Transportation Engineering, Institute of Engineering1 (IOE)

National college of Engineering (NCE)

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY

Chapter 3
Lecture 9

Instructor: Neeva Dahal Msc. In Transportation Engineering, IOE Pulchowk

Campus
[email protected]
 Sight Distance
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• The actual distance along the road
surface which a driver sitting at
a specified height in a vehicle can see
object either moving or stationary
on the road surface.
• Restriction to sight distance may be
caused in following circumstances:
a. By object obstructing vision at inner
sides of horizontal curve.
b. Due to sharpness of horizontal curve.
c. Vertical summit curve
d. At intersection.
 Types of Sight Distance
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1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

2. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
3. Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD)
4. Head light sight distance
5. Sight distance at Intersection
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
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• It is minimum distance required within which a vehicle moving at
designed speed can be stopped without colliding with a
stationary object on the road surface.
• It is also called non-passing sight distance/ absolute minimum
sight distance.
• The sight distance at any location or spot should not be less than
SSD.
• Sight distance available on road depend upon:
i) Height of driver above road surface,
ii) Height of object above road surface and
iii) Road feature (alignment and traffic condition)
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
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• Factors which governs the SSD are:
1. Total reaction time of driver
2. Speed of the vehicle (higher V, higher SSD)
3. Efficiency of brakes (less ƞ, more SSD)
4. Frictional resistance between tire and road
(less f, more SSD ; f=0.34 to 0.4)
5. Gradient of road (more SSD for descending grade and vice
versa)
 1. Total reaction time of driver
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• Reaction time of driver is the time taken from the instant the
object is visible to the driver to the instant when the brakes are
applied.
• Total reaction time = perception time + brake reaction time
• Perception time depends upon speed of vehicles, distance of the
object and other environmental condition.
• Brake reaction time depends upon skill of driver, and it is a time
elapses between the moment the foot is removed from
accelerator paddle and placed on brake paddle.
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As per PIEV theory, the total reaction time is split into four
component
1. Perception
2. Intellection
3. Emotion
4. Volition
1. Perception
• The recognition or realization that a cue or stimulus exist and
requires a response.
• Time required to transmit the sensation received by ear or eye
to the brain through nervous system and spinal cord.
 2. Intellection
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• Interpretation or identification of the stimulus.
• Time required to understand the situation.
3. Emotion
• The determination of
appropriate response to the situation.
4. Volition
• The physical response resulting
from the decision.
• Time take by the driver
for final action.
 Example of PIEV theory
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Consider a driver approaching STOP sign

1. The driver first see the sign (perception)
2. Recognize it as a STOP sign (intellection)
3. Decide to stop (emotion)
4. Remove his/her foot from accelerator paddle and
put foot on brake (volition)
 2. Speed of the vehicles
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The speed of the vehicle clearly affects the sight

distance.
If the speed employed is high, the time required to
stop the vehicle will be high.
This means that with the increase in the speed there is
increase in the sight distance.
 3. Efficiency of brakes
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Many factors like the age of the vehicle, the

characteristics of the vehicle will affect the brake
efficiency of the vehicle.
An efficiency of 100% implies that the vehicle will
stop at the moment the brake is applied. Obtaining
100% is not practicable.
This is an ideal condition of the vehicle. This means, for
a lower value of brake efficiency, it is necessary to
obtain a higher value of sight distance.
 4. Frictional Resistance between Road
and tire
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When the frictional resistance is more, Vehicle stops

immediately. Thus the sight distance required will be
less.
NRS 2070 has specified the value of longitudinal
friction between in between 0.34 to 0.4.
5. Gradient of the road: Sight Distance gets affected
by gradient.
At ascending Gradient, Vehicles can stop immediately.
Similarly, Descending gradient more time will be
required too stop vehicles. Hence sight distance
required will be more.
 Stopping Sight Distance
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The stopping sight distance of a vehicle is the sum of:
• The distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time known
as lag distance.
• The distance travelled by the vehicle after the application of the brakes to
a dead stop position which is known as braking distance.
Lag distance:
If v is the design speed in m/sec and t is the total reaction time of the driver
in secs, then the lag distance will be v x t meters.
The total reaction time is considered 2.5 secs for the calculation of stopping
sight distance.
Braking distance: The coefficient of friction f depends on type and condition
of the pavement surface and tires. Value of coefficient of friction f decreases
with increase in speed.
 Calculation of SSD
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 Cont..
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 Stopping Sight Distance
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Practically the sight distance designed should follow the following
rules:
❖ For one way traffic with single lane road or for two-way
traffic on multiple lane roads, the minimum stopping distance is
equal to the stopping sight distance. This is because there is no
chance of collision of vehicles moving in two opposite
directions. So it helps to enable the driver to stop the vehicle
from colliding with any obstacles.
Therefore, SSD = SD
❖ For two-way traffic movements in a single lane, the minimum
stopping distance is twice the stopping distance as because
there is every chance of colliding the vehicles with opposing
ones. Therefore, SSD = 2*SD
 Numerical Example
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 Numerical Example
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Calculate minimum SSD required for single lane

road two way traffic. Given that speed of both
vehicle is 70kmph, gradient of road is 3%, total
reaction time is 2.5 sec, coefficient of friction is
0.37 and 50% brake efficiency.
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