2 DIFFRACTION PATTERNS AND

POLARIZATION
OBJECTIVES

• To understand the principles of diffraction.

• To explain the intensity distribution in diffraction under various
conditions.
• To explain the diffraction of light waves at single, multiple slits and
circular apertures.
• To understand polarization phenomena and various techniques used to
produce polarized light.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFRACTION PATTERNS

Light of wavelength comparable to or larger than the width of a slit spreads out in
all forward directions upon passing through the slit. This phenomenon is called
diffraction. When light passes through a narrow slit, it spreads beyond the narrow
path defined by the slit into regions that would be in shadow if light traveled in
straight lines. Other waves, such as sound waves and water waves, also have this
property of spreading when passing through apertures or by sharp edges.
A diffraction pattern consisting of light and dark areas is observed when a narrow
slit is placed between a distant light source (or a laser beam) and a screen, the light
produces a diffraction pattern like that shown in Figure 2.1 (a). The pattern consists
of a broad, intense central band (called the central maximum) flanked by a series
of narrower, less intense additional bands (called side maxima or secondary
maxima) and a series of intervening dark bands (or minima).

Figure 2.1 (a) The diffraction pattern that appears on a screen when light passes through a narrow vertical
slit. (b) Diffraction pattern created by the illumination of a penny, with the penny positioned midway
between the screen and light source.

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Figure 2.1 (b) shows a diffraction pattern associated with the shadow of a penny. A
bright spot occurs at the center, and circular fringes extend outward from the
shadow’s edge. From the viewpoint of ray optics (in which light is viewed as rays
traveling in straight lines), we expect the center of the shadow to be dark because
that part of the viewing screen is completely shielded by the penny. We can explain
the central bright spot by using the wave theory of light, which predicts constructive
interference at this point.

2.2 DIFFRACTION PATTERNS FROM NARROW SLITS

Let’s consider light passing through a narrow opening modeled as a slit and
projected onto a screen. To simplify our analysis, we assume the observing screen is
far from the slit and the rays reaching the screen are approximately parallel. In
laboratory, this situation can also be achieved experimentally by using a converging
lens to focus the parallel rays on a nearby screen. In this model, the pattern on the
screen is called a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
Until now, we have assumed slits are point sources of light. In this section, we
abandon that assumption and see how the finite width of slits is the basis for
understanding Fraunhofer diffraction. We can explain some important features of
this phenomenon by examining waves coming from various portions of the slit as
shown in Figure 2.2.
According to Huygens’s principle, each portion of the slit acts as a source of light
waves. Hence, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another
portion, and the resultant light intensity on a viewing screen depends on the
direction . Based on this analysis, we recognize that a diffraction pattern is an
interference pattern in which the different sources of light are different portions of
the single slit.

Figure 2.2(a) Geometry for analyzing the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a single slit. (b) Photograph of a
single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

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 Figure 2.3 Paths of light rays that encounter a narrow slit of width a and diffract toward a screen in the
direction described by angle .

To analyze the diffraction pattern, let’s divide the slit into two halves as shown in
Figure 2.3. Keeping in mind that all the waves are in phase as they leave the slit,
consider rays 1 and 3. As these two rays travel toward a viewing screen far to the
right of the figure, ray 1 travels farther than ray 3 by an amount equal to the path
difference (a/2) sin , where a is the width of the slit. Similarly, the path difference
between rays 2 and 4 is also (a/2) sin , as is that between rays 3 and 5. If this path
difference is exactly half a wavelength (corresponding to a phase difference of 180°),
the pairs of waves cancel each other and destructive interference results.
This cancellation occurs for any two rays that originate at points separated by half
the slit width because the phase difference between two such points is 180°.
Therefore, waves from the upper half of the slit interfere destructively with waves
from the lower half when
𝑎 
sin  = ±
2 2
Dividing the slit into four equal parts and using similar reasoning, we find that the
viewing screen is also dark when

sin  = ± 2
𝑎
Likewise, dividing the slit into six equal parts shows that darkness occurs on the
screen when

sin  = ± 3
𝑎
Therefore, the general condition for destructive interference is

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 
sin dark  m m  1,  2,  3, ... (2.1)
a

2.3 INTENSITY OF SINGLE-SLIT DIFFRACTION PATTERNS

Analysis of the intensity variation in a diffraction pattern from a single slit of width
‘a’ shows that the intensity is given by

 sin  a sin  /   
2

I  I max   (2.2)
  a sin  /  
where Imax is the intensity at  = 0 (the central maximum) and  is the wavelength
of light used to illuminate the slit. Intensity variation plot and photograph of the
pattern are shown below.

Figure 2.4 A plot of light intensity I versus (/)a sin  for the single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern. (b) Photograph of a single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

2.4 INTENSITY OF TWO-SLIT DIFFRACTION PATTERNS

When more than one slit is present, we must consider not only diffraction patterns
due to the individual slits but also the interference patterns due to the waves coming
from different slits. Intensity due to combined effect is given by

  sin  a sin  /   
2
  d sin 
I  I max cos  2
  (2.3)
     a sin  /  

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Above equation represents the single-slit diffraction pattern (the factor in square
brackets) acting as an “envelope” for a two slit interference pattern (the cosine-
squared factor).
We have seen that angular position of interference maxima is given by d sin  = m,
where d is the distance between the two slits. Also, the first diffraction minimum
occurs when a sin  = , where a is the slit width. Dividing interference equation by
diffraction equation,
𝑑
=𝑚
𝑎
In this case, mth interference maximum coincides with first diffraction minimum.

Figure 2.5 The combined effects of two-slit and single-slit interference.

2.5 RESOLUTION OF SINGLE-SLIT AND CIRCULAR

APERTURES
The ability of optical systems to distinguish between closely spaced objects is limited
because of the wave nature of light. To understand this limitation, consider Figure
2.6, which shows two light sources far from a narrow slit of width a. The sources can
be two noncoherent point sources S1 and S2; for example, they could be two distant
stars. If no interference occurred between light passing through different parts of
the slit, two distinct bright spots (or images) would be observed on the viewing
screen. Because of such interference, however, each source is imaged as a bright
central region flanked by weaker bright and dark fringes, a diffraction pattern. What
is observed on the screen is the sum of two diffraction patterns: one from S1 and the
other from S2.

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 Figure 2.6 Two-point sources far from a narrow slit each produce a diffraction pattern. (a) The
sources are separated by a large angle. (b) The sources are separated by a small angle.

When the central maximum of one image falls on the first minimum of another
image, the images are said to be just resolved. This limiting condition of resolution
is known as Rayleigh’s criterion.
From Rayleigh’s criterion, we can determine the minimum angular separation min
subtended by the sources at the slit in Figure 2.6 for which the images are just
resolved. Equation 2.1 indicates that the first minimum (m = 1) in a single-slit
diffraction pattern occurs at the angle for which

sin  = 𝑎 (2.4)
where a is the width of the slit. According to Rayleigh’s criterion, this expression
gives the smallest angular separation for which the two images are resolved. Because
 << a in most situations, sin  is small and we can use the approximation sin   .
Therefore, the limiting angle of resolution for a slit of width a is

𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎
(2.5)

where min is expressed in radians. Hence, the angle subtended by the two sources
at the slit must be greater than /a if the images are to be resolved.
Many optical systems use circular apertures rather than slits. The diffraction pattern
of a circular aperture as shown in the photographs of Figure 2.7 consists of a central
circular bright disk surrounded by progressively fainter bright and dark rings. Figure
2.7 shows diffraction patterns for three situations in which light from two point
sources passes through a circular aperture. When the sources are far apart, their
images are well resolved (Fig. 2.7a). When the angular separation of the sources
satisfies Rayleigh’s criterion, the images are just resolved (Fig. 2.7b). Finally, when
the sources are close together, the images are said to be unresolved (Fig. 2.7c) and
the pattern looks like that of a single source. Analysis shows that the limiting angle
of resolution of the circular aperture is

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 
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1.22 𝐷
(2.6)
where D is the diameter of the aperture. This expression is similar to Equation 2.4
except for the factor 1.22, which arises from a mathematical analysis of diffraction
from the circular aperture.

Figure 2.7 Individual diffraction patterns of two-point sources (solid curves) and the resultant
patterns (dashed curves) for various angular separations of the sources as the light passes through a
circular aperture. In each case, the dashed curve is the sum of the two solid curves.

2.6 DIFFRACTION GRATING

The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources, consists of
many equally spaced parallel slits. A transmission grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between
the grooves are transparent to the light and hence act as separate slits. A reflection
grating can be made by cutting parallel grooves on the surface of a reflective
material. The reflection of light from the spaces between the grooves is specular,
and the reflection from the grooves cut into the material is diffuse. Therefore, the
spaces between the grooves act as parallel sources of reflected light like the slits in
a transmission grating.

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 Figure 2.8 Side view of a diffraction grating. The slit separation is d, and the path difference between
adjacent slits is d sin.

A plane wave is incident from the left, normal to the plane of the grating. The
pattern observed on the screen far to the right of the grating is the result of the
combined effects of interference and diffraction. Each slit produces diffraction, and
the diffracted beams interfere with one another to produce the final pattern. The
waves from all slits are in phase as they leave the slits. For an arbitrary direction 
measured from the horizontal, however, the waves must travel different path
lengths before reaching the screen. Notice in Figure 2.8 that the path difference 
between rays from any two adjacent slits is equal to d sin . If this path difference
equals one wavelength or any integral multiple of a wavelength, waves from all slits
are in phase at the screen and a bright fringe is observed. Therefore, the condition
for maxima in the interference pattern at the angle bright is

d sin bright  m m  0,  1,  2,  3, ... (2.7)

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 Figure 2.9 Intensity versus sin  for a diffraction grating. The zeroth-, first-, and
second-order maxima are shown.

The intensity distribution for a diffraction grating obtained with the use of a
monochromatic source is shown in Figure 2.9. Notice the sharpness of the principal
maxima and the broadness of the dark areas compared with the broad bright fringes
characteristic of the two-slit interference pattern.

Figure 2.10 Diagram of a diffraction grating spectrometer.

A schematic drawing of a simple apparatus used to measure angles in a diffraction

pattern is shown in Figure 2.10. This apparatus is a diffraction grating spectrometer.
The light to be analyzed passes through a slit, and a collimated beam of light is
incident on the grating. The diffracted light leaves the grating at angles that satisfy
Equation 2.7, and a telescope is used to view the image of the slit. The wavelength
can be determined by measuring the precise angles at which the images of the slit
appear for the various orders. The spectrometer is a useful tool in atomic
spectroscopy, in which the light from an atom is analyzed to find the wavelength
components. These wavelength components can be used to identify the atom.

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2.7 DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS BY CRYSTALS
In principle, the wavelength of any electromagnetic wave can be determined if a
grating of the proper spacing (on the order of ) is available. X-rays, discovered by
Wilhelm Roentgen (1845–1923) in 1895, are electromagnetic waves of very short
wavelength (on the order of 0.1 nm). It would be impossible to construct a grating
having such a small spacing by the cutting process. The atomic spacing in a solid is
known to be about 0.1 nm, however. In 1913, Max von Laue (1879–1960) suggested
that the regular array of atoms in a crystal could act as a three-dimensional
diffraction grating for x-rays. Subsequent experiments confirmed this prediction.
The diffraction patterns from crystals are complex because of the three-dimensional
nature of the crystal structure. Nevertheless, x-ray diffraction has proved to be an
invaluable technique for elucidating these structures and for understanding the
structure of matter.

Figure 2.11 Crystalline structure of sodium chloride (NaCl).

The arrangement of atoms in a crystal of sodium chloride (NaCl) is shown in Figure

2.11. Each unit cell (the geometric solid that repeats throughout the crystal) is a cube
having an edge length a. A careful examination of the NaCl structure shows that the
ions lie in discrete planes (the shaded areas in Fig. 2.11). Now suppose an incident x-
ray beam makes an angle  with one of the planes as in Figure 2.12. The beam can
be reflected from both the upper plane and the lower one, but the beam reflected
from the lower plane travels farther than the beam reflected from the upper plane.
The effective path difference is 2dsin. The two beams reinforce each other
(constructive interference) when this path difference equals some integer multiple
of . The same is true for reflection from the entire family of parallel planes. Hence,
the condition for constructive interference (maxima in the reflected beam) is
2d sin   m m  1, 2, 3, ... (2.8)
This condition is known as Bragg’s law, after W. L. Bragg, who first derived the
relationship. If the wavelength and diffraction angle are measured, Equation 2.8 can
be used to calculate the spacing between atomic planes.

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 Figure 2.12 A two-dimensional description of the reflection of an x-ray beam from two parallel
crystalline planes separated by a distance d.

2.8 POLARIZATION OF LIGHT WAVES

An ordinary beam of light consists of many waves emitted by the atoms of the light
source. Each atom produces a wave having some orientation of the electric field
vector ⃗𝑬, corresponding to the direction of atomic vibration. The direction of
polarization of each individual wave is defined to be the direction in which the
electric field is vibrating. In Figure 2.13, this direction happens to lie along the y axis.
All individual electromagnetic waves traveling in the x direction have an 𝑬 ⃗⃗ vector
parallel to the yz plane, but this vector could be at any possible angle with respect
to the y axis. Because all directions of vibration from a wave source are possible, the
resultant electromagnetic wave is a superposition of waves vibrating in many
different directions. The result is an unpolarized light beam, represented in Figure
2.14a. The direction of wave propagation in this figure is perpendicular to the page.
The arrows show a few possible directions of the electric field vectors for the
individual waves making up the resultant beam. At any given point and at some
instant of time, all these individual electric field vectors add to give one resultant
electric field vector.
A wave is said to be linearly polarized if the resultant electric field ⃗𝑬⃗ vibrates in
the same direction at all times at a particular point as shown in Figure 2.14b.
(Sometimes, such a wave is described as plane-polarized, or simply polarized.) The
plane formed by ⃗𝑬 and the direction of propagation is called the plane of polarization
of the wave. If the wave in Figure 2.14b represents the resultant of all individual
waves, the plane of polarization is the xy plane. A linearly polarized beam can be
obtained from an unpolarized beam by removing all waves from the beam except
those whose electric field vectors oscillate in a single plane.

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Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of an electromagnetic wave propagating at velocity c in the x direction.
The electric field vibrates in the xy plane, and the magnetic field vibrates in the xz plane.

Figure 2.14 (a) A representation of an unpolarized light beam viewed along the direction of
propagation. The transverse electric field can vibrate in any direction in the plane of the page with
equal probability. (b) A linearly polarized light beam with the electric field vibrating in the vertical
direction.

2.9 POLARIZATION BY SELECTIVE ABSORPTION

The most common technique for producing polarized light is to use a material that
transmits waves whose electric fields vibrate in a plane parallel to a certain direction
and that absorbs waves whose electric fields vibrate in all other directions. Polaroid,
that polarizes light through selective absorption. This material is fabricated in thin
sheets of long-chain hydrocarbons. The sheets are stretched during manufacture so
that the long-chain molecules align. After a sheet is dipped into a solution
containing iodine, the molecules become good electrical conductors. Conduction
takes place primarily along the hydrocarbon chains because electrons can move
easily only along the chains.
If light whose electric field vector is parallel to the chains is incident on the material,
the electric field accelerates electrons along the chains and energy is absorbed from

26
the radiation. Therefore, the light does not pass through the material. Light whose
electric field vector is perpendicular to the chains passes through the material
because electrons cannot move from one molecule to the next. As a result, when
unpolarized light is incident on the material, the exiting light is polarized
perpendicular to the molecular chains. It is common to refer to the direction
perpendicular to the molecular chains as the transmission axis. In an ideal polarizer,
⃗ parallel to the transmission axis is transmitted and all light with 𝑬
all light with 𝑬 ⃗
perpendicular to the transmission axis is absorbed.

Figure 2.15 Two polarizing sheets whose transmission axes make an angle  with each other. Only a
fraction of the polarized light incident on the analyzer is transmitted through it.

Figure 2.15 represents an unpolarized light beam incident on a first polarizing sheet,
called the polarizer. Because the transmission axis is oriented vertically in the figure,
the light transmitted through this sheet is polarized vertically. A second polarizing
sheet, called the analyzer, intercepts the beam. In figure, the analyzer transmission
axis is set at an angle  to the polarizer axis. We call the electric field vector of the
first transmitted beam 𝑬 ⃗ 𝟎 . The component of 𝑬⃗⃗ 𝟎 perpendicular to the analyzer axis
is completely absorbed. The component of ⃗𝑬𝟎 parallel to the analyzer axis, which is
transmitted through the analyzer, is E0 cos . Because the intensity of the
transmitted beam varies as the square of its magnitude, we conclude that the
intensity I of the (polarized) beam transmitted through the analyzer varies as

I  I max cos2  (2.9)

where Imax is the intensity of the polarized beam incident on the analyzer. This
expression, known as Malus’s law.

2.10 POLARIZATION BY REFLECTION

When an unpolarized light beam is reflected from a surface, the polarization of the
reflected light depends on the angle of incidence. If the angle of incidence is 0°, the

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reflected beam is unpolarized. For other angles of incidence, the reflected light is
polarized to some extent, and for a particular angle of incidence, the reflected light
is completely polarized.

Figure 2.16 (a) When unpolarized light is incident on a reflecting surface, the reflected and refracted
beams are partially polarized. (b) The reflected beam is completely polarized when the angle of
incidence equals the polarizing angle p, which satisfies the equation n2/n1 = tan p. At this incident
angle, the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.

Now suppose the angle of incidence 1 is varied until the angle between the reflected
and refracted beams is 90° as in Figure 2.16b. At this angle of incidence, the reflected
beam is completely polarized (with its electric field vector parallel to the surface)
and the refracted beam is still only partially polarized. The angle of incidence at
which this polarization occurs is called the polarizing angle p. Using Snell’s law
of refraction
𝑛2 sin 𝑝
= 2.10
𝑛1 sin 2

But, 2 = 90 - p. So, we can write,

𝑛2
tan 𝑝 = 2.11
𝑛1

This expression is called Brewster’s law, and the polarizing angle p is sometimes
called Brewster’s angle, after its discoverer, David Brewster. Because n varies with
wavelength for a given substance, Brewster’s angle is also a function of wavelength.

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2.11 POLARIZATION BY DOUBLE REFRACTION

In certain class of crystals like calcite and quartz, the speed of light depends on the
direction of propagation and on the plane of polarization of the light. Such materials
are characterized by two indices of refraction. Hence, they are often referred to as
double-refracting or birefringent materials. When unpolarized light enters a
birefringent material, it may split into an ordinary (O) ray and an extraordinary
(E) ray. These two rays have mutually perpendicular polarizations and travel at
different speeds through the material. There is one direction, called the optic axis,
along which the ordinary and extraordinary rays have the same speed.

Figure 2.17 Unpolarized light incident at an angle to the optic axis in a calcite crystal splits into an
ordinary (O) ray and an extraordinary (E) ray

Figure 2.18 Point source S inside a double-refracting crystal (calcite) produces a spherical wave front
corresponding to the ordinary (O) ray and an elliptical wave front corresponding to the extraordinary
(E) ray.
Some materials such as glass and plastic become birefringent when stressed.
Suppose an unstressed piece of plastic is placed between a polarizer and an analyzer
so that light passes from polarizer to plastic to analyzer. When the plastic is
unstressed, and the analyzer axis is perpendicular to the polarizer axis, none of the
polarized light passes through the analyzer. In other words, the unstressed plastic
has no effect on the light passing through it. If the plastic is stressed, however,

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regions of greatest stress become birefringent and the polarization of the light
passing through the plastic changes. Hence, a series of bright and dark bands is
observed in the transmitted light, with the bright bands corresponding to regions of
greatest stress. Engineers often use this technique, called optical stress analysis, in
designing structures ranging from bridges to small tools. They build a plastic model
and analyze it under different load conditions to determine regions of potential
weakness and failure under stress.

Figure 2.19 The pattern is produced when the plastic model is viewed between a polarizer and analyzer
oriented perpendicular to each other. Such patterns are useful in the optimal design of architectural
components

2.12 POLARIZATION BY SCATTERING

Figure 2.20 The scattering of unpolarized sunlight by air molecules.

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When light is incident on any material, the electrons in the material can absorb and
reradiate part of the light. Such absorption and reradiation of light by electrons in
the gas molecules that make up air is what causes sunlight reaching an observer on
the Earth to be partially polarized. An unpolarized beam of sunlight traveling in the
horizontal direction (parallel to the ground) strikes a molecule of one of the gases
that make up air, setting the electrons of the molecule into vibration. These
vibrating charges act like the vibrating charges in an antenna. The horizontal
component of the electric field vector in the incident wave results in a horizontal
component of the vibration of the charges, and the vertical component of the vector
results in a vertical component of vibration. If the observer in Figure 2.20 is looking
straight up (perpendicular to the original direction of propagation of the light), the
vertical oscillations of the charges send no radiation toward the observer. Therefore,
the observer sees light that is completely polarized in the horizontal direction as
indicated by the orange arrows. If the observer looks in other directions, the light is
partially polarized in the horizontal direction.

2.13 OPTICAL ACTIVITY

Many important applications of polarized light involve materials that display optical
activity. A material is said to be optically active if it rotates the plane of polarization
of any light transmitted through the material. The angle through which the light is
rotated by a specific material depends on the length of the path through the material
and on concentration if the material is in solution. One optically active material is a
solution of the common sugar dextrose. A standard method for determining the
concentration of sugar solutions is to measure the rotation produced by a fixed
length of the solution.

2.14 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the term diffraction of light.
2. Discuss qualitatively, the Fraunhofer diffraction at a single-slit.
3. Draw a schematic plot of the intensity of light in single slit diffraction against
phase difference.
4. Explain briefly diffraction at a circular aperture.
5. State and explain Rayleigh’s criterion for optical resolution.
6. Effect of diffraction is ignored in the case of Young’s double slit interference.
Give reason.
7. Discuss qualitatively, the diffraction due to multiple slits.
8. What is diffraction grating? Write the grating equation.
9. Briefly explain x-ray diffraction and Bragg’s law.
10. Distinguish between unpolarized and linearly polarized light.
11. Explain Malus’s law.
12. How to produce linearly polarized light by (a) selective absorption, (b)
reflection, (c) double refraction, (d) scattering ? Explain.

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2.15 PROBLEMS
1. Light of wavelength 540 nm passes through a slit of width 0.200 mm. (a) The
width of the central maximum on a screen is 8.10 mm. How far is the screen
from the slit? (b) Determine the width of the first bright fringe to the side of
the central maximum. Ans: (a) 1.5 m (b) 4.05 mm
2. Helium–neon laser light ( = 632.8 nm) is sent through a 0.300-mm-wide
single slit. What is the width of the central maximum on a screen 1.00 m from
the slit? Ans: 4.22 mm
3. A screen is placed 50.0 cm from a single slit, which is illuminated with light
of wavelength 690 nm. If the distance between the first and third minima in
the diffraction pattern is 3.00 mm, what is the width of the slit?
Ans: 2.3x10-4 m
4. A beam of monochromatic light is incident on a single slit of width 0.600
mm. A diffraction pattern forms on a wall 1.30 m beyond the slit. The distance
between the positions of zero intensity on both sides of the central maximum
is 2.00 mm. Calculate the wavelength of the light. Ans: 462 nm
5. A diffraction pattern is formed on a screen 120 cm away from a 0.400-mm-
wide slit. Monochromatic 546.1-nm light is used. Calculate the fractional
intensity I/Imax at a point on the screen 4.10 mm from the center of the
principal maximum. Ans: 0.0162
6. Yellow light of wavelength 589 nm is used to view an object under a
microscope. The objective lens diameter is 9.00 mm. (a) What is the limiting
angle of resolution? (b) Suppose it is possible to use visible light of any
wavelength. What color should you choose to give the smallest possible angle
of resolution, and what is this angle? (c) Suppose water fills the space
between the object and the objective. What effect does this change have on
the resolving power when 589-nm light is used? Ans: (a) 79.8 x 10-6 rad (b)
400nm, 54.2 x 10-6 rad (c) Resolving power will improve with minimum resolvable
angle 60 x 10-6 rad
7. The angular resolution of a radio telescope is to be 0.100° when the incident
waves have a wavelength of 3.00 mm. What minimum diameter is required
for the telescope’s receiving dish? Ans: 2.1 mm
8. White light is spread out into its spectral components by a diffraction grating.
If the grating has 2000 grooves per centimeter, at what angle does red light
of wavelength 640 nm appear in first order? Ans: θ = 7.35o
9. Light of wavelength 500 nm is incident normally on a diffraction grating. If
the third-order maximum of the diffraction pattern is observed at 32.0°, (a)
what is the number of rulings per centimeter for the grating? (b) Determine
the total number of primary maxima that can be observed in this situation.
Ans: 3530 rulings/cm (b) 11

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 10. If the spacing between planes of atoms in a NaCl crystal is 0.281 nm, what is
the predicted angle at which 0.140-nm x-rays are diffracted in a first-order
maximum? Ans: θ = 14.4o
11. The first-order diffraction maximum is observed at 12.6° for a crystal having
a spacing between planes of atoms of 0.250 nm. (a) What wavelength x-ray is
used to observe this first-order pattern? (b) How many orders can be
observed for this crystal at this wavelength? Ans: (a) 0.109 nm (b) 4
12. Plane-polarized light is incident on a single polarizing disk with the direction
of E parallel to the direction of the transmission axis. Through what angle
should the disk be rotated so that the intensity in the transmitted beam is
reduced by a factor of (a) 3.00, (b) 5.00, and (c) 10.0? Ans: (a) 54.70 (b) 63.40
(c) 71.60
13. Unpolarized light passes through two ideal Polaroid sheets. The axis of the
first is vertical, and the axis of the second is at 30.0° to the vertical. What
fraction of the incident light is transmitted? Ans: 0.375
14. The angle of incidence of a light beam onto a reflecting surface is continuously
variable. The reflected ray in air is completely polarized when the angle of
incidence is 48.0°. What is the index of refraction of the reflecting material?
Ans: 1.1
15. The critical angle for total internal reflection for sapphire surrounded by air is
34.4°. Calculate the polarizing angle for sapphire. Ans: 60.5o

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