is the pressure distribution in the fluid. The value of C is found by
specifying the pressure at one point. If p = Po at (r, z) = (0, 0), then C = Po. The
final desired distribution is:
p = 12   2 r 2   g z + Po
or p = 12   2 r 2   g z (in gage reading)
 This reveals that all isobars in such a rotating liquid are paraboloids with the
form: Constant for certain isobar line
r2 = k z + ( p - Po )
 and the free surface of the liquid (being an isobar) will also take this form.
 For free surface p=0 and if we applied the point of the center of rotation in
(r = 0, z = 0) location, the constant of equation is concluded as zero and k
become
2g
k 2

 We can find the equation of each
isobar lines by applying the
boundary condition of the center
of rotation which have the
coordinate of (0, zo).
 From the mass conservation we
have that the volume that
descending near the center of
ω
rotation must be equal to that ascending in opposite side of rotation. In 2
R 2 h
parapoloid volume ( V  ), this lead to
2
R2 
rad/sec. x (60/2#)= rpm
h fall  hrise  …. (Prove that!) ω
k
Example:
The coffee cup in previous example is removed from the
drag racer, placed on a turntable, and rotated about its
central axis until a rigid-body mode occurs. Find (a) the
angular velocity which will cause the coffee to just reach
the lip of the cup and (b) the gage pressure at point A for
this condition.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 83

Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 84

Example
For the open cylinder shown, Find the angular velosity for wihich
halve of the volume will be exposed
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 85

H.W

anc
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 86

Kinematic of Fluid Motion

Fluid flow
Motion (flowing) of a fluid mass
accrues when it is subjected to
unbalanced forces that reveal if the
fluid mass was subjected to h2
hydraulic gradient (e.g. tilting of h1 Free surface
free surface by certain angle or FP = g.h . A
2 2
connect two containers have FP1= g.h1. A
A
different levels). This means that Flow
fluid mass lies under an acceleration FP1 ≠ FP2
toward its flow direction. This
motion continues as long as unbalanced forces are applied.

Flow is defined as the quantity (mass or volume) of fluid (gas, liquid or vapour)
that passes a point (section) per unit time. A simple equation to represent this
is:
𝑸𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
Flow Classification (Flow pattern)
Having introduced the general concepts of flow patterns, it is convenient to
make distinctions between different types of flows. These concepts can be best
introduced by expressing the velocity of the fluid in the form:
𝑽 = 𝑽(𝒔, 𝒕)
where s is the distance traveled by a fluid particle along a path, and t is the
time.
 Uniform or Non-uniform
 A uniform flow is a flow in which the velocity does not change along a
v
streamline, i.e. 0
s

In uniform flows the streamlines are straight and parallel.

 A non-uniform flow is a flow in which the velocity changes along a
v
streamline, i.e. 0
s
 Steady or Unsteady
 In a steady flow the velocity at a given point on a streamline does not
v
change with time: 0
t
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 87

v
 An unsteady flow exists if: 0
t
 Combining the above we can classify any flow into one of four types:
 Steady uniform flow. Conditions do not change with position in the stream
or with time. An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter
at constant velocity or discharge (flow rate).
 Steady non-uniform flow. Conditions change from point to point in the
stream but do not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe
with constant velocity at the inlet - velocity will change as you move along
the length of the pipe toward the exit.
 Unsteady uniform flow. At a given instant in time the conditions at every
point are the same, but will change with time. An example is a pipe of
constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at a constant rate which
is then switched off or in open/close valves.
 Unsteady non-uniform flow. Every condition of the flow may change from
point to point and with time at every point. An example is surface waves in
an open channel.

Flow rate
weight
Weight flowrate = time taken to accumulate this mass
=  g.Q
mass
mass flowrate 
time taken to accumulatethis mass
mass flow rate    volum flow rate
 Volume flow rate - Discharge.
Volume
volume flowrate   Discharge (Q)
time taken to accumulatethis volume
 More commonly we use volume flow rate
 Also known as discharge.
 The symbol normally used for discharge is Q.
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 88

Discharge and mean velocity

Cross sectional area of a pipe is A

Mean velocity is vm.
Q = A . vm
We usually drop the “m” and imply mean velocity

Flow Equations
Equation of Continuity

The application of the principle of conservation of mass to fluid flow in a

stream tube results in the "equation of continuity' expressing the continuity of
the flow from point to point along the stream tube. If the cross-sectional areas
and average velocities at sections 1 and 2 in the stream tube of Fig. 31 are
designated by A1, A2, V1and V2, respectively, the .quantity of fluid passing
section 1 per unit of time will be expressed by A1V1, and the mass of fluid
passing section 1 per unit of time will be 𝐴𝐴1 𝑑𝑑1 𝜌𝜌1 . Similarly, the mass of fluid
passing section 2 will be𝐴𝐴2 𝑑𝑑2 𝜌𝜌2 , Obviously, no fluid mass is being created or
destroyed between sections 1 and 2, and therefore
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 89

𝐴𝐴1 𝑑𝑑1 𝜌𝜌1 = 𝐴𝐴2 𝑑𝑑2 𝜌𝜌2 ……4.1

Fig. 4.6

Thus the mass of fluid passing any point in a streamtube per unit of time is the
same.

• If this equation is multiplied by g, the acceleration due to gravity, there

results giving the equation of continuity in terms of weight.

𝐴𝐴1 𝑑𝑑1 𝑊𝑊1 = 𝐴𝐴2 𝑑𝑑2 𝑊𝑊2 ……4.2

The product will be found to have units of N/s and is termed the "weight rate of
flow" or "weight flow."

• For liquids, and for gases when pressure and temperature changes are
negligible, W1=W2 , resulting in

𝐴𝐴1 𝑑𝑑1 = 𝐴𝐴2 𝑑𝑑2 = 𝑄𝑄 ……4.3

Energy Equation (Bernoulli’s Equation):

Consider a small element of ideal fluid

(non-viscous and incompressible fluid)
ossraligned along a streamline. It has a c
sectional area ΔA, pressure is assumed
launiform across its ends ΔA, and the loc
velocity is defined v and subject to
ontal)zacceleration in both directions x (hori
.(and z (vertical instead of y
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 90

1. First from previous lectures, recall to the pressure difference due to

pressure variation in both directions (x, z)
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
∆𝑝 = ∆𝑥 + ∆𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
p p
or dp = dx + dz
x z
p p
Also, we know that =   ax , and =  ( g + az )
x z
So
(Hydrostatic eq. extension
∆𝑝 = −𝜌 ∙ 𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑥 + (−𝜌 ∙ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑔)) ∆𝑧 due to accelerations)
or dp =   a x dx   ( g + a z ) dz
 dp =   a x dx  gdz   a z dz
(1)
 dp   a x dx  gdz   a z dz  0
2. We look at the acceleration of the fluid element.
v
 Ignoring the possibility that the flow might be steady, 0
t
 v can change with time t, and also with position s along the
direction of motion.
i.e. v = f (t, s).
 Hence, if the element moves a distance δs in time δt, then the total
change in velocity δv is given by:

v v
v = s + t
s t
and in the limit as δt tends to zero, the "substantive" derivative represent the
acceleration in that direction and is given as:
spatially
 temporarily
dv v v ds v v v
as  = Lim t0 = + = v +
dt t s dt t s t
 For a steady flow the local velocity at a point does not vary with time,
v
so the last term under such conditions ( ) will be zero. And the
t
dv dv dv dv
acceleration remain as: as  =v (i.e. a x  x = v x x , and
dt ds dt dx
dvz dv
az  = vz z )
dt dz
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 91

3. Now substitute the form of horizontal and vertical acceleration in equ's. (1)
we get;
dvx dv
dp  .v x dx  gdz  .v z z dz  0
dx dz
 dp  .v x dvx  gdz  .v z dvz  0
dp Euler's equation (for ideal,
+ vx dvx  vz dvz + gdz = 0 steady flow)

This is a form of Euler's equation, and relates p, v, and z in flow field.
- it then becomes possible to integrate it - giving:
p1
+ (v x2  v z2 ) + g z = C
 2
1 p
+ v2 + g z = C
 2
1 Bernoulli’s equation
p+  v + g z=C
2
(for ideal, steady
2
flow)
p v
2

+ +z = C
 g 2g
The three equations above are valid for incompressible, frictionless
steady flow, and what they state is that total energy is conserved
along a streamline.

The first of these forms of the Bernoulli equation is a measure of energy

per unit mass, the second of energy per unit volume, and the third of
"head", equivalent to energy per unit weight.

In the second equation, the term p is the static pressure, {½ρv2} is the
dynamic pressure, ρgz is the elevation term, and the SUM of all three is
known as the stagnation (or total) pressure, p0
In the third equation:
 p/ρg is known as the pressure head (or flow work head or flow energy
head), which is the work done to move fluid against pressure,
 z is the potential head (elevation head),
 the summation of two terms (p/ρg + z) is called piezometric head or
hydraulic head,
 v2/2g as the kinetic head (dynamic energy head or velocity head), and
 the sum of the three terms as the Total Head H. The sum of first and
third tem of 3rd equation is called the piezometric head respect to
piezometer's tube.
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 92
where C is a constant along a streamline.
 For the special case of irrotational flow, the constant C is the same
everywhere in the flow field.
 Therefore, the Bernoulli equation can be applied between any two points in
the flow field if the flow is 1ideal, 2steady, 3incompressible, and 4irrotational.
 i.e. for two points 1 and 2 in the flow field:

p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
 g 2g  g 2g
Equation DERYHLV called Bernoulli’s equation (for frictionless, steady flow).
All of terms of Bernoulli’s equation having dimension of length (L) or
dimension of energy times dimension of weight( FL/F). The elevation head
,represent the potential energy per unit weight as below
∴ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑 = 𝛿𝛿
The velocity head represent the kinetic energy per unit weight as below,
𝑑𝑑 2
∴ 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑣 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑 =
2𝑔𝑔
The pressure head represent the pressure energy per unit weight as below,
𝑝𝑝
∴ 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑 =
𝛾𝛾
The sum of elevation, velocity and pressure heads for ideal steady
incompressible flow is constant for all point in stream line,
𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑 2
+ 𝛿𝛿 + = 𝐻𝐻 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑
𝛾𝛾 2𝑔𝑔

the sum of elevation and pressure heads called piezometric head which
represent the manometric height of liquid from datum,

𝑃𝑃
+ 𝛿𝛿 = ℎ = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑
𝛾𝛾
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 93

Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

The energy grade line (EGL) shows the height of the total Bernoulli constant

𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑 2
+ 𝛿𝛿 + = 𝐻𝐻 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑. The EGL has constant height.
𝛾𝛾 2𝑔𝑔

The hydraulic grade line (HGL) shows the height corresponding to elevation
𝑃𝑃
and pressure head + 𝛿𝛿 = ℎ = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝛿𝛿𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑, that is, the EGL minus the
𝛾𝛾

velocity head V2/2g. The HGL is the height to which liquid would rise in a
piezometer tube

• In an open-channel flow the HGL is identical to the free surface of the

water.
• The EGL will drop slowly due to friction losses and will drop sharply
due to a substantial loss (a valve or obstruction) or due to work extraction
(to a turbine).
• The EGL can rise only if there is work addition (as from a pump or
propeller).
• The HGL generally follows the behavior of the EGL with respect to
losses or work transfer, and it rises and/or falls if the velocity decreases
and/or increases.
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 94

Example 1: A flow of water from a reservoir to a pipe of different diameters

shown in Figure below. Calculate 1) the discharge and velocity at each pipe, 2)
the pressure in each pipe and 3) the energy and hydraulic grade lines.

Example 2: A flow of water from a closed reservoir with interior pressure of 50

kPa to a pipe of different diameters shown in figure below. Calculate 1) the
discharge and velocity at each pipe, 2) the pressure in each pipe and 3) the
.energy and hydraulic grade lines

Example 3: A pipe gradually tapers from 0.6m at A to 0.9m at point B. the

elevation difference between A and B is 3m. Find pressure head and pressure at
point B if the pressure head at A is 15m and velocity at A is 2m/s. Assume the
frictionless flow.
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 95
Example.4

Example. 5
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 96

Applications of Bernoulli’s equation:

1) Flow through orifice

a) With constant head
When an open tank fill with liquid and drains through a port at the
bottom of the tank. The elevation of the liquid in the tank is constant
above the drain. The drain port is at atmospheric pressure. The flow is
steady, viscous effects are unimportant and velocity at liquid surface is
zero. The Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 on streamline:
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρ g 2g
p1 = p2 because the pressure at the outlet and the tank surface are the
same (atmospheric).
The velocity at the tank surface zero, then:
V22
0 + 0 + ( z1 − z 2 ) = 0 +
2g
V2 = 2 g ( z1 − z 2 ) = 2 gH

𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑉𝑉2 𝐴𝐴2

𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 × 𝑄𝑄𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Fig.4.8
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (0.64)

• If the tank is closed with interior pressure of Po then Bernoulli’s

equation can be expressed as:
Po V22
+ 0 + ( z1 − z 2 ) = 0 + then V2 = 2g(
Po
+ H)
g 2g g
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 97
b) With variable head (time for the tank to empty)
For cylindrical tank, the tank cross sectional area is A. In a time dt the
level falls by dH

We have an expression for the discharge from the tank

Qact = C d A2 2 gH

This discharge out of the orifice is the same as the flow in the tank so,
dH
−A = C d A2 2 gH
dt

Integrating between the initial level, h1, and final level, h2, gives the
time it takes to fall this height:
− C d A2 2 g 2
H2 t

∫H ∫t dt
− 0.5
dH =
H1
A 1

− C d A2 2 g
[2H ] 0.5 H 2
H1 =
A
∆t

C d A2 2 g
H1 − H 2 = ∆t
A
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 98
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 99
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 100
2) Syphon
Example 1

- 34.3
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 101
3) Pitot Tube
Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube within the pipe
can be used as shown below to measure velocity of flow

By applying Bernoulli’s eq.,

p1 v12 p2 v22
+ +z = + +z
 g 2g 1  g 2g 2
we have the equation for p2 ,

We now have an expression for velocity from two pressure measurements

and the application of the Bernoulli equation.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 102

The holes on the side connect to one side of a manometer, while the
central hole connects to the other side of the manometer
Using the theory of the manometer,

The Pitot/Pitot-static is:

 Simple to use (and analyse)
 Gives velocities (not discharge)
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 103

Example1
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 104
4) Venturi Meter
The Venturi meter is a device for measuring discharge in a pipe. It is a
rapidly converging section which increases the velocity of flow and hence
reduces the pressure. It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by
a gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section.

Apply Bernoulli along the streamline from point 1 to point 2

p1 v2 p v2
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
ρg 2g ρ g 2g

Substituting and rearranging gives

𝑃𝑃 −𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 −𝑃𝑃
2𝑔𝑔( 1 2 +𝑧𝑧1 −𝑧𝑧2 ) 2𝑔𝑔( 1 2 +𝑧𝑧1 −𝑧𝑧2 )
𝛾𝛾 𝛾𝛾
Or 𝑄𝑄𝑑𝑑ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐴𝐴1 � 𝐴𝐴1 2 = 𝐴𝐴1 � 𝐷𝐷1 4
( ) −1 ( ) −1
𝐴𝐴2 𝐷𝐷2
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 105

Actual discharge takes into account the losses due to friction, include a
coefficient of discharge (Cd ≈ 0.9)

𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2
2𝑔𝑔( + 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 )
𝛾𝛾
𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴1 �
𝐷𝐷
( 1 )4 − 1
𝐷𝐷2

In terms of the manometer readings

𝑃𝑃1 + 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧1 − 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 ∆ℎ − 𝛾𝛾(𝑧𝑧2 − ∆ℎ) = 𝑃𝑃2
𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧1 − 𝛾𝛾𝑧𝑧2 = 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 ∆ℎ − 𝛾𝛾∆ℎ = ∆ℎ(𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 − 𝛾𝛾)
𝑃𝑃1 − 𝑃𝑃2 𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚
+ 𝑧𝑧1 − 𝑧𝑧2 = ∆ℎ( − 1)
𝛾𝛾 𝛾𝛾
𝛾𝛾
2𝑔𝑔∆ℎ( 𝑚𝑚 −1)
𝛾𝛾
Giving 𝑄𝑄𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴1 � 𝐷𝐷1 4
( ) −1
𝐷𝐷2

• This expression does not include any elevation terms. (z1 or z2) When used with a
.manometer, the Venturimeter can be used without knowing its angle

Example 1
Piezometric tubes are tapped into a Venturi
section as shown in the figure. The liquid is
incompressible. The upstream piezometric head is
1 m, and the piezometric head at the throat is 0.5
m. The velocity in the throat section is twice large
as in the approach section. Find the velocity in the
.throat section

Solution
The Bernoulli equation with v2 = 2v1 gives
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ +z = + +z
 g 2g 1  g 2g 2
p1 p2 v22 v12 3  v12
+ z (  z )=  
g 1 g 2 2g 2g 2g
3
1.0  0.5   v12
2g
2g
v1   0.5  1.81 m/s
3
v2  21.81  3.62 m/s
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 106

5) Notches and Weirs

A weir is a vertical barrier in the side of a tank or reservoir. The liquid is flow
over the weir with free surface. It is a device for measuring discharge. It is used
as both a discharge measuring device and a device to raise water levels. There
are many different designs of weir depending on the shape of weir opening. It
may be rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular weir. The weirs also classified
according its crest width to sharp crested weir, broad crested weir and ogee
weir. The sharp crested rectangular weir may be contracted when the length of
weir opening is less than the channel width or suppress when the length of weir
is equal to channel width.

Fig. 4.9
Weir Assumptions
• velocity of the fluid approaching the weir is small so we can ignore kinetic
energy.
• The velocity in the flow depends only on the depth below the free surface.

A General Weir Equation

Consider a horizontal strip of width b, depth h below the free surface
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 107

velocity through the strip,

discharge through the strip,

Integrating from the free surface, h = 0, to the weir crest, h = H, gives the total
theoretical discharge

This is different for every differently shaped weir or notch. We need an

expression relating the width of flow across the weir to the depth below the free
surface

Rectangular Weir
The width does not change with depth so,

Substituting this into the general weir equation gives

To get the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of discharge, Cd, to

account for losses at the edges of the weir and contractions in the area of flow,
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 108

‘V’ Notch Weir

The relationship between width and depth is dependent on the angle of the “V”.

The width, b, depth, h, from the free surface relationshipis

So the discharge is

The actual discharge is obtained by introducing a coefficient of discharge

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 109

Example 1: Water enters the Millwood flood storage area via a rectangular
weir when the river height exceeds the weir crest. For design purposes a flow
rate of 0.163 m3/s over the weir can be assumed
1. Assuming a height over the crest of 200mm and Cd=0.2, what is the necessary
width, B, of the weir?
2. What will be the velocity over the weir at this design?

Solution:

Given: Q=0.163 m3/s., H=200mm = 0.2 m., Cd=0.2.

Required B and V.

2 3 2 3
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑. . 𝐵𝐵�2𝑔𝑔. 𝐻𝐻 2 → 0.163 = 0.2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥√19.62𝑥𝑥0.22
3 3
∴ 𝐵𝐵 = 3.08 𝑚𝑚
𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉 = �2𝑔𝑔ℎ → 𝑉𝑉 = √19.62𝑥𝑥0.2 = 1.98
𝑠𝑠

Example 2: Water is flowing over a 90o ‘V’ Notch weir into a tank with a is
cross-sectional area of 0.6m2. After 30s the depth of the water in the tank 1.5m.
If the discharge coefficient for the weir is 0.8, what is the height of the water
above the weir

Solution:

Given: ᶿ=90o , At=0.6m2, T=30s, Ht=1.5m, Cd=0.8.

Required H.

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 0.6𝑥𝑥1.5 𝑚𝑚3

𝑄𝑄 = = = 0.03
𝑇𝑇 30 𝑠𝑠
8 𝜃𝜃 5 8 90 3
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝑑𝑑. . �2𝑔𝑔. tan( ). 𝐻𝐻 2 → 0.03 = 0.8𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥√19.62𝑥𝑥 tan( )𝑥𝑥 𝐻𝐻 2
15 2 15 2
∴ 𝐻𝐻 = 0.06 𝑚𝑚
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 110

(6 Nozzle flow

Fig. 4.9
The pressure of all points of liquid jet outside the nozzle is equal to
atmospheric pressure. So, it will be equal to zero when the atmospheric
pressure is the reference pressure. Then, the Bernoulli’s equation between
points 1 and 2 in Fig. 4.9 can be written as:

The velocity components for Vn are:

𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 sin 𝜃𝜃
Therefore, for point 1: 𝑉𝑉1𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑉𝑉1𝑦𝑦 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 sin 𝜃𝜃

For point 2: 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥 = 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑑𝑑2𝑦𝑦 = 0, so, 𝑑𝑑2 = 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃𝜃,
which mean that the horizontal velocity component is constant along the
nozzle jet path.
2 2
𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑1𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑22
∴ + =ℎ +
2𝑔𝑔 2𝑔𝑔 2𝑔𝑔
(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝜃𝜃)2 (𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜃𝜃)2 (𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝜃𝜃)2
+ = ℎ + 𝑛𝑛
2𝑔𝑔 2𝑔𝑔 2𝑔𝑔
(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 sin 𝜃𝜃)2
Therefore the maximum height of nozzle jet will be: ℎ =
2𝑔𝑔

The vertical component of velocity Vy is varied along the nozzle jet path
as below:
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑔𝑔. 𝑎𝑎
The horizontal and vertical axes(x,y) of any point along the nozzle jet
path as below:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 111
1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 . 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2
2
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 . 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃𝜃. 𝑡𝑡
at the highest point of jet Vy reaches to zero, so:
1 2ℎ
ℎ = 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2 → 𝑡𝑡2 = �
2 𝑔𝑔

and the horizontal distance of highest point determined as:

𝑋𝑋 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 . 𝑡𝑡2 = 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃. 𝑡𝑡2

Example 1: Determine the vertical and horizontal distance of highest point of

water jet from nozzle with velocity of 20m/s. Also, find the diameter of the jet
at the highest point if the diameter of nozzle is 2cm. The jet is inclined at 60o
with horizontal. Neglect air resistance.

(𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃)2 (20 sin 60)2

Solution: ℎ= = =15.29m
2𝑔𝑔 2×9.81

2ℎ 2 × 15.29
𝑎𝑎2 = � = � = 1.766𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑔𝑔 9.81

𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 = 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝜃𝜃 = 20 cos 60 = 10m/s

𝑋𝑋 = 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 . 𝑎𝑎2 = 10 × 1.766 = 17.66𝑚𝑚

Q=Vn ×Anozzle=20.π/4(0.02)2=6.28×10-3m3/s

A2=Q/Vx=6.28/10=6.28×10-4m2

D=0.028m=2.8cm
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 112

Example 2: Point (b) is located on the stream line. Determine the flowrate

Solution

𝑒𝑒 = 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 . 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 cos 𝜃𝜃. 𝑎𝑎

𝑒𝑒 42.43
𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 = = … … … . .1
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 𝜃𝜃. 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

1
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜃𝜃 . 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑎 2
2

1
𝑣𝑣 + 𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑎 2 21.21
𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 = 2 = + 6.94𝑎𝑎 … … … … … 2
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜃𝜃. 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

42.43 21.21 21.21

= + 6.94𝑎𝑎 → 6.94𝑎𝑎 = → 𝑎𝑎 = 1.749𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎

Vn=42.43/1.749=24.26m/s

Q=Vn.Anozzle=0.107m3/s
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 113

(7 Pumps and Turbines

The energy line of liquid flow through turbine drops down directly due to
consumption of energy by turbine which call turbine head (ht) . While the
energy line of liquid flow through pump rises up directly due to adding of
energy to the flow by pump which call pump head (hp). So, the Bernoulli’s
equation will be:

Fig. 4.10

Pumps and turbines power

𝐸𝐸
The head is the energy of unit weight: ℎ = 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑊𝑊 × ℎ
𝑊𝑊

𝑊𝑊ℎ 𝑊𝑊
Power is the energy per unit time: 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑤𝑤 = = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

∴ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄ℎ

and 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄ℎ𝑝𝑝

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄ℎ𝑡𝑡

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 114

Example 1: Draw the E.G.L. and H.G.L. of the pipe system in Fig. and
determine the power of pump. The discharge is 0.15m3/s. neglect the friction of
pipe.

Example 2: The depth of water in tank shown in Fig. is 10m and discharge
required through the system is 0.15m3/s. Determine the velocity and the
pressure in each pipe, the power of the pump. Plot E.G.L. and H.G.L.

Example 3: Calculate the depth of water in tank shown in Fig. which will
produce a discharge of 85 l/s. The input power of the turbine is 15kW. What
flowrate may be expected if the turbine is removed?
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 115

Momentum Equation

The Momentum equation is a statement of Newton’s Second Law. It

relates the sum of the forces to the acceleration or rate of change of
momentum. From solid mechanics you will recognize
F = ma
What mass of moving fluid we should use?
We use a different form of the equation.
Consider a stream tube and assume steady non-uniform flow:
A2
u2

u1

In time δt a volume of the fluid moves from the inlet a distance v1δt, so

volume entering the stream tube = area × distance

=A1v1δt
The mass entering,
mass entering stream tube = volume density
=ρ A1 v1 δt
And momentum
momentum entering stream tube = mass velocity
= ρ A1 v1 δt v1

Similarly, at the exit, we get the expression:

momentum leaving stream tube = ρ A2 v2 δt v2

By another reading of Newton’s 2nd Law.

where Momentum = m x v,
dv dmv
Force = mass x acceleration = m = = rate of change of momentum
dt dt
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 116

We know from continuity that

And if we have a fluid of constant density,

The Momentum equation

This force acts on the fluid in the direction of the flow of the fluid

The previous analysis assumed the inlet

and outlet velocities in the same
direction (i.e. a one dimensional system).
What happens when this is not the
case?

We consider the forces by resolving in

the directions of the co-ordinate axes.

The force in the x-direction

And the force in the y-direction

The resultant force can be found by combining

these components

And the angle of this force

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 117

This hydrodynamic force exerted on fluid mass due to time rate of change
of the linear momentum of the system is countered with other external
forces exist within control volume (i.e. pressure forces and body forces and
thrust to result an excess action force that exerted on any solid body
touching the control volume, R:
FB = Force exerted due to fluid body (e.g. gravity)
FP = Force exerted on the fluid control volume due to fluid pressure at the
open fluid edges of the control volume
FR = Force exerted on the fluid by any solid body touching the control
volume

So we say that the total force, FT, is given by the sum of these forces:

FT = FR + FB + FP

The force exerted by the fluid on the solid body touching the control volume
is opposite to FR (action force).
So the reaction force, R, is given by
R = -FR
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 118

Applications of Momentum Equation:

1) Pipe reducer and nozzle

In pipe reducer and nozzle, the inlet and outlet velocities are in the same
direction as shown in Fig. 4.8 which represent reducer fitting in pipe line,
equation 4.12 written as:

𝑃𝑃1 𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌. 𝑄𝑄. (𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉1 ) , then Rx can be found.

Fig. 4.8

Application – Force exerted by a firehose

Example 1
A firehose discharges 5 l/s. The nozzle inlet and outlet diameters are 75 and 25 mm
respectively. Calculate the force required to hold the hose in place.
Solution
The control volume is taken as shown:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 119

There are three forces in the x-direction:

• The reaction force FR provided by the fireman;

• Pressure forces FP : p1 A1 at the left side and p0 A0 at the right hand side;

• The momentum force FM caused by the change in velocity.

So we have: FM = FP + FR
The momentum force is:
FM = ρ Q ( v2 − v1 )
Therefore, we need to establish the velocities from continuity:
Q 5 × 10−3
v1 = = = 1.13 m/s
A1 π ( 0.075 )2 4
And
5 × 10−3
v2 = = 10.19 m/s
π ( 0.025 ) 4
2

Hence:

FM = ρ Q ( v2 − v1 ) = 10 ( 5 × 10 ) (10.19 − 1.13) = 45 N
3 −3

The pressure force is: FP = p1 A1 − p0 A0

If we consider gauge pressure only, the p0 = 0 and we must only find p1 . Using
Bernoulli’s Equation between the left and right side of the control volume:

p1 v12 ⎛ p0 ⎞ v02
+ = +
ρ g 2 g ⎝⎜ ρ g ⎠⎟ =0 2 g

Thus:
⎛ ρ ⎞ 2 2 = ⎛ 10 ⎞ 10.192 − 1.132
3

p1 = ⎜ ⎟ ( v1 − v0 ) ⎜ ⎟( ) = 51.28 kN/m 2
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Hence
FP = p1 A1 − p0 A0
⎛ π ( 0.075 )2 ⎞
= ( 51.28 × 10 ) ⎜
3
⎟ − 0 = 226 N
⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Hence the reaction force is:
FR = FM − FP = 45 − 226 = −181 N

This is about a fifth of an average body weight – not inconsequential.

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 120
2) Pipe Bends

Calculating the force on pipe bends is important to design the support system. In
pipe bend the inlet and outlet velocities are in different directions. There are two
cases of pipe bend can be illustrated as below:

Case 1: pipe bend in horizontal plan

According Fig. 4.9, equation 4.12 written as:

Fig. 4.9

∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝑃𝑃1 𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌. 𝑄𝑄. (𝑑𝑑2 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑑𝑑1 ) , to find Rx

∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0 − 𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴2 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 = 𝜌𝜌. 𝑄𝑄. (𝑑𝑑2 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 0) , to find Ry

The resultant can be get by: 𝑅𝑅 = �𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦2

𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
The resultant inclined with horizontal with angle of: ∅ = tan−1
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 121

Case 2: pipe bend in perpendicular plan

According Fig. 4.10, the summation of forces in x-direction is same as in case

of horizontal plan. The summations of forces in y-direction include the effect of
fluid weight in pipe bend Wf.

Fig. 4.10

∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0 − 𝑃𝑃2 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜃𝜃 − 𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 − 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 = 𝜌𝜌. 𝑄𝑄. (𝑑𝑑2 sin 𝜃𝜃 − 0) , to find Ry

The weight of fluid can be founded as below:

𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 = 𝛾𝛾∀

the volume of fluid is a cross section area times

the length of center for the pipe bend. The length

of center line can be calculated as below:

For pipe bend of θ ≤ 90ᵒas shown in Fig. 4.11, Fig. 4.11

the radius for center line of bend given by:

𝐻𝐻 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑅𝑅(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 122

𝐻𝐻
∴ 𝑅𝑅 =
1 − cos 𝜃𝜃

For pipe bend of θ > 90ᵒas shown in Fig. 4.12, the radius for center line of bend
given by:

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝜃𝜃

𝑅𝑅 = 𝐻𝐻 − 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐻𝐻 − 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝛼𝛼

𝐻𝐻 = 𝑅𝑅(1 + sin 𝛼𝛼)

𝐻𝐻
𝑅𝑅 =
1 + 𝑅𝑅 sin 𝛼𝛼

Then, length of pipe bend centerline

Fig. 4.12
is given by; 𝜃𝜃
𝐿𝐿 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
180

Volume of fluid in pipe bend given by;

𝜋𝜋
∀= 𝐿𝐿(𝑎𝑎12 + 𝑎𝑎1 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎22 )
3
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 123
Example-1: Forces on a vertical Bend
The outlet pipe from a pump is a bend of 45o rising in the vertical plane
(i.e. and internal angle of 135o). The bend is 150mm diameter at its inlet
and 300mm diameter at its outlet. The pipe axis at the inlet is horizontal
and at the outlet it is 1m higher. By neglecting friction, calculate the force
and its direction if the inlet pressure is 100kN/m2 and the flow of water
through the pipe is 0.3m3/s. The volume of the pipe is 0.075m3.

Solution:

1&2 Draw the control volume and the axis

System

3. Calculate the total force

in the x direction

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌 (∑ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑥 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑥 𝑖𝑛 ) = 𝐹𝑇𝑥

𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑠

𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝜌 (∑ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑥 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑ 𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑥 𝑖𝑛 )

𝑐𝑠 𝑐𝑠
𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥 )
𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑣1 )

by continuity: 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝑄

0.3 𝑚
𝑣1 = 2 = 16.98
0.15 𝑠
𝜋(
4 )
0.3 𝑚
𝑣2 = = 4.24
0.0707 𝑠
and in the y-direction 𝐹𝑇𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 )
𝐹𝑇𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣2 sin 𝜃 − 0)
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 124
4. Calculate the pressure force.

We know pressure at the inlet, but not at the outlet

we can use the Bernoulli equation to calculate this unknown pressure.

p1 v12 p2 v22
+ +z = + +z
 g 2g 1  g 2g 2
The height of the pipe at the outlet is 1m above the inlet.
Taking the inlet level as the datum:

z1 = 0 , z2 = 1m

So the Bernoulli equation becomes:

5. Calculate the body force

The body force is the force due to gravity. That
is the weight acting in the -ve y direction.

FBy  735.75 N

There are no body forces in the x direction,

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 125
6. Calculate the resultant force

And the resultant force on the fluid is given by

And the direction of application is

The reaction force on bend is the same magnitude but in the opposite
direction
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 126
Example-2
The diameter of a pipe-bend is 300 mm at inlet and 150 mm at outlet and the flow is
turned through 120o in a vertical plane. The axis at inlet is horizontal and the centre of
the outlet section is 1.4 m below the centre of the inlet section. The total volume of
fluid contained in the bend is 0.085 m3. Neglecting friction, calculate the magnitude
and direction of the net force exerted on the bend by water flowing through it at 0.23
m3·s−1 when the inlet gauge pressure is 140 kPa.
solution
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 127

3) Momentum force of flow through diversion

For flow through diversion shown in Fig.13, the momentum equation become as
follow:

Fig. 4.13
� 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)𝑥𝑥 − (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑥𝑥

� 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)𝑦𝑦 − (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑦𝑦

The main pipe supply each branching pipe according to its diameter as follow:

𝐷𝐷12 𝐷𝐷22 𝐷𝐷32

𝑄𝑄1 = × 𝑄𝑄0 , 𝑄𝑄2 = × 𝑄𝑄0 , 𝑄𝑄3 = × 𝑄𝑄0 , ….etc.
𝐷𝐷12 +𝐷𝐷22 +𝐷𝐷32 𝐷𝐷12 +𝐷𝐷22 +𝐷𝐷32 𝐷𝐷12 +𝐷𝐷22 +𝐷𝐷32

∴ � 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

𝐹𝐹𝑜𝑜 − 𝐹𝐹1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝐹𝐹2 cos 𝜃𝜃2 − 𝐹𝐹3 cos 𝜃𝜃3 − 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝜌𝜌[𝑄𝑄1 𝑉𝑉1 cos 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑄𝑄2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃2 +
𝑄𝑄3 𝑉𝑉3 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃3 ] − 𝜌𝜌[𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 ] , then Rx can be founded.

In the same way:

∴ � 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

0 − 𝐹𝐹1 sin 𝜃𝜃1 − 𝐹𝐹2 sin 𝜃𝜃2 + 𝐹𝐹3 sin 𝜃𝜃3 + 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦 = 𝜌𝜌[𝑄𝑄1 𝑉𝑉1 sin 𝜃𝜃1 + 𝑄𝑄2 𝑉𝑉2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃2 −
𝑄𝑄3 𝑉𝑉3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃3 ] − 𝜌𝜌[0] , then Ry can be founded.

The resultant can be get by: 𝑅𝑅 = �𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦2

𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
The resultant inclined with horizontal with angle of: ∅ = tan−1
𝑅𝑅𝑦𝑦
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 128

Example-1
A cylindrical metal container 60 cm high with an inside diameter of 27 cm, weights
22N when empty. The container is placed on a scale and water flows in through an
opening in the top and out through the two equal area 45o-deflection openings in the
sides as shown in the diagram. Under steady flow conditions the height of the water
in the tank is h = 58 cm. Your friend claims that the scale will read the weight of the
volume of water in the tank plus the tank weight, i.e., that we can treat this as a
simple statics problem. You disagree, claiming that a flow analysis is required. Who
is right, and what is the scale reading in Newtons
Q in Qout
V1 A1  V2 A2  V3 A3 (  A2  A3 & symmetry  V2  V3 )
V1 A1  2V2 A2  2V3 A3
A1 0.0095
V2  V1  3.05   3.37 m / s
2 A2 2  .0043
For CV shown
F y = (  QVyout   QVyin )
jet jet
Vin watersurface
0
  Fy = 1000  3.37 2 x43/10000 cos 45  2  0  69.06 N
Scale
F y   Fpy  FRy   FBy
FRy   Fy   Fpy   FBy
F By  22  0.27 2 / 4    0.58  9810  347.77 N
p1  0, p2  p3  0   Fpy  0
FRy  69.06 N  347.77 N  416 .83N  scale  reading
Then scale reading not equal the static loads only, but with addition value
of dynamic effects

Example-6:
The 6-cm-diameter 20°C water jet in Fig.
strikes a plate containing a hole of 4-cm
diameter. Part of the jet passes through the
hole, and part is deflected. Determine the
horizontal force required to hold the plat


Qin  ( 0.06 )2 25  0.0707 m 3 s
4

Qhole  ( 0.04 )2 25  0.0314 m 3 s
4
F = Q(Vout Vin )
for devided or branched flow
Fx =  (  QoutVoutx   QinVinx )
Fx = 998( 0  0  0.0314  25  0.0707  25 )
Fx =  980 N
Rx  980 N
Fy  0
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 129
Example-7:
Water at 20°C exits to the standard sea-level
atmosphere through the split nozzle in Fig.
Duct areas are A1 = 0.02 m2 and A2 = A3 =
0.008 m2. If p1= 135 kPa (absolute) and the
flow rate is Q2 = Q3 = 275 m3/h, compute
the force on the flange bolts at section 1.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 130
Example: A water jet of velocity Vj impinges normal to a flat plate which
moves to the right at velocity Vc, as shown in Fig. Find the force required
to keep the plate moving at constant velocity if the jet density is 1000
kg/m3, the jet area is 3 cm2, and Vj and Vc are 20 and 15 m/s,
respectively. Neglect the weight of the jet and plate, and assume steady
flow with respect to the moving plate with the jet splitting into an equal
upward and downward half-jet.

For moving control volume with V=Vc we have

Vin V j Vc  20 15  5 m s
By continuity equation we have:
Qin  Qout
1
1 1  A2V2 , A1  A2 
AjVin  AV Aj
2
1 1
Vin  V1  V2 , but from symmetry and neglacting the wight : V1  V2
2 2
Vin  V1  V2
F = Q(Vout  Vin )
for devided or branched flow
Fx =  (  QoutVoutx   QinVinx )
Fx =  (  AoutVoutVoutx   AinVinVinx )
Fx =  ( 0  1000  0.0003  5 5 )
Fx =  7.5 N
Fx  Fpx  FRx
FRx  Fx  Fpx  7.5  0  7.5
Rx  7.5N
Fy  0
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 131

REAL FLOW IN PIPES

Viscous Flow in Ducts (Flow in Pipes)
The pipe defined as:
1. Same container sectional area along whole length (L)
2. Same container material along whole length (L)
3. Circular sectional area along whole length (L)
4. Straightforward along whole length (L)
5. Full flow (closed conduit) along whole length (L)

CV Analysis: For pipe segment control volume below

Continuity:
Q1  Q2  const.

i.e. V1  V2 sin ce A1  A2 ,   const., and V  Vave

Energy (Bernoulli’s) equation in real fluid flow conditions:

𝑝1 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + 𝒉𝑳
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

where ℎ𝐿 represents the head loss between two sections 1 and 2 which
divided into two parts ℎ𝑓 (head losses due to friction, called major losses), and
ℎ𝑚 (head losses due to fitting, valves, and any other source of losses along
individual pipe, called miner losses)

ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑚
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 132

p p
hL   z  (  z )  H
 

For a single straightforward part of pipe without miner losses, Momentum

become:
p p
hf   z  (  z )  H
 
0
 

FsT  QV2 s  V1s   0
W
p
  z L friction on walls
  
 D2 D 2  
FsT   p1  p2    L  sin   wDL
4 4
D2 D2
p   z   wDL  0
4 4
4 w L
p  z 
D
p 4 w L
 z 
 D

p 4 w L
 z  H  h f 
 D
4 w L
 h f  H  (1)
D
or
D  H D dh
w  
4 L 4 ds

i.e. shear stress varies linearly in r across pipe for either laminar or turbulent
flow

 once τw is known, we can determine head drop (pressure drop).

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 133

In general,
 w   w (  ,V ,  , D , )
roughness
By rearrange the right side of Eq. (1).

𝐿 4𝜏𝑤 𝜌𝑉 2 ⁄2
ℎ𝑓 = { } { 2 } { }
𝐷 𝜌𝑉 ⁄2 𝛾
4𝜏𝑤 𝐿 𝑉 2
ℎ𝑓 = { 2 }
𝜌𝑉 ⁄2 𝐷 2𝑔
and by dimensional Analysis we obtain:
V2
 w  Cf  
2
Where 𝐶𝑓 is dimensionless coefficient (Coefficient of Friction). By substitute
this value of 𝜏𝑤 in eq. 1 above, we find:
V 2 4L L V2
 h f  H  Cf   4Cf 
2 gD D 2g
4  Cf  f  friction factor
f  f (  ,  / D)

Then
L V2
H  h f  f (Darcy-
D 2g
Weisbach
Equation,
1857)
Which define a new factor called the friction factor f that gives the ratio of wall
shear stress 𝝉𝒘 to kinetic pressure 𝜌𝑉 2 ⁄2:

(𝟒 ∙ 𝝉𝒘 ) 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝒇≡ ≅
𝜌𝑉 2 ⁄2 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
Darcy-Weisbach Equation, is applied for any flow statues (Laminar or
turbulent).

 It is clear that if we want to calculate the value of head loss (hf) we must
first find the value of f.

What is the value of f?

 Before we can select the value of 𝒇 , we first of all must defines the
regime of flow whether is Laminar or turbulent flow
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 134

Laminar flow:
 Laminar flow is a flow regime in which fluid motion is smooth, the flow
occurs in layers (laminae), and the
 Mixing between layers occurs by molecular diffusion, a process that is
much slower than turbulent mixing.

 Reynolds number, Re (dimensionless group), is the index that used to

distinguish between whether the flow is laminar or turbulent:
VD inertia
Re   (Reynolds Number,
 vis cos ity
1883)

Reynolds number for various flow regimes

Flow Regime Reynolds Number
Laminar < 2000
Transitional 2000-4000
Turbulent > 4000

 Laminar flow occurs when Re ≤ 2000. Laminar flow in a round tube is

called Poiseuille flow or Hagen-Poiseuille flow in honor of pioneering
researchers who studied low-speed flows in the 1840s.

* For laminar flow only in pipes, shear stresses through flow is related by
Newton law of viscosity
𝑑𝑉
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦
where y is the distance from the pipe wall. Change variables by letting y = r 0 - r,
where r0 is pipe radius and r is the radial coordinate. Next, use the chain rule of
calculus:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 135

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑r 𝑑𝑉
𝜏=𝜇 = 𝜇 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑦 𝑑r 𝑑y 𝑑r
From eq(1) with r=D/2
4 w L  w 2 L dv L
h f  H     2
D r dr r
hf 
dv   rdr
2L
By integral with boundary condition of 𝒓 = 𝟎, 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
hf  2
V  Vmax  r (Parabolic velocity profile)
4L
𝑫
From this equation we find that (at 𝒓 = 𝒓𝒐 = , 𝑽 = 𝟎):
𝟐
hf 
Vmax  D2
16L
𝑄
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝐴
We find discharge by integration of 𝑉𝑑𝐴 overall the section area and we
arrived to following result:
1
Vmean  Vmax
2
hf 
Vmean  D2
32L
L
 h f  32 V (Hagen-Poisseuille
D 2
equation, 1839,40)
By comparing this equation with Darcy equation, we find that:
L V2 L
 hf  f  32 2 V
D 2g D
𝜌𝑉𝐷
and if 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
Then
𝟔𝟒
𝒇=
𝑹𝒆
Re is the Reynolds number based on D, not L!, thus for horizontal pipes (Δz =
0):

64 V 2 L 64 V 2 L 32VL
P  H  g   
Re 2 D VD 2 D D2
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 136

 Sometimes it’s more convenient to deal with volume flow rate (Q) rather
than velocity (V). Thus we can write one last relation:

P = (128/π)µQL/D4 (laminar flow only in horizontal
pipes!)
Note the significance of this result: if you double the flow rate Q or the length
of the pipe L, the pressure drop doubles (makes sense.) Also, for a given flow
rate Q, if you double the diameter of the tube, the pressure drop decreases by
a factor of 16! So use a little bigger pipe in your plumbing design!

(EXAMPLE : (EX. 10.2 HEAD LOSS FOR LAMINAR FLOW

Oil (S = 0.85) with a kinematic viscosity of 6 × 10-4 m2/s flows in a 15 cm pipe at
a rate of 0.020 m3/s. What is the head loss per 100 m length of pipe?
Problem Definition
1. Oil is flowing in a pipe at a flow rate of Q = 0.02 m3/s.
2. Pipe diameter is D = 0.15 m.
Find: Head loss (in meters) for a pipe length of 100 m.
. Properties: Oil: S = 0.85, ν = 6 × 10-4 m2/s
Solution
1. Mean velocity

2. Reynolds number

3. Since Re < 2000, the flow is laminar.

4. Head loss (laminar flow).

Review: Tip! An alternative way to calculate head loss for laminar flow is to use
the Darcy-Weisbach equation as follows:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 137
Example: SAE 30 oil at 20°C flows in the 3-cm-diameter pipe in Fig. which
slopes at 37°. For the pressure measurements shown, determine (a) whether
the flow is up or down and (b) the flow rate in m3/h

solusion

Example The velocity of oil (S = 0.8) through the 5 cm smooth pipe is 1.2 m/s.
ere L = 12 m, z1 = 1 m, z2 = 2 m, and the manometer deflection is 10 cm.
Determine the flow direction, the resistance coefficient f, whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent, and the viscosity of the oil.

Solution:
Based on the deflection on the manometer, the piezometric head on the right side
of the pipe is larger than that on the left side. Since the velocity at 1 and 2 is the
same, the energy at location 2 is higher than the energy at location 1. Since the a
fluid will move from a location of high energy to a location of low energy, the flow is
downward (from right to left).
From energy princeles:
p1 V12 p V2
  z1  2  2  z 2  h f
 2g  2g

p 2
hf   z  f L V (1)
 D 2g
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 138
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 139

Turbulent flow
*For turbulent flow, the friction factor depends not only on Re but also the
roughness of the pipe wall, which is characterized by a roughness factor = /d,
where  is a measure of the roughness (i.e. height of the bumps on the wall)
and d is (as always) the pipe diameter. The combined effects of roughness and
Re are presented in terms of the Moody chart (1944) (Re, ε/D) still needs to be
determined. For laminar flow, there is an exact solution for f since laminar
pipe flow has an exact solution. For turbulent flow, approximate solution for f
using log-law as per Moody diagram and discussed late or other
approximations.

Laminar

Turbulent

1) Blasius Equation 0.316

f  Re  10 5
Re 0.25

0.21
2) Burka Equation f 
Re0.21
3) Von Karman-Prandtl Equations

1  Re f 
 2  log 

f  2.51 

1  3.7  D 
 2  log 
f   
1   5.1286 
4) Barr Equation  2  log  0.89 
f  3.7  D Re 

1   2.51 
5) Colebrook-White Equation, 1939  2  log  

f  3.7  D Re f 
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 140

0.25
6) Swamee Equation f  2 3 10 3  Re  3 108
   5.74 
log 3.7  D  Re 0.9  
   10 6   2 10 2
D
Moody Diagram

Colebrook work by acquiring data for commercial pipes and then developing an
empirical equation, called the Colebrook-White formula, for the friction factor.
Friction factor (f)

Moody used the Colebrook-White formula to generate a design chart similar to

that shown in Fig. 6.4. This chart is now known as the Moody diagram for
commercial pipes.

In the Moody diagram, the variable e denote the relative roughness. In the
Moody diagram, the abscissa is the Reynolds number Re, and the ordinate is the

resistance coefficient f. To find f, given Re and e/D one goes to the right to find
the correct elative roughness curve. Then one looks at the bottom of the chart to
find the given value of Re and, with this value of Re, moves vertically upward
until the given curve is reached. Finally, from this point one move horizontally
to the left scale to read the value of f. If the curve for the given value of is not
plotted, then one simply finds the proper position on the graph by interpolation
between the curves that bracket the given e/D.

By using the Colebrook-White formula, Swamee and Jain developed an explicit

equation for friction factor:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 141

Simple Pipe Problems

Pipe Flow Problem Types

Variable Type I Type II Type III

a. Fluid
Density Given Given Given
Viscosity Given Given Given
b. Pipe
Diameter Given Given Determine
Length Given Given Given
Roughness Given Given Given
c. Flow
Flowrate or Average Given Determine Given
Velocity
d. Pressure
Pressure Drop or Determine Given Given
Head Loss

Type I
Example1 Determine the head lost to friction when water at 15 ◦C, ν = 1.14
mm2 · s−1 , flows through 300 m of 150 mm diameter galvanized steel pipe (ε =
0.15 mm) at 50 L · s−1.
Solution
V = 50 × 10−3m3 · s−1/((π/4)(0.15)2m2) = 2.83 m· s−1
Re = VD/ν = 2.83 m· s−1 × 0.15 m/(1.14 × 10−6 m2 · s−1) = 3.72 × 105
For galvanized steel, ε /D = 0.001
From Moody Diagram f = 0.0208, so
hf = 4 ×0.0208 × 300 m/(0.15 m) × (2.83 m· s−1)2/(19.62 m· s−2) = 67.89 m,
say 68 m
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 142
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 143

Type II
Example: 1
Oil, with ρ =950 kg/m3 and ν = 2 E-5 m2/s, flows through a 30-cm-diameter
pipe 100 m long with a head loss of 8 m. The roughness ratio is ε/d = 0.0002.
Find the average velocity and flow rate.
Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 144
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 145

Type III
Example: 1
Work previous Example backward, assuming that Q = 0.342 m3/s and ε = 0.06
mm are known but that d (30 cm) is unknown. Recall L = 100 m, ρ = 950 kg/m3,
ν = 2 E-5 m2/s, and hf = 8m
Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 146
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 150

Head Minor Losses:

For any pipe system, in addition to the Moody-type friction loss (referred as
Major losses) computed for the length of pipe, there are additional so-called
minor losses due to:

1. Pipe entrance or exit

2. Sudden expansion or contraction
3. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
4. Valves, open or partially closed
5. Gradual expansions or contractions

These losses may not be so minor in its effects; e.g., a partially closed valve can
cause a greater pressure drop than a long pipe.

Since the flow pattern in fittings and valves is quite complex, the theory is very
weak. The losses are commonly measured experimentally and correlated with
the pipe flow parameters.
The data, especially for valves, are somewhat dependent upon the particular
manufacturer’s design, so that the values listed here must be taken as average
design estimates
The measured minor loss is usually given as a ratio of the head loss hm through
𝑽𝟐
the device to the velocity head ( ) of the associated piping system
𝟐𝒈
hm
Minor loss coefficient, K  2
V / 2g
A single pipe system may have many minor losses. Since all are correlated with
V2/(2g), they can be summed into a single total system loss if the pipe has
constant diameter

V 2  fL 
hL  h f   hm    K
2g  D 
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 151
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 152

Moody
chart
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 153

Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 154

Example 6.6 can be solve by equivalent length method as below:

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 155

Pumps and Turbines: z2

 Pumps and turbines represent the external
source-sink term of energy head

 Apply energy equation from the reservoir

water surface to the outlet stream is:
In Ideal Flow:
p1 V12 p2 V22
  z1  h p    z 2  hT
 2g  2g
For pump only in a system with one size of pipe,
this simplifies to
V22
h p  z 2  z1  
2g
While for turbine it become:
V22
hT  z1  z 2  
2g
In real Flow with:

p1 V12 p V2 V2 fL V22
  z1  h p  2  2  z 2   K 2    hT
 2g  2g 2g D 2g
For pump only in a system with one size of pipe and the flow out is jet, this
simplifies to
V22  fL 
h p  z 2  z1   1   K   
2g  D
While for turbine it become:
V22  fL 
hT  z1  z 2   1   K   
2g  D
Pump Power  gQh (Hydraulic power of pump, Power out)
Turbine Power   gQh (Hydraulic power of Turbine, Power in)

Powerout gQh Powerout Powerout

Efficiency, Pump   , Efficiency, Turbine  
Powerin Powerin Powerin gQh
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 156

Example
Water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3. and ν = 1.14 X 10-6 m2/s, is pumped between two
reservoirs at 6 l/s through 121 m of 50 mm-diameter pipe and several minor
losses, as shown in Fig. The roughness ratio is ε/d = 0.001. Compute the pump
horsepower required.
37 m

6m

121 m 50 mm

Example
At the maximum rate of power generation, a small hydroelectric power plant
takes a discharge of 14.1 m3/s through an elevation drop of 61 m. The head
loss through the intakes, penstock, and outlet works is 1.5 m. The combined
efficiency of the turbine and electrical generator is 87%. What is the rate of
power generation?
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 157

Pipe Systems
Pipes in series

When pipes of different diameters or material are connected end to end to form
a pipe line, they are said to be in series. The total loss of energy (or head) will
be the sum of the losses in each pipe plus local losses at connections (minor
losses).

HL=∑ ℎ𝑓𝑓 𝑄𝑄1 = 𝑄𝑄2 = ⋯

Q1  Q2  Q3
hL  hL  hL  hL
AB 1 2 3

Example:
Given is a three-pipe series system, as in Fig. The total pressure drop is pA- pB =
150,000 Pa, and the elevation drop is zA - zB = 5 m. The pipe data are in table
below. The fluid is water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and ν = 1.02 x 10 -6 m2/s. Calculate
the flow rate Q in m3/h through the system.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 158
Solution:
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 159

Pipes in parallel
When two or more pipes in parallel connect two reservoirs, as shown in Figure, for example,
then the fluid may flow down any of the available pipes at possible different rates. But the
head difference over each pipe will always be the same. The total volume flow rate will be the
sum of the flow in each pipe. The analysis can be carried out by simply treating each pipe
.individually and summing flow rates at the end

Q=∑ 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 = 1,2,3, 4, … … . . ℎ𝑓𝑓 = ℎ𝑓𝑓 = ⋯

1 2

QAB  Q1  Q2  Q3
hL  hL  hL
1 2 3

There are two types of problems:

1. When the elevation of HGL at A and B known. The discharge is required.
In this case, the discharges added to find the Q because hf (drop of HGL)
is known.
2. Q is known as well as pipe and fluid characteristics. The distribution of
flow and head loss need to be calculated.
For this type of problem the solution will be as follow:
a. Assume discharge 𝑄𝑄1′ through pipe 1.
′
b. Solve for ℎ𝑓𝑓1 using assumed discharge 𝑄𝑄1′ .

′
c. Using ℎ𝑓𝑓1 find 𝑄𝑄2′ , 𝑄𝑄3′ , ……
d. With these discharges (𝑄𝑄1′, 𝑄𝑄2′ , 𝑄𝑄3′ …….) for common head loss, now ,
assume that given Q is split up among the pipes in the same proportion
as 𝑄𝑄1′, 𝑄𝑄2′ , 𝑄𝑄3′ …… thus;
𝑄𝑄′ 𝑄𝑄′ 𝑄𝑄′
𝑄𝑄1 = ∑ 1 ′ , 𝑄𝑄2 = ∑ 2 ′ , 𝑄𝑄3 = ∑ 3 ′ ……..
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖
′ ′ ′
e. Check the correctness of these discharges by computing ℎ𝑓𝑓1 , ℎ𝑓𝑓2 , ℎ𝑓𝑓3
for the computed Q1, Q2, Q3, …..
 Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 160

Example:
Assume that the same three pipes in Example above are now in parallel with
the same total head loss of 20.3 m. Compute the total flow rate Q, neglecting
minor losses.

Solution:

Example 6.7: Pipes in Series Example

Consider the two reservoirs shown in figure, connected by a single pipe that
changes diameter over its length. The surfaces of the two reservoirs have a
difference in level of 9m. The pipe has a diameter of 200mm for the first 15m
(from A to C) then a diameter of 250mm for the remaining 45m (from C to B).
find Q.

For the entrance use Ke = 0.5 and the exit KE = 1.0. The join at C is sudden. For
both pipes use f = 0.01.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 161

Solution:
Total head loss for the system HL = height difference of reservoirs

hf1 = head loss for 200mm diameter section of pipe

hf2 = head loss for 250mm diameter section of pipe

hme = head loss at entry point

hmj = head loss at join of the two pipes

hmE = head loss at exit point

So HL = hf1 + hf2 + hme + hmj + hmE = 9m …….. (1)

All losses are, in terms of Q:

Substitute these into eq.1

and solve for Q, to give Q = 0.062 m3/s

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 162

Example 6.13: Pipes in Parallel Example

Two pipes connect two reservoirs (A and B) which have a height difference of
10m. Pipe 1 has diameter 50mm and length 100m. Pipe 2 has diameter 100mm
and length 100m. Both have entry loss KL = 0.5 and exit loss KL=1.0 and Darcy
f of 0.032. Calculate:

a) rate of flow for each pipe

b) the diameter D of a pipe 100m long that could replace the two pipes and
provide the sameflow.
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 163

Solution

a)Apply Bernoulli to each pipe separately. For pipe 1:

Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 164

Example 6.19: In Fig. shown, find Q for the water with following data: use
f=0.015

Pipe Length (m) Diameter (m) e/D

1 3000 1.0 0.0002
2 600 0.45 0.002
3 1000 0.6 0.001

Solution

𝑃𝑃𝐽𝐽
Trial 1: Assume 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐽𝐽 = 𝑧𝑧𝐽𝐽 + = 23𝑚𝑚
𝛾𝛾

ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐽𝐽

𝑖𝑖

Pipe ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐽𝐽

𝑖𝑖

1 7 1.38
2 -5 -0.278
3 -14 -0.811

� 𝑄𝑄 0.291
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 165

Then, the flow into the junction is high choose a larger H.G.L. at J

𝑃𝑃𝐽𝐽
Trial 2: Assume 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐽𝐽 = 𝑧𝑧𝐽𝐽 + = 24.6𝑚𝑚
𝛾𝛾

Pipe ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐽𝐽

𝑖𝑖

1 5.4 1.205

2 -6.6 -0.32

3 -15.6 -0.856

� 𝑄𝑄 0.029

𝑃𝑃𝐽𝐽
Draw the linear relation between 𝑧𝑧𝐽𝐽 + and ∑ 𝑄𝑄
𝛾𝛾

𝑃𝑃𝐽𝐽
By extrapolating linearly 𝑧𝑧𝐽𝐽 + = 24.8𝑚𝑚 and the exact solution will be:
𝛾𝛾
Fluid Mechanics lectures and Tutorials 166

Pipe ℎ𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐽𝐽

𝑖𝑖

1 5.6 1.183

2 -6.8 -0.325

3 -15.8 -0.862

� 𝑄𝑄 -0.004