2.

1 Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in
construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low
cost.
Steel’s base metal is iron, which is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic
forms), body centered cubic (BCC) and face centered cubic (FCC), depending on
its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the alloying elements,
primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In
the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the centre of each
cube, and in the face-centred cubic, there is one at the center of each of the six
faces of the cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as
hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in
the crystal lattices of iron atoms.
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.1% of its weight. Varying
the amount of alloying elements, their presence in the steel either as solute
elements, or as precipitated phases, retards the movement of those dislocations that
make iron comparatively ductile and weak, and thus controls its qualities such as
the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. Steel’s strength
compared to pure iron is only possible at the expense of iron’s ductility, of which
iron has an excess.[1]
2.1.1 Steel Types:

Different types of steel are produced according to the properties required for their
application, and various grading systems are used to distinguish steels based on
these properties. According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI),
steel can be broadly categorized into four groups based on their chemical
compositions:

1. Carbon Steels
2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steels

1) Carbon Steels:
Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of
total steel production. Carbon steels can be further categorized into three groups
depending on their carbon content:

1
  Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3% carbon
 Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3 – 0.6% carbon

 High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6% carbon

2) Alloy Steels:
Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese,
silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium and aluminum) in varying proportions in
order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as
its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability or ductility.

Applications for alloys steel include pipelines, auto parts, transformers, power generators
and electric motors.

3) Stainless Steels:
Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying
element and are valued for high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is
about 200 times more resistant to corrosion than mild steel. These steels can be divided
into three groups based on their crystalline structure: Austenitic, Ferritic and Martensitic.

4) Tool Steels:
Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to
increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling
equipment.

Steel products can also be divided by their shapes and related applications:

 Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes, and
shapes and sections. These products are commonly used in the automotive and
construction sectors.
 Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils and strips. These materials are mainly
used in automotive parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and construction.
 Other Products include valves, fittings, and flanges and are mainly used as piping
materials.[2]

2.2 Structural Steel:

Structural steel is a category of steel used as a construction material for making
structural steel shapes. A structural steel shape is a profile, formed with a specific
cross section and following certain standards for chemical composition and
mechanical properties. Structural steel shapes, sizes, composition, strengths,

2
storage practices, etc., are regulated by standards in most industrialized
countries. Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high
second moments of area, which allow them to be very
stiff in respect to their cross-sectional area[3].

Fig 2.1 Common Structural Shapes:

2.2.1 Structural Steel Shapes:

The shapes available are described in many published standards worldwide, and a
number of specialist and proprietary cross sections are also available.

 I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams (UB)

and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL, HD and
other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF or W-Shape) and H
sections)
 Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)

 HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow

section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross
sections)
 Angle (L-shaped cross-section)
 Structural channel, or C-beam, or C cross-section
 Tee (T-shaped cross-section)
 Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)
 Railway rail
 Vignoles rail
 Flanged T rail
 Grooved rail
 Bar, a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so
wide so as to be called a sheet.
 Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal, see also rebar and dowel.
 Plate, metal sheets thicker than 6 mm or 1⁄4 in.
 Open web steel joist
3
While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made
by welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow
sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and seam-welded)[3].
2.2.2 Property of Structural Steel:
Characteristics - Structural steel differs from concrete in its attributed compressive
strength as well as tensile strength.
• Strength - Having high strength, stiffness, toughness, and ductile properties,
structural steel is one of the most commonly used materials in commercial and
industrial building construction.
• Constructability - Structural steel can be developed into nearly any shape, which
are either bolted or welded together in construction. Structural steel can be erected
as soon as the materials are delivered on site, whereas concrete must be cured at
least 1–2 weeks after pouring before construction can continue, making steel a
schedule-friendly construction
material.
• Fire resistance - Steel is inherently a noncombustible material. However,when
heated to temperatures seen in a fire scenario, the strength and stiffness of
the material is significantly reduced. The International Building Code requires steel
be enveloped in sufficient fire-resistant materials, increasing overall cost of steel
structure buildings.
• Corrosion - Steel, when in contact with water, can corrode, creating a potentially
dangerous structure. Measures must be taken in structural steel construction to
prevent any lifetime corrosion. The steel can be painted, providing water
resistance. Also, the fire resistance material used to envelope steel is commonly
water resistant.
• Mold - With the propagation of mold and mildew in residential buildings, using
steel minimizes these infestations. Mold needs moist, porous material to
grow. Steel studs do not have those problems.[3]

2.2.3 Composition of Structural Steel:

The primary types of structural steel are usually classified according to the following chemical
composition categories:
Carbon-manganese steels
High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels
High-strength quenched and tempered alloy steels

4
The carbon-manganese steels, whose primary chemical components are carbon and
manganese in addition to iron, are referred to as carbon steels or mild structural steels. The
materials of this type are generally least expensive; they have quite adequate strength and
ductility characteristics, and are therefore by far the most widely used grades. One of the most
prominent of these steels are ASTM grade A36, with a specified minimum yield stress of
36 ksi.
The high-strength low-alloy steels represent a relatively recent development in steelmaking.
The higher strength (42 to 65 ksi) is achieved by adding small amounts of additional chemical
elements. Two of the most common HSLA steels are ASTM grade A572 and A588.
The high-strength quenched and tempered (Q&T) alloy steels used for structural purposes are
essentially available only as grade A514 today. With a yield stress level of 90 to 100 ksi, the
increase in strength is achieved through heat treatment. A514 is available only in plate form,
up to 6 inches thick.
Following is a list of some important chemical elements used in structural steels:
Carbon (C) Next to iron, carbon is by far the most important chemical element in steel.
Increasing the carbon content produces a material with higher strength and lower ductility.
Structural steels, therefore, have carbon contents between 0.15 to 0.30 percent; if the carbon
content goes much higher, the ductility will be too low, and for magnitudes less than 0.15
percent the strength will not be satisfactory.
Manganese (Mn) Manganese appears in structural steel grades in amounts ranging from
about 0.50 to 1.70 percent. It has effects similar to those of carbon, and the steel producer uses
these two elements in combination to obtain a material with the desired properties. Manganese
is a necessity for the process of hot rolling of steel by its combination with oxygen and sulfur.
Aluminum (Al) Aluminum is one of the most important deoxidizers in the material, and also
helps form a more fine-grained crystalline microstructure. It is usually used in combination
with silicon to obtain a semi- or fully killed steel.
PChromium (Cr) Chromium is present in certain structural steels in small amounts. It is
primarily used to increase the corrosion resistance of the material, and for that reason often
occurs in combination with nickel and copper. Stainless steel will typically have significant
amounts of chromium. Thus, the well-known “18-8” stainless steel contains 18 percent of
nickel and 8 percent of chromium.
Columbium (Cb) Columbium is a strength-enhancing elements, and is one of the important
components in some of the HSLA steels. Its effects are similar to those of manganese and
vanadium; it also has some corrosion resistance influence. Cb appears in types 1 and 3 of
ASTM A572.
Copper (Cu) Copper is another primary corrosion resistance elements. It is typically found
in amounts not less than 0.20 percent, and is the primary anti-corrosion component in steel
grades like A242 and A441.
Molybdenum (Mo) Molybdenum has effects similar to manganese and vanadium, and is
often used in combination with one or the other. It particularly increases the strength of the
steel at higher temperatures and also improves corrosion resistance. Typical amounts of
molybdenum are 0.08 to 0.25 percent for certain grades of A588 steel, and 0.15 to
0.65 percent for various types of A514.
Nickel (Ni) In addition to its favorable effect on the corrosion resistance of steel, nickel
enhances the low-temperature behavior of the material by improving the fracture toughness.
It is used in structural steels in varying amount; for example, certain grades of ASTM A514

5
have Ni contents between 0.30 and 1.50 percent; some types of A588 have nickel contents
from 0.25 to 1.25 percent.
Phosphorus (P) and Sulfur (S) Both of these elements are generally undesirable in
structural steel. Sulfur, in particular, promotes internal segregation in the steel matrix. Both
act to reduce the ductility of the material. All steel grade specifications, therefore, place
severe restrictions on the amount of P and S that are allowed, basically holding them to less
than about 0.04 to 0.05 percent. Their detrimental effect on weldability is significant.
Silicon (Si) Along with aluminum, silicon is one of the principal deoxidizers for structural
steel. It is the element that is most commonly used to produce semi- and fully killed steels,
and normally appears in amounts less than 0.40 percent.
Vanadium (V) The effects of this chemical element are similar to those of Mn, Mo, and Cb.
It helps the material develop a finer crystalline microstructure and gives increased fracture
toughness. Vanadium contents of 0.02 to 0.15 percent are used in ASTM grades A572 and
A588, and in amounts of 0.03 to 0.08 percent in A514.
Other chemical elements Certain steel grades utilize small amounts of other alloying
elements, such as boron, nitrogen, and titanium. These elements normally work in conjunction
with some of the major components to enhance certain aspects of the material performance.[4]

2.2.4 Microstructure of Structural Steel:

The microstructure of metals and alloys-that is, the geometric arrangements,
volume fractions, sizes, and morphologies of the constituent phases and/or grains,
as observed under the microscope-plays an important part in determining the
mechanical properties of the material. In general, strength depends on the nature,
distribution, and size of the phases and/or grains present: Fine-grained structures
are stronger than coarse-grained structures. In two-phase alloys, where one phase
is hard and brittle relative to the other, optimum properties are obtained where the
hard and brittle phase is uniformly distributed as isolated particles. If the brittle
phase occurs as a continuous network, then fracture will follow this network,
making the alloy as a whole brittle. The distribution of phases depends initially on
the conditions under which the alloy solidified, but it may be varied by mechanical
working and heat treatment.
In a binary, metallic alloy system, the relationship between the composition of the
phases present and temperature may conveniently be represented by an equilibrium
or phase diagram . The following features should be noted in the iron-cementite,
Fe-Fe3C, phase diagram (Fig. 2.2):

6
Figure 2.2 (a)Iron-iron carbide equilibrium phase diagram (iron rich portion) (P. A. Thornton and V. J. Colangelo,
Fundamentals of Engineering Materials, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1985).

(b)Photomicrograph illustrating the lamellar nature of pearlite (xl125) (Courtesy of Theresa Brassard).

7
1.Iron goes through two allotropic transformations during heating or cooling: On
continued cooling from a liquid melt, it first forms a body-centered cubic (BCC)
structure, then a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, and finally another BCC
structure. All three allotropes will form interstitial solid solutions with carbon,
identified as delta iron (), austenite (), and ferrite (), respectively. A greater
number of carbon atoms can be accommodated in the austenite than in the other
two phases, since the interstitial holes in the FCC lattice are somewhat larger than
those in the BCC lattices. Hence the maximum solubility of carbon in austenite is
2.0%, while it is much lower in delta iron (0.10%) and ferrite (0.025%). These
solid solutions are relatively soft and ductile, but stronger than pure iron due to
solid solution strengthening by the interstitial carbon atoms.
2.Cementite, or iron carbide, Fe 3C, is a stoichiometric intermetallic compound
formed when the solubility of carbon in solid iron is exceeded. This compound
contains 6.67% C, is extremely hard and brittle, and is present in all commercial
steels. The degree of dispersion strengthening and hence the properties of the steel
are controlled by properly regulating the amount, size, and shape of the Fe3C
phase.
3.A eutectoid reaction occurs as the austenite () cools below 727C. That is,

+Fe3C.

Since the two phases that form have different compositions, atoms must diffuse
during the reaction: Most of the carbon in the austenite diffuses to the Fe 3C, and
most of the iron to the ferrite (). Since this redistribution of atoms is easiest if the
diffusion distances are short, the  and Fe3C grow as thin lamellae, or plates,
forming a structure called pearlite (Fig. 2.3a).
Since the structural steels are hypoeutectoid - that is, they contain less carbon than
the eutectoid composition (0.80%) - the primary microconstituent is ferrite (a).
When a hypoeutectoid alloy cools under equilibrium conditions from some
temperature above, say, 900'C, the following occurs (Fig. 2.3b):

8
Fig 2.3
(a)Microstructural formation during the slow cooling of a hypoeutectoid steel from the melt (M. E Ashby
and D. R. H. Jones, Engineering Materials 2, An Introduction to Microstructures, Processing and Design,
Pergamon Press, 1986).

(b)Photomicrograph showing pearlite "islands" (striped regions) surrounded by primary ferrite (X8000).
Courtesy of Mary Mager, Dept. of Metals and Materials Engineering, University of British Columbia .

1. Just below the A3 temperature, ferrite precipitates and grows, usually at the
austenite grain boundaries; primary ferrite continues to grow until the
temperature falls to A1.

9
2. At the A1 temperature, the remaining austenite is surrounded by ferrite and
its composition has changed to the eutectoid composition (0.80% C);
subsequent cooling causes all of this austenite to transform to pearlite by the
eutectoid reaction.

The final structure contains two phases-ferrite and cementite-arranged as two

microconstituents: primary ferrite and pearlite (Fig. 13.5). The pearlite exists as
"islands" surrounded by ferrite; this permits the alloy to be ductile, due to the
continuous primary ferrite, yet strong, due to the discontinuous, dispersion-
strengthened pearlite.[5]

2.3 High Strength Steel:

High strength steel (HSS) is a new generation of steel material exhibiting improved
properties over conventional steel grades (e.g. S235, S355, etc.). HSS is available,
for more than three decades now, for structural applications such as bridges,
buildings, offshore, cranes etc.
High strength steels (HSS: S460-S700) or very high strength steels (VHSS: up to
S1100, and even higher for cables) are available for structural applications, as in
bridges, buildings, offshore applications etc., all around the world.
These steels must exhibit good toughness and ductility, to avoid brittle failures and
at the same time very good weldability and high strength. The combination of
these overall requirements is often difficult to be achieved, since the increase of
one of these properties may lead to a decrease in others (e.g. increasing the amount
of carbon content during steel production, increases strength on one hand, but at
the same time reduces weldability).
Therefore, a variety of structural HSS grades exists today, which allows for
different values of these properties. It is possible, for example, to develop many
different steels with minimum yield strength of 690 MPa just by altering their
chemical composition or by changing the production process.
The choice of the “right” high strength steel for a particular structural application,
however, depends strongly on the material requirements (toughness, strength,
weldability etc.) for that application. Applying HSS such that the full properties of
the material can be utilized (e.g. using steel exhibiting very high yield strength in

10
regions where high tensile stresses occur), would be an efficient and competitive
way of using higher steel grades.
According to European standards, high strength steel can be delivered mainly as
quenched and tempered (Q&T) or as thermo-mechanically controlled processed
(TMPC). In the first case high strengths can be achieved with minimum yield
strength up to 1100 MPa, which can lead to considerable weight savings, while in
the second case moderate strengths (min yield strength up to 500 MPa)
accompanied with excellent weldability are possible.[6]

2.3.1 High Strength Steel Types:

Depending on their structural properties, chemical composition or delivery
condition, many different types/categories exist, which usually referred as high
strength steels (HSS) or high performance steels (HPS).
All these different steel types, however, have more or less similar properties, in the
sense that, they refer to high strength steels with better toughness, improved
weldability, higher strengths and/or improved corrosion resistance (in case of high
performance weathering steels).
Generally, their chemical composition and quality depends strongly on the
production process, controlled by the manufacturer, and also on the processes in
the fabrication shop (cutting, drilling, welding etc.) to obtain the final product. In
any case, it must be ensured, that they all comply with (or are superior of) the
specifications provided by the relative
international quality standard (American (ASTM), European (EN), Japanese (JIS),
etc.).The types are:
i) High Strength Low Alloy Steel (HSLA) Or Microalloyed Steels
(Ma)
ii) High Performance Steel (HPS)
iii) High Strength Weathering Steel (W)
iv) Constant Yield Point Steel
v) High Toughness Steel
vi) Bridge High Performance Steels (BHS) etc[7].

11
2.4 Fire Resistance:
Fire resistance means the ability of building components and systems to perform
their intended fire separating and/or loadbearing functions under fire exposure. Fire
resistant building components and systems are those with specified fire resistance
ratings based on fire resistance tests. These ratings, expressed in minutes and
hours, describe the time duration for which a given building component or system
maintains specific functions while exposed to a specific simulated fire event.
Various test protocols describe the procedures to evaluate the performance of
doors, windows, walls, floors, beams, columns, etc. The term ‘fire proof’ is a
misnomer in that nothing is fire proof. All construction materials, components and
systems have limits where they will be irreparably damaged by fire.[8]

2.4.1 Principle of Fire:

There are three elements required for a fire to start: fuel, oxygen and ignition. The
materials that form the building’s contents are the fuel of the fire. These materials
can be either part of the building structure including wood frames, doors,
windows, lining materials, service materials etc. It can also be the materials of the
furniture which is considered as the main fuel particularly in the early stages of the
fire. An ignition occurs when a combustible material is heated to a certain
temperature that is sufficient to trigger the exothermic reaction of combustion.
Conventional ignition sources in buildings are mainly human made including
cigarettes, candles, gas heaters, matches, etc. Ignition can also be triggered by
machines, electricity or radiation from heaters and other hot objects. The second
phase after ignition is the spread of the fire .
Factors that affect the speed and the rate of fire spread are the flammability and
thermal properties of the fuel, the location and the size of the flame within the
compartment.
When the fire starts the generated heat is transferred in all directions by three ways,
conduction, radiation and convection. Conduction is the heat transfer in solid
materials which happens between molecules when a thermal gradient is present.
For example; steel is a better conductor than concrete. Thermal conductivity and
thermal inertia are the main two parameters that measure the heat conductivity of

12
any material. In radiation, the heat is transmitted by emission from the material
surface in the form of electromagnetic waves that travel through space and other
media. Radiation is an effective mechanism of fire spread as the heat transfers
directly from the flame to other potential fuels in the surrounding area. Radiation
also depends on the emissivity of the emitting surface and the properties of the
receiving surface and the distance between them. However, convection is
considered as one of the major modes of heat transfer as the heat is transferred by
movement of molecules in fluids. The main fluids for heat transfer by convection
are hot gases including smoke. However, heat can also be transferred through
liquids. The convection happens usually upwards against gravity and depends on
many factors including ventilation of the room and velocity of the hot gases. The
main parameter to measure convection is the convective heat transfer coefficient.
[9]

2.4.2 Fire Loads and Fire Resistance:

The term ‘fire load’ in a compartment of a structure is the maximum heat that can
be theoretically generated by the combustible items and contents of the structure.
The fire load could be measured as the weight of the combustible material
multiplied by the calorific value per unit weight. Fire load is conveniently
expressed in terms of the floor space as MJ/m2 or Mcal/m2. More often it would
be expressed in terms of equivalent quantity of wood and expressed as Kg wood /
m2 (1 Kg wood = 18MJ). The commonly encountered fire loads are presented in
Table 1.5. The values are just an indication of the amount of fire load and the
values may change from one environment to the other and also from country to
country.
The fire ratings of steel structures are expressed in units of time ½, 1, 2, 3 and 4
hours etc. The specified time neither represents the time duration of the real fire
nor the time required for the occupants to escape. The time parameters are
basically a convenient way of comparative grading of buildings with respect to fire
safety. Basically they represent the endurance of structural steel elements under
standard laboratory conditions. The rate of heating of the unprotected steel is
obviously quite high as compared to the fire-protected steel. We shall see in the
following sections that these two types of fire behaviour of steel structure give rise
to two different
philosophies of fire design. The time equivalence of fire resistance for steel

13
structures or
the fire rating could be calculated as

Teq(minutes)=WCQf

Where Qf is the fire load MJ/m2 which is dependent on the amount of

combustible material, ‘W’ is the ventilation factor relating to the area

and height and
width of doors and windows and ‘C’ is a coefficient related to the
thermal properties of the walls, floors and ceiling. As an illustration,
the “W” value for a building with large
openings could be chosen as 1.5 and for highly insulating materials
“C” value could be
chosen as 0.09[10]

2.4.3 Fire Resistant Steel:

Fire safety in steel structures could also be brought about by the use of certain
types of steel, which are called ‘Fire Resistant Steels (FRS)’. These steels are
basically thermo-mechanically treated (TMT) steels which perform much better
structurally under fire than the ordinary structural steels. These steels have the
ferrite – pearlite microstructure of ordinary structural steels but the presence of
Molybdenum and Chromium stabilises the microstructure even at 600oC. The
composition of fire resistant
steel is presented in Table.2.1
Table 2.1 Chemical composition of fire resistant steel
C Mn Si S P Mo + Cr
FRS 0.20% 1.50% 0.50% 0.040% 0.040% 1.00%
Mild Steel 0.23% 1.50% 0.40% 0.050% 0.050% -

The fire resistant steels exhibit a minimum of two thirds of its yield strength at
room temperature when subjected to a heating of about 600oC. In view of this,
there is an innate protection in the steel for fire hazards. Fire resistant steels are
weldable

14
without pre-heating and are commercially available in the market as joists,
channels and angles.[10]

2.5 Steel Structures Subjected to Fire:

The kind of materials used in construction and the manner in which they respond
to fire, clearly has agreat bearing on how a structure will respond to fire. It is
therefore important to develop an understanding of the behaviour of structural
materials subjected to fire in terms of both the heat transfer characteristics of the
material and its mechanical response to heating.

The manner in which a material responds to fire can be classified (somewhat

arbitrarily) under the following groups according to behaviour or properties
1. Chemical: Decomposition, charring.
2. Physical: Variation in density (ρ), softening, melting, spalling.
3. Mechanical: Strength as measured by yield or peak stressed ( fy for steel and fcu
for concrete),
stiffness as measured by the modulus of elasticity (E), creep, thermal expansion as
measured by
the coefficient of thermal expansion (α).
4. Thermal: Thermal conductivity (k), specific heat (c).

Among these mechanical and thermal properties are most important for structural
engineering and will be discussed.[11]

2.5.1 Mechanical:

We need to know about the mechanical properties of steel at elevated

temperatures in the case of fire resistant design of structural steel work.
Hence in this section we review the important mechanical aspects of steel
at elevated temperatures. Fig. 2.4 represents the performance of protected
and unprotected steel in a laboratory condition of fire. The rate of heating
of the unprotected steel is obviously quite high as compared to the fire-
protected steel.
15
Fig 2.4 The variations of the non-dimensional modulus of elasticity, yield strength and coefficient of
thermal expansion with respect to temperature

The corresponding equations are given below.

The variation of modulus of elasticity ratio Ewith respect to the

corresponding value at 200C, with respect to temperature Tis given by,

The yield stress of steel remains unchanged up to a temperature of about 2150C and
then

loses its strength gradually. The yield stress ratio(with respect to yield stress at
200C) vs. temperature T relation is given by

16
Similarly the coefficient of thermal expansion αalso varies with temperature by a simple
relation

Fig 2.5 Mechanical properties of steel at elevated temperatures

These equations are very useful when one is interested in the analysis of steel
structures subjected to fire.

In the codes of practice for steel structures subjected to fire, strength curves are
generally provided for structural steel work at elevated temperatures. In these
curves the strain at which the strength is assessed in an important parameter. For
example the BS: 5950 part 8 has used 1.5% strain as the strain limit as against 2%
for Eurocode 3 Part10. A lower strain of 0.5% may be used for columns or
components with brittle fire protection materials[10]

2.5.2 Thermal:

The following sections describe the thermal properties of carbon steel. The thermal
properties of stainless steel are given in Annex C of Eurocode 3 and in Appendix
of ASCE manual (1992). However, AISC steel design manual lists Eurocode
thermal properties. There are slight differences between Eurocode and ASCE
specified high temperature thermal properties.

17
Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity of carbon steel decreases with temperature in the manner
described by Eq. I.1, see Figure 2.6
λa = 54 - θa/30 ≥ 27.333 (I.1)
where θa is the steel temperature in ◦C.
Although this is not explicitly stated in Eurocode 3, the thermal conductivity of
steel is generally assumed to be reversible during cooling, which means that the
thermal conductivity of steel varies according to Eq. I.1 during heating from 20◦C
to a
temperature θa,max as well as during subsequent cooling back to 20◦C.
Specific heat:
Specific heat of carbon steel in J/kgK is varying with temperature in the manner
described by Eq. I.2, see Figure 2.7 (in kJ/kgK).
ca = 425 + 0.773 ϑa - 1.69 × 10-3 ϑa 2
+ 2.22 × 10-6 ϑ3
a for ϑa < 600◦C
ca = 666 + 13 002
738 - ϑa
for 600◦C ≤ ϑa < 735◦C
ca = 545 + 17 820
ϑa - 731
for 735◦C ≤ ϑa < 900◦C
ca = 650 for 900◦C ≤ ϑa (I.2)[12]

Fig. 2.6 Thermal conductivity of carbon steel

18
 Fig. 2.7 Specific heat of carbon steel

2.6 Structural mechanisms affecting the steel resistance under fire

temperature

The strength of a steel is in general determined by the strength of its metallic

matrix. It is a well-known fact that such strength decreases with the material
temperature growth. This happens due to the increasing dislocation mobility,
which becomes activated by the thermal energy supplied to the matrix. The stress
necessary to move a free dislocation in a metallic matrix is called the Peierls -
Nabarro stress. It is obvious that its value is strongly temperature-dependent
because the thermal agitation is helpful in moving dislocations around the short-
range obstacles. Let us underline that at room temperature these dislocations are
usually constrained to move only in certain glide planes; however, at high
temperature diffusion of the point defects can change the outline of a dislocation,
enabling an edge dislocation to move around an obstacle. Such a process is
usually called “the dislocation climb”. The second process, named “the
dislocation cross-slip”, occurs when a screw dislocation moves to a parallel slip
plane using an intersecting slip plane of the same system. Recently Cottrel has

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reported that the dislocation cross-slip can occur at lower temperature value in
relation to that which is needed to initiate the dislocation climb.

The precipitation may be another process affecting the stability of a metallic

matrix. In alloy systems it occurs heterogeneously because the precipitate
coarsening is accelerated on dislocations and grain boundaries due to the faster
diffusion of solute elements along these channels. Nevertheless, if a precipitate is
coarsening at high temperature then the process referred as “the Ostwald
ripening” can be initiated. In such conditions the interface energy of the
precipitate/matrix interface is lowered and a more stable configuration is
achieved in a considered metallic matrix. Dispersion of precipitates may result in
the strengthening of metallic matrix provided that their size is not too big;
however, this effect strongly depends on such a size and on the inter-particle
spacing in a matrix. Therefore, if a critical size of the precipitates is surpassed
and, furthermore, if the inter-particle spacing in metallic matrix is sufficiently
increased as a consequence of the impact of high temperature, the contribution of
this process to the strengthening of the considered structural steel will start to
decrease and finally will become disadvantageous.

Weakening of a steel strength may also be caused by creation of the

vacancies in metallic matrix when some atoms are missing from one of the
lattice sites. These vacancies are the unfavourable point defects which are
frequently interpreted as the so called Schottky defects. Such creation is
significantly intensified at fire temperature because the thermal agitation
moves all atoms from their atomic sites; however, it is obvious that few
vacancies may occur even at much lower temperature. As it has been shown in
the experiments, about one site in 104 becomes vacant near the steel melting
point. Moreover, the creation of the vacancies on dislocations in metallic
matrix decreases the effect of precipitates at high temperature by enhancing
the process of dislocation climb.

The detrimental effect on the strength of structural steel have also the
impurity inclusions. Such effect is noticeable even at room temperature when

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these particles detach from the matrix soon after the plastic yield begins;
however, at high temperature it is much more damaging because of a different
coefficient of thermal expansion characterizing the particles of the impurity in
relation to that assigned to iron. This difference is the source of the thermal
stresses induced in a metallic matrix as a consequence of the impact of fire
temperature, leading to the premature de-cohesion. It is a well-known fact that
at room temperature de-cohesion occurs first at MnS inclusions, then at
smaller oxides and finally at small carbides. Furthermore, Honeycombe and
Bhadeshia stated that calcium aluminates and alumina are the most detrimental
in this field due to their substantially smaller coefficient of thermal expansion
than that relating to the parent steel.

The next process affecting the strength of the considered steel at high
temperature is the grain boundary sliding. As recently has been reported by
Dieter such sliding becomes significant when the steel temperature reach the
value 630o C . This temperature is known as the equicohesive value because at
this level the grain boundary strength and the matrix strength are equal. If the
temperature exceeds this level the grain boundary will be weaker than the
grain interior. The grain boundary sliding occurs by a shear process along the
direction of the boundary. It is normally associated with creep deformation;
however, its contribution to the overall matrix deformation during the
relatively short-lasting fire is estimated as almost non-existent. In fact, creep
defined as the progressive deformation of a material matrix at constant stress,
which are frequently less than the material yield stress, is generally considered
to be irrelevant in fire because the relatively short duration of such a fire.
However, some processes being thermally activated, included those listed
above, may become much more intensified when they occur in the interaction
with creep. In particular, this refers to dislocation glide, diffusion creep and
grain boundary sliding.

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 Fig. 2.8. (a) pure metal; (b) substitutional alloy; (c) interstitial alloy; (d) substitutional/ interstitial alloy.

When a metal is alloyed with another metal, either substitutional or interstitial

solid solutions are usually formed (see Fig 2.8). Substitutional solid solutions are
those in which the solute and solvent atoms are nearly the same size, and the
solute atoms simply substitute for solvent atoms on the crystalline lattice. On the
other hand, interstitial solid solutions are those in which the solute atoms are
much smaller and they fit within the spaces between the existing solvent atoms
on the crystalline structure. However, the only solute atoms small enough to fit
into the interstices of metal crystals are hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and boron.
The other small-diameter atoms, such as oxygen, tend to form compounds with
metals rather than dissolve in them. When both small and large solute atoms are
present, the solid solution can be both interstitial and substitutional. The
insertion of substitutional and/or interstitial alloying elements strains the
crystalline lattice of the host solvent structure. This increase in distortion,[13]
2.7 Microstructure:
Microstructure is the small scale structure of a material, defined as the
structure of a prepared surface of material as revealed by a microscope above
25× magnification. The microstructure of a material (such
as metals, polymers, ceramics or composites) can strongly influence physical
properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance,
high/low temperature behavior or wear resistance. These properties in turn
govern the application of these materials in industrial practice. Microstructure at
scales smaller than can be viewed with optical microscopes is often
called nanostructure, while the structure in which individual atoms are arranged
is known as crystal structure. The nanostructure of biological specimens is
referred to as ultrastructure.[14]
2.7.1 Methods:
The concept of microstructure is observable in macrostructural features in
commonplace objects. Galvanized steel, such as the casing of a lamp post or road
divider, exhibits a non-uniformly colored patchwork of interlocking polygons of
different shades of grey or silver. Each polygon is a single crystal of zinc adhering

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to the surface of the steel beneath. Zinc and lead are two common metals which
form large crystals (grains) visible to the naked eye. The atoms in each grain are
organized into one of seven 3d stacking arrangements or crystal lattices (cubic,
tetrahedral, hexagonal, monoclinic, triclinic, rhombohedral and orthorhombic). The
direction of alignment of the matrices differ between adjacent crystals, leading to
variance in the reflectivity of each presented face of the interlocked grains on the
galvanized surface. The average grain size can be controlled by processing
conditions and composition, and most alloys consist of much smaller grains not
visible to the naked eye. This is to increase the strength of the material (see Hall-
Petch Strengthening).

Fig 2.9 The microstructure of ASTM A36 steel showing ferrite and pearlite.

2.7.2 Micostructure Characterizations:

To quantify microstructural features, both morphological and material property
must be characterized. Image processing is a robust technique for determination of
morphological features such as volume fraction inclusion morphology, void and
crystal orientations. To acquire micrographs, optical as well as electron
microscopy are commonly used. To determine material property, Nanoindentation
is a robust technique for determination of properties in micron and submicron level
for which conventional testing are not feasible. Conventional mechanical testing
such as tensile testing or dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) can only return
macroscopic properties without any indication of microstructural properties.
However, nanoindentation can be used for determination of local microstructural
properties of homogeneous as well as heterogeneous materials
2.7.3 Microstructure Generation:

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Computer-simulated microstructures are generated to replicate the microstructural
features of actual microstructures. Such microstructures are referred to as synthetic
microstructures. Synthetic microstrucures are used to investigate what
microstructural feature is important for a given property. To ensure statistical
equivalence between generated and actual microstructures, microstructures are
modified after generation to match the statistics of an actual microstructure. Such
procedure enables generation of theoretically infinite number of computer
simulated microstructures that are statistically the same (have the same statistics)
but stochastically different (have different configurations) [15]

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