RESIDUAL STRESS AND DISTORTION

Weldment undergoes localized heating during most welding processes; therefore, the temperature
distribution in the weldment is not uniform, and structural and metallurgical changes take place as the
welding progresses along a joint. Typically, the weld metal and the heat-affected zone immediately adjacent
to the weld are at temperatures substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. As the weld pool
solidifies and shrinks, it begins to exert stress on the surrounding weld metal and heat-affected zones. When
the weld metal first solidifies, it is hot and relatively weak; thus, it exerts little stress. As the weld cools to
ambient temperature, however, the stress in the weld area increases and eventually reaches the yield point
of the base metal and the heat-affected zone.

NATURE AND CAUSES OF RESIDUAL STRESS

The term residual stress refers to the stress that exists in a weldment after all external loads have been
removed. Various terms have been used to describe residual stress. These include internal stress, initial
stress, inherent stress, reaction stress, and locked-in stress. However, the residual stress that occurs when
a structure is subjected to nonuniform temperature change is usually termed thermal stress.
Residual stress develops in metal structures during the various manufacturing stages for many reasons.
During casting or mechanical working (e.g., rolling, forging, or bending), stress may be produced in
structural components such as plates, bars, and sections. It may also occur during fabrication as a result of
welding, brazing, and thermal cutting operations.

Residual Stress Resulting from Structural Mismatch

Figure 7.6 illustrates a simple case in which residual stresses are produced when bars of different lengths
are forcibly connected. Figure 7.6(A) shows the system in the free state. An opening exists between the two
portions of Bar Q, which is slightly shorter than Bars P and P′. When these two portions are forcibly
connected as shown in Figure 7.6(B), tensile residual stresses are produced in Bar Q, while compressive
residual stresses are produced in Bars P and P′. If the cross-sectional areas of P, P′, and Q are equal, the
absolute values of the stresses in Q are twice those present in P and P′. The entire system becomes slightly
shorter after the two portions of bar Q are forcibly connected.

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 Figure 7.6—Residual Stress Produced When Bars of Different Lengths Are Forcibly Connected: (A)
Free State and (B) Stressed State

Residual Stress Produced by Unevenly Distributed Nonelastic Strain

When a metal is heated uniformly, it expands uniformly, yielding no thermal stress. On the other hand, if
the metal is heated unevenly, thermal stresses and strains develop. Residual stress may also be produced
when the object is deformed plastically. The fundamental relationships necessary for the creation of a plane-
stress/residual stress field (σz = 0) are presented below:
1. Strains consist of both elastic strain and plastic strain:

y

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2. A Hooke’s law relationship exists between the stress and the elastic strain; thus,

3. The stress must satisfy the equilibrium conditions:

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4. The total strain must satisfy the condition of compatibility:

Equations (7.3) and (7.4) indicate that residual stress exists when the value of R, which denotes
incompatibility, is not zero. The term R is determined by the plastic strain using the following equation:

Thus, incompatibility, R, can be considered the cause of residual stress.

Several equations have been proposed to calculate stress components σx, σy, and τxy for the given values
of plastic strain, ʺx, ʺy and γʺxy. The conclusions obtained from these mathematical analyses include the
following:
1. Residual stress in a body cannot be determined by measuring the stress change that takes place when
external load is applied to the member, and
2. Residual stress components σx, σy, and τxy can be calculated from Equation (7.2) when the elastic strain
components ʹx, ʹy and γʹxy are determined. However, the plastic strain components ʺx, ʺy and γʺxy
which cause the residual stress, cannot be determined without knowing the history of the formation of the
residual stress.

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THERMAL STRESS AND THE RESULTING RESIDUAL STRESS
The changes in temperature and stress that occur during welding are shown schematically in Figure 7.9.
In this application, a bead-on-plate weld is being deposited along Line X-X. The welding arc, which is
moving at velocity v, is presently located at Point O, as shown in Figure 7.9(A).

Figure 7.9—Distribution of Temperature, ΔT, and Stress, σx, During the Production of a Bead-on-Plate
Weld

Figure 7.9(B) shows the temperature distributions transverse to Line X–X at locations A, B, C, and D.
Across Section A–A, which is ahead of the welding arc, the temperature change, ΔT, due to welding is
essentially zero. However, the temperature distribution is very steep across Section B-B, which crosses the
welding arc. Along Section C–C, at some distance behind the welding arc, the temperature distribution is
much less severe. Farther away from the welding arc, the temperature across Section D–D has returned to
a uniform distribution.
The distribution of the normal stress in the xdirection, σx, at Sections A–A, B–B, C–C, and D–D is
illustrated in Figure 7.9(C). The normal stress in the y-direction, σy, and the shear stress, τxy, also exist in a
two-dimensional stress field, though these are not shown in Figure 7.9.
At Section A–A, the thermal stress due to welding is almost zero. Stress is nearly nonexistent in the regions
below the weld pool at Section B–B because the hot metal cannot support a load. Stress in the heat-affected
zones on both sides of the weld pool are compressive because the expansion of these areas is restrained by
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surrounding metal that is at lower temperatures. The temperature of the metal near the arc is high, and the
resulting yield strength is low. The compressive stress will reach yield level at the temperature of the metal.
The magnitude of the compressive stress reaches a maximum with increasing distance from the weld (i.e.,
with decreasing temperature). At some distance away from the weld pool, the tensile stress must balance
with the compressive stress in the heat-affected zones due to equilibrium conditions. The instantaneous
stress distribution along Section B–B is shown in Figure 7.9(C).
At Section C–C, the weld metal and heat-affected zones have cooled. As they attempt to shrink, tensile
stress is induced in the weld metal. This tensile stress is balanced by compressive stress in the cooler base
metal. The stress distribution is illustrated in Figure 7.9(C).
The final condition of residual stress for the weld is shown in Section D–D. Along this section, high tensile
stress exists in the weld and heat-affected zones, while compressive stress exists in the base metal away
from the weld.
Based on this examination of a bead-on-plate weld, it is obvious that thermal stress during welding is
produced by a complex series of mechanisms that involve plastic deformation at a wide range of
temperatures, ranging from ambient temperature to melting temperature. Because of the difficulty in
analyzing plastic deformation, especially at elevated temperatures, mathematical analyses are presently
limited to very simple cases.

Metal Movement during Welding

During welding, the weldment undergoes shrinkage and deformation. This transient deformation, or metal
movement, is most evident when the weld line is away from the neutral axis of the weldment, causing a
bending moment. Figure 7.10 depicts the deflection of a rectangular metal bar when a longitudinal edge is
heated by a moving welding arc or an oxyfuel gas heating torch. The metal near the heat source (the upper
regions of the bar) is heated to higher temperatures than the metal farther away from the heat source (the
lower regions of the bar). The hotter metal expands, and the bar first deforms, as shown by Curve AB.

Figure 7.10—Time Change of the Center Deflection, δ, of a Metal Bar under the Influence of a
Longitudinal Moving Heat Source
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If all the material remained completely elastic during the entire thermal cycle, any thermal stress produced
during the heating-and-cooling cycle would disappear when the bar returns to ambient temperature. The
deflection of the bar would then follow Curve AB′C′D′, and the bar would be straight after the thermal
cycle. In most cases, however, plastic strains are produced by the thermal cycle, and after cooling, the bar
contains residual stress. The transient deformation of the bar during the heating and cooling cycle is shown
by Curve ABCD. After the bar cools to the ambient temperature, a final deformation, δf, remains. This
deformation is also termed distortion.
It is interesting to note that the metal movement during welding and the distortion that occurs after welding
are in opposite directions and generally of the same order of magnitude.

RESIDUAL STRESS AND REACTION STRESS IN WELDMENTS

The types of residual stress that occur during the fabrication of welded structures are classified as (1)
residual welding stress that is produced in the welding of unrestrained members and (2) reaction stress that
is caused by external restraint.
Typical distributions of longitudinal and transverse residual stress in a single-pass weld in a butt joint are
shown in Figure 7.11. The stresses of concern are those longitudinal to the welding direction, designated
σx, and those transverse to it, designated σy, as shown in Figure 7.11(A).

σx = Longitudinal residual stress, psi (MPa)

σy = Transverse residual stress, psi (MPa)
b, f = Width and half-width of the tensile
residual stress zone, respectively, in.
(mm)
σm = Maximum stress in the weld region, psi
(MPa)
Figure 7.11—Typical Distribution of Longitudinal (σX) and Transverse Residual Stress (σY) in a Butt
Joint along the Weld Line (X-Axis) and the Line Vertical to the Weld Line Passing through the Center of
the Weld (Y-Axis)

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Figure 7.11(B) illustrates the distribution of the longitudinal residual stress, σx. Residual stress of a high
magnitude in tension is produced in the region near the weld. It decreases rapidly to zero over a distance
several times the width of the weld metal. Farther away, the residual stress is compressive in nature. The
distribution of these stresses is characterized by two variables—the maximum stress in weld region, σm, and
the half width of the tensile zone of residual stress, f.

The distribution of the transverse residual stress, σy, along the length of the weld is represented by Curve 1
in Figure 7.11(C). Tensile stress of a relatively low magnitude is produced in the middle section of the joint,
while compressive stress is generated at both ends of the joint.
If the lateral contraction of the joint is restrained by an external constraint, tensile stress approximately
uniform along the length of the weld is added to the residual stress as reaction stress. This is illustrated by
Curve 2 in Figure 7.11(C). An external constraint affects the magnitude of the residual stress but has little
influence on its distribution.
Residual stress in the thickness direction, σz, can become significant in weldments over 1 in. (25 mm) thick.

CHANGE IN WELDMENTS SUBJECTED TO TENSILE LOADING

Figure 7.12 illustrates changes in residual stress when a welded butt joint is subjected to tensile loading.
Curve A depicts the lateral distribution of the longitudinal residual stress in the as-welded condition. When
uniform tensile stress σ1 is applied, the stress distribution is as shown by Curve B. The stress in the areas
near the weld reaches yield stress, and most of the increase in stress occurs in areas farther away from the
weld. When the applied tensile stress increases to σ2, the stress distribution is as shown by Curve C. As the
level of applied stress increases, the stress distribution across the weld becomes more uniform (i.e., the
effect of the residual stress on the distribution of the stress decreases).

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 Figure 7.12—Effect of Uniform External Loads on Residual Stress Distribution in a Welded Butt Joint

When the level of applied stress is further increased, general yielding takes place (i.e., yielding occurs
across the entire cross section). The distribution of stress at general yielding is shown by Curve D. Beyond
general yielding, the effect of residual stresses on the stress distribution virtually disappears.
The next consideration is the distribution of residual stress after the tensile loads are released. Curve E
depicts the residual stress that remains after unloading when tensile stress σ1 is applied to the weld and then
released. Curve F shows the residual stress distribution when the tensile stress σ2 is applied and then
released.
Compared to the original pattern of distribution, shown in Curve A, the residual stress distribution after
loading and unloading is less severe, as shown in Curves E and F. As the level of loading increases, the
residual stress distribution after unloading becomes more nearly uniform (i.e., the effect of welding residual
stress on the overall distribution of stress across the welded joint decreases).
Based on this analysis, the effects of residual welding stress can be summarized as follows:
1. The effect of residual welding stress on the performance of welded structures is significant only on
phenomena that occur under low applied stress, such as brittle fracture, fatigue, and stress corrosion
cracking;
2. As the level of applied stress increases, the effect of residual stresses decreases;
3. The effect of residual stress is negligible on the performance of welded structures under an applied stress
greater than the yield strength; and
4. The effect of residual stress tends to decrease after repeated loading.

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RESIDUAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS IN TYPICAL WELDS
This section describes the residual stress distributions that are typically found in several common weld joint
types and welded structures. These include welded butt joints, plug welds, welded beams and column
shapes, and welded pipes.

WELDED BUTT JOINT

The typical distribution of longitudinal and transverse residual stress in a butt joint welded in a single pass
has been discussed previously and is shown in Figure 7.11.

PLUG WELD
Figure 7.20 depicts the typical distribution of residual stress in a circular plug weld. In the weld and
surrounding areas, tensile stress as high as the yield strengths of the materials was produced in both the
radial and tangential directions. In areas away from the weld, the radial stress, σr, was tensile, whereas the
tangential stress, σΦ, was compressive. Both types of stress decreased with increasing distance, r, from the
weld.

Figure 7.20—Effect of Distance from the Center of a Plug Weld on Radial and Tangential Residual Stress

WELDED BEAM AND COLUMN SHAPES

Typical distributions of residual stress in welded shapes are shown in Figure 7.21. Figure 7.21(A)
demonstrates the residual stress and distortion produced in a welded T-section. In a section some distance
from the end of the column, Section X–X, high tensile residual stress in the direction parallel to the axis is
produced in areas near the weld. In the flange, the stress is tensile in areas near the weld and compressive
in areas father away from the weld. Tensile stress in areas near the upper edge of the web is a result of the

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longitudinal bending distortion of the shape caused by the longitudinal shrinkage of the weld. Angular
distortion may also take place.
Figures 7.21(B) and (C) show typical distributions of residual stress in a welded H-section and a welded
box section, respectively. The residual stress shown runs parallel to the axis. Tensile stress occurs in areas
near the welds, while compressive stress is present in areas farther away from the welds.

Figure 7.21—Typical Types of Residual Stress in Welded Shapes: (A) Residual Stress and Distortion of a
Welded T-Shape; (B) Residual Stress in Welded H-Shapes; and (C) Residual Stress in a Welded Box Shape

WELDED PIPES
The distribution of residual stress in welded pipes is complex. In girth-welded pipes, for example, shrinkage
of the weld in the circumferential direction induces both shearing force, Q, and bending moment, M, as
shown in Figure 7.22. The angular distortion caused by welding also induces a bending moment. The
distribution of residual stress in pipes is affected by the following:
1. Diameter and wall thickness of the pipe;
2. Design of the weld joint (square, butt, V, for example); and
3. Welding procedure and sequence (welded on the outside only; welded on both sides, outside first; or
welded on both sides, inside first).
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 Key:
M = Bending moment
Q = Shrinkage force

Figure 7.22—Bending Moment, M, and Shrinkage Force, Q, and Caused by Residual Stress in a Girth-
Welded Pipe

Figure 7.23 illustrates the residual stress resulting from a circumferential weld in a low-carbon steel pipe.
The pipe is 30 in. (760 mm) in diameter by 7/16 in. (11 mm) in wall thickness. The residual stress, which
consists of tension on the inner surface and compression on the outer surface of the weld area.

Figure 7.23—Residual Stress in a Girth Weld in a Low-Carbon Steel Pipe.

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EFFECTS OF SPECIMEN SIZE AND WEIGHT ON RESIDUAL STRESS
When studying residual stress in a welded specimen, it is important that the specimen be large enough to
contain a level of residual stress that is as high as that contained in the actual structure.

EFFECT OF SPECIMEN LENGTH

In an investigation designed to study the effect of weld length on residual stress in unrestrained low carbon
steel welded butt joints, two series of welds were prepared by the submerged arc and the shielded metal arc
processes. The welding conditions are summarized in Figure 7.26.

Figure 7.26—Welding Conditions for the Residual Stress Measurements Shown in Figures 7.27 and 7.28:
(A) Submerged Arc Process and (B) Shielded Metal Arc Process (Double-V)

In each series of welds, the only variable was the length of the weld, as given in Figure 7.27. The width of
each specimen was sufficient to ensure that full restraint was applied. Figure 7.27 depicts the distribution
of the longitudinal and transverse residual stress along the welds made using the submerged arc welding
and shielded metal arc welding processes.
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Figure 7.27—Effect of Length on Residual Stress Distribution in Weldments: (A) Submerged Arc Welds
and (B) Shielded Metal Arc Welds

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Longitudinal residual stress must be zero at both ends of the welds, while high tensile stress exists in the
central regions of the welds. The peak stress in the central region increases with increasing weld length.
This effect is illustrated clearly in Figure 7.28, in which the peak stress for each panel is plotted versus the
weld length. This figure indicates that welds longer than 18 in. (457 mm) must be made to produce the
maximum residual tensile stress in the longitudinal direction. Longitudinal residual stress becomes uniform
in the central region for welds longer than 18 in. (457 mm).

Figure 7.28—Effect of the Length of the Weld on Maximum Residual Stress

With respect to the transverse residual stress, which is shown in Figure 7.26, the stress was tensile in central
areas and compressive in areas near the plate ends. The weld length had little effect on the maximum tensile
stress in the central area or on the maximum stress in areas near the ends of the plate.
Residual stress distributions were similar in welds made by means of both the submerged arc and the
shielded metal arc processes. Smooth stress distributions were obtained in welds made by the submerged
arc process, while stress distributions in welds made by the shielded metal arc process were somewhat
uneven.

EFFECT OF SPECIMEN WIDTH

Compared with the effect of specimen length, the effect of specimen width on residual stress is minimal,
as long as the specimen is sufficiently long. In fact, the effect of specimen width is negligible when the
width is greater than several times the width of the weld and heat-affected zones.

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RESIDUAL STRESS IN HEAVY WELDMENTS
When a weldment is made in plate more than 1 in. (25 mm) thick, residual stress can vary significantly
through the plate thickness. Figure 7.29 illustrates the distribution of residual stress in the three directions
in the weld metal of a butt joint 1 in. (25 mm) thick in low-carbon steel plates. In a study, Gunnert made
welds with covered electrodes 1/8 in. to 3/16 in. (3 mm to 5 mm) in diameter. Welding was sequenced
alternately on both sides so that angular distortion would be minimized. Residual stress measurements were
obtained using the Gunnert technique.

Figure 7.29—Distribution of Longitudinal, Transverse, and Short Transverse Residual Stress Through the
Thickness of a 1 in. (25 mm) Thick Steel Plate: (A) Longitudinal Stress, σx, ksi (MPa); (B) Transverse
Stress, σy, ksi (MPa); and (C) Normal-To-Surface Stress, σz, ksi (MPa)

As shown in Figures 7.29(A) and (B), both the longitudinal and transverse stresses were tensile in areas
near both surfaces of the weld. Compressive stress in the interior of the weld apparently was produced
during the welding of the top and bottom passes. Figure 7.29(C) shows the distribution of stresses, σz,
normal to the plate surface. At both surfaces, σz must be zero. The residual stress was primarily compressive
below the surface.

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