ANP 301 MODULE 1

POULTRY MANAGEMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

What are Non-Ruminants?

Non-ruminant animals are those animals that have simple stomach. They
possess no rumen, reticulum and omasum. They have abomasum as the
only true stomach. Examples include Poultry, Rabbits and pigs.

Meaning of poultry
Poultry generally refers to domesticated birds that are used mainly as
food to man. These include domestic fowl, ducks, turkeys, guinea fowl,
pheasant, quails, ostrich, pigeons, doves etc. many species, breeds and
strains of poultry are used in the service of man. Some of these species
are of limited importance examples are guinea fowl, goose, ducks and
the ostrich, others and particularly Gallus domesticus (domestic fowl)
have assume a worldwide importance.

Domestic fowl are believed to have been domesticated in Asia around

2500 BC, Geese in Egypt 1500 BC, turkey in Mexico 2500 BC, ducks in
China 2500 BC, Muscovey ducks were found in Peru in the sixteenth
century and were probably domesticated at about that time. Most
modern breeds of poultry were developed from 1850 onwards. Modern
breeding programmes to produce hybrids started in 1950s and 1960s.

3.0 Taxonomy of the domestic fowl

It is important to trace the taxonomy of the domestic chicken in the

animal kingdom considering its importance as a supplier of meat and
eggs to ever growing population of the world.

Below is the taxonomy of the domestic chicken:

Kingdom - Animalia
Phylum - Chordata
Class - Aves
Subclass - Neomithes
Order - Galliformes
Family - Phasinidae
Genus - Gallus
Specie - Gallus domesticus

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 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.1 Advantages of poultry keeping

1) They have comparatively small body size which makes it

reasonably possible to be raised in a confinement. The success of
the extensive range of systems and methods that have been
developed to produce chickens in widely varying environments is
an important step to the success of poultry keepers.
2) There is a low cost of production and quick return from poultry
compared to other farm animals.
3) Poultry meat and egg are high quality animal protein sources.
Eggs are the most nutritive and have the best amino acid profile
known to man.
4) Poultry are efficient feed converters to meat and egg (i.e. they
have high feed efficiency)
5) Poultry production can be used to minimize the protein intake in-
balance in Kenya.
6) There is excellent product acceptance with respect to social and
religious traditions, in other words no strong taboo against the
eating of poultry product, thereby ensuring ready market for the
products.
7) Curative and preventive drugs are available for most poultry
diseases.
8) Poultry birds assist in scientific research.
9) Poultry also gives useful by-product like feathers and droppings
(feaces).Their droppings contain more nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium than other animal wastes.
10) From a genetic standpoint, the short inter-generation interval of
this species (about 1 year) has favoured the rapid selection of
breeds which meet more of the specific demands of consumers.

3.2 Disadvantages of keeping poultry

1) The digestive tract of birds is relatively short compared to other

farm animals and can only utilize high quality concentrate feeds.
These are also use as feed for human making them to be in direct
competition with man.
2) They are highly susceptible to extreme weather conditions and
diseases.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.3 Problems or constraint of poultry production in Kenya

1) Because of the competition with man the cost of feed ingredient

is high.
2) Housing, diseases and parasitic problems.
3) The nutrient composition of available feed ingredient not well
understood.
4) The nutrient requirement of birds for maintenance and production
is not well known.
5) Unavailability of adaptable egg laying and broiler birds.

3.4 Guidelines to improve poultry production

1) Farmers should provide balance ration to improve the birds diet.

2) Farmers should follow sound management practices.
3) Farmers should adopt proper vaccination programmes and
effective disease control measures.
4) Farmers should renew their stock regularly.
5) Farmers should raise birds of imported breed that are more
productive.

3.5 Breeds of chickens and their characteristics.

All breeds and varieties of chicken are due to natural selection. Many
are commercially exploited. These include:

3.5.1 Egg type

These are breeds raise for egg production. They have small body size
and slow growth rate. Examples are Harco, Ancona, Rhode Island Red,
black leghorn white leghorn.

3.5.2 Meat type

They are breeds raised for meat production. They have large body size,
they are also heavy breed, and they have faster growth rate. Examples
are light Sussex, white Sussex, white Wyandotte, Plymouth Rock and
Anak.

3.5.3 Dual purpose

These are birds that are raised for both meat and egg production.
Examples are Light Sussex, Rhode Island Red, and Plymouth Rock,
New Hampshire etc.

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 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

In today’s economic reality, in developed countries dual-purpose breeds

are regarded as in efficient, producing neither meat nor eggs very
efficiently. However in Kenya dual-purpose birds can be very useful
especially in less intensive systems of production.
For example the cocks are used for meat production and the hens for the
production of both eggs and meat. Both are considerably older when
slaughtered than are broilers and therefore, have more flavour.
3.5.4 Rhode Island Red

The Rhode Island red originate from America the feather is red with
some black feather in part of the wing. It has yellow skin and lays large
brown eggs.

3.5.5 Leghorn
The white leghorn has white feather and is use mainly for egg
production. It is small in size and lays over 300 white shell eggs in a
year.

The brown leghorn produces brown shells eggs and is not as productive
as the white leghorn.

3.5.6 Light Sussex

It is an important English breed which grows rapidly. It is large with

good fleshing property. It is good as a broiler but poor as a layer. Some
exotic breeds of chicken are shown below.

Fig 1.1 White leghorn Fig 1.2 White Wyandotte

Source: Poultry - Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith, page14 &15

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

Source: Poultry - Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith, page 15

Fig 1.3 Light Sussex

White leghorn
Fig 1.4 Poultry breeds

Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low,

page 90

3.5.7 Barred Plymouth Rock

The feather colour is grayish black with white underneath, while the
sides are black with prominent streaks of white spots. They are heavy
breeds and are used for dual purpose. They lay brown eggs.

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 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.5.8 Harco
Harco is a heavy American breed and has been commonly used to
develop the present day breeders. It is a good egg laying bird.

Other breeds like the Ancona, Andalusian and Spanish white are all of
the Mediterranean origin and are early maturing between 150-160 days,
producing 240-250 white shell eggs per year.

3.5.9 Local breeds

These are breeds peculiar in the west African sub-region they are
generally small with tough flesh. They are poor layers but good
brooders. Their feather varies in colour from white to black including
multi-colour mixtures.

3.5.10 Hybrids

They are commonly seen and use in commercial farms. They are
generally high yielding in both meat and egg production. They are fast
replacing most standard birds.

4.0 CONCLUSION
There are many advantages of keeping poultry, the few problems
associated with their keeping can be corrected by following some few
guidelines. Several breeds of chickens are available and can be
commercially exploited.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit will have learnt that:

 Poultry generally refers to domesticated birds that are used

mainly as food to man. These include domestic fowl, ducks,
turkeys, guinea fowl, pheasant, quails, ostrich, pigeons, doves etc.
 Advantages of keeping poultry include-their small body size, low
cost of production, high quality protein, feed efficiency, not
associated with taboos, useful by-products, short generation
interval and help to improve protein intake.
 Problems associated with poultry keeping includes, feed
competition with man, housing, diseases, parasites and lack of
adequate knowledge in their nutrition.
 To improve poultry production we need to improve birds diet,
sound management practices, vaccination programs e.t.c.
 There are several breeds of chickens that are available and all can
be exploited commercially.

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

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 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are several production systems employed by poultry farmers in

different parts of the world. Examples include: Extensive or Free range
system, Semi-intensive or Restricted range system and Intensive system.
Each of these systems has its merits and demerits.

Poultry of various classes are kept either for meat or egg production. For
example white leghorns are normally used for egg production while
broiler strains are based on crosses between Cornish white, New
Hampshire and white Plymouth Rock.

Large poultry units are being increasingly developed in areas of high

temperature that are not traditional to advanced methods of husbandry
and special techniques are needed for satisfactory management of
poultry under these conditions.

In a tropical environment the design and construction of poultry houses

must take into consideration the climatic and weather conditions of the
environment. The guiding principle is to keep poultry productive
throughout their producing life. This involves the provision of optimum
conditions of temperature, humidity, ventilation and light.

Another important principle relates to design and durability. Poultry

house should be structurally strong, durable, and cheap.

3.0 Extensive/ Free Range System

This system involves the rearing of chickens in an open unrestricted

environment with or without artificial shelter. This is the most common
system of poultry production in Kenya. It has the following advantages

3.1 Advantages

1) Reduce cost of feeding.

2) Nutritional deficiencies rarely occur because of access to green
feed, grains, white ants and other insects.
3) It involves low capital investment.
4) It eliminates cannibalism among the birds.

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.2 Disadvantages

1) Difficulties in controlling birds, especially during disease

outbreak, breeding and proper feeding.
2) Loss of eggs and birds through accidents, theft and predators.
3) Requires large area of land.

3.3 Semi-Intensive/Restricted Range System

This system involves the use of poultry rum which is an area of land
enclosed by fence of wire netting. The birds are allowed to wonder
about during the day and at night they are kept in poultry house.

Fig 2.1 Suspended poultry house for about 10 birds

Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low
page 92

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

a)

b)

Fig 2.2 a) Simple chicken house for hot areas for 10 birds.
b) Deep litter house for 200 layers, warm climate
Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low
page 92

3.3.1 Advantages

This system has the advantages that the birds are under strict control e.g.
prevented from crossing with inferior cocks. The birds are protected
from predators and accidents.

3.3.2 Disadvantages

The disadvantages include high cost of production and large space or

land requirement.

3.4 Intensive System

3.4.1 Deep litter system

In the deep litter system, the birds are confined to a large permanent
house. The floor is kept covered with finely cut straw, rice hall or
sawdust. Troughs of dry mash and water are always made available for
the birds.

An initial litter layer of 2-3 inches is recommended for young birds, this
is build up to 9 inches for the adult birds. The litter is normally renewed
ones every year or when it becomes lumpy. Floor space per bird is 1
square feet or 30.5cm.2

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

This system can be used to raise broilers and layers. In addition to

feeding and water troughs, perches and nest boxes are provided for the
layers.

3.4.2 Advantages

1) No risks of trouble from predators.

2) With proper condition, there is less risk of parasitic infection.

3.4.3 Disadvantages

1) Increase chances of nutrient deficiency especially when bird are

not well fed, incidence of cannibalism also increases.
2) Difficulties of keeping the floor clean especially during the rainy
season when humidity is very high.
3) It involves high capital investment.
4) It predisposes birds to social vices such as fighting, cannibalism,
broodiness in laying birds.

3.5 Battery cage system

The birds are housed or kept in cages within the house. The cages varies
in size, type and form but they are all designed with facilities to provide
water and feed as well as egg and droppings collection. The system is
very efficient for raising layers. The cages are either constructed entirely
of wire or wire and wooden frames. Most cages are about 18 inches high
and 8 inches deep. The width of individual cages varies depending on
whether they are designed to hold one, two or more birds (14 inches for
one layer or two light breeds).

The floor is of wire mesh to allow droppings drop through. The floor
slopes from behind into which eggs roll as they are laid. The cages are
usually arranged in blocks of 3 or 4 tiers. See fig 2.3a. Modern cages
incorporates some forms of mechanical feeding.

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Fig. 2.3a Intensive Battery house

Fig 2.3b House with a slatted floor
Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 132

3.5.1 Advantages

1) The birds are easy to manage.

2) It is also very easy to cull unproductive birds.
3) Better control of parasites and minimal incidence of diseases.
4) It also prevents cannibalism and broodiness in birds.
5) High production and low mortality rate.

3.5.2 Disadvantages

1) It involves high capital investment.

2) There is need for a well balance ration.

3.6 fold system

The fold system has a house made together with the run to form one
unit. This unit can be moved from one place to another. (see fig 2.4)

Fig 2.4 Fold unit, should be moved daily

Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low
page 92

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.6.1 Advantages

1) The birds can be examine and attended to individually when

necessary.
2) The birds dropping improves the soil fertility.
3) Farmers can combine poultry keeping and crop rotation.
4) There is reduced build-up of parasite because the unit can be
moved from one place to another.

3.6.2 Disadvantages

1) The system is only suitable for small or backyard poultry

business.

3.7 Poultry Housing

Reasons for providing suitable housing for poultry

1) To protect the birds from bad weather.

2) To protect the birds from thieves and predators.
3) To be able to control the birds.
4) To be able to keep the birds in age group

3.7.1 General principles of poultry housing in the tropics

In a tropical environment the design and construction of poultry houses

must take into consideration the climatic and weather conditions of the
environment. The guiding principle is to keep poultry productive
throughout their producing life. This involves the provision of optimum
conditions of temperature, humidity, ventilation and light.

Another important principle relates to cost and durability. Poultry house

should be structurally strong, durable, and cheap.

3.7.2 General guidelines

The following guide lines will help a poultry farmer in providing simple
and adequate housing for poultry under tropical conditions.

1) External wall should be low(about 0.6m-1m) with a chicken wire

mesh(1-2cm) extending from the wall to height of 2m leaving
some margin under the roof for un impeded or free air flow.
2) The roof should be of corrugated material or thatched.
3) There should be enough roof overhangs to prevent rain from
entering the pens.

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

4) Internal partitions when necessary should be made of wire mesh

to aid unrestricted air circulation.
5) The poultry house should be clear of other buildings or structures
which may obstruct the free flow of air.
6) The poultry house should not be too wide (more than 9m) as this
tend to cut down fresh air movement in and out of pen.
7) The house should be constructed in an east west direction, to
protect the birds from the direct rays of the sun.
8) Water reservoir should be located under shades to prevent
excessive heat up of water during hot days.
9) Stocking density for tropical areas should be 10-20% lighter than
the temperate environment.
10) Poultry houses should be located on a well-drained ground to
prevent flood.
11) The poultry house should be accessible by road to facilitate
evacuation of produce or delivery of feed and other supplies.

3.8 Poultry Equipment

It is very important that food troughs should not be overfilled and

neither should the tube feeders be too widely opened (fig.2.5 and fig.
2.6) the construction of the food trough is also important and there exist
types that reduce spillage and so reduce food wastage by up to 20
percent. Food wastage can turn a profitable enterprise into one making a
considerable loss.

Fig 2.5 Growing birds in pens where the food s is provided in tube
feeders
Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 129

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

Fig 2.6 Feed trough and suspended feed tray for poultry
Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low
page 98

Table 2.1 Floor space and trough space requirement per 100 chicks
Age (weeks) Floor space (m2) Trough space (m)
0-4 4 1.5
5-8 9 3.0
9-20 12 6.0

For drinkers and food troughs the requirements are

1. It should be impossible to tilt over.
2. It should have adequate size and depth.
3. It should discourage scratching out of contents.
4. It must not cause injury to the bird.
5. It should be cheap and can be constructed locally.
6. It should allow the bird full access and not limit food intake.

3.8.1 Maintenance of poultry equipment

Proper maintenance includes the following:

 cleaning of feeders and drinkers and emptying them every day in

case of deep litter system;
 Complete cleaning using soap and water and if possible
disinfectants. This should be followed by complete drying and
disinfection in direct sunlight;

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

4.0 CONCLUSION

There are several production systems employed by poultry farmers in

different parts of the world, these are Extensive or Free range system,
Semi-intensive or Restricted range system and Intensive system. Each of
these systems has its merits and demerits.

However, in a tropical environment the design and construction of

poultry houses must take into consideration the climatic and weather
conditions of the environment.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt that:

 Poultry has proved to be particularly versatile domestic bird that

is adapted to almost all environments and system of production.
 Poultry production makes it an open choice for the farmer to
decide which system of production he is interested based on his
capital, skills, and needs.
 In a tropical environment the design and construction of poultry
houses must take into consideration the climatic and weather
conditions of the environment.
 The guiding principle is to keep poultry productive throughout
their producing life. This involves the provision of optimum
conditions of temperature, humidity, ventilation and light.
 Another important principle relates to cost and durability. Poultry
house should be structurally strong, durable, and cheap.
 It is very important that food troughs should not be overfilled and
neither should the tube feeders be too widely opened. The
construction of the food trough is also important and there exist
types that reduce spillage and so reduce food wastage by up to 20
percent.
 Food wastage can turn a profitable enterprise into one making a
considerable los.

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a. Compare and contrast the extensive/free range system

and the intensive system of poultry production.
b. Explain the reasons for providing suitable housing for poultry.

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

UNIT 3 FEEDING PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The digestive system of the fowl is simple but well-organized. Food is

picked up by the beak and selected on the basis of feel and appearance
rather than tastes. However, birds do have a functional olfactory system
and the influence of taste and smell cannot be entirely overlooked.

To understand the principles behind the feeding of the chicken it is

useful to look at the way the birds digest its food.

Poultry are monogastric they are unable to manufacture essential amino

acids or the B vitamins, and they cannot exist on high fibre diets. The
diets of birds which are intensively housed and which have access to
neither soil, grass, nor sunshine must contain the materials essential for
the processes of maintenance, production and reproduction.

The essential nutrients can be conveniently grouped under the following:

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

 Water
 Carbohydrates sources of
 Fats and oils Energy
 Protein (amino acids)
 Vitamins
 Minerals

3.0 Digestive System of Poultry

1. Beak 9. Large intestine

2. Tongue 10. Cloaca
3. Oesophagus 11. Caeca
4. Crop 12. Liver
5.Proventriculu 13. Gall-bladder
6. Gizzard 14. Pancreas
7. Duodenum 15.Bursa of fabricus
8 Small 16. Bronchus
17. Lung

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Fig : 3.1
Source: Poultry Health and Management by D. Sainsbury page 24

The fowl is a simple stomach animal. Digestion starts from the mouth.
The beak is adapted for picking of the feed. The tongue is an arrow
shaped barbed like structure which forces feed into the oesophagus.
Salivary glands secrete saliva which lubricate the feed and facilitate the
downward movement into crop. The crop act as a storage pouch which
retain feed for gradual passage into the stomach (proventriculus). The
feed acted upon by enzymes and amylase which break down
carbohydrate. In the stomach, feed mixed with gastric juice containing
enzyme pepsin and hydrochloric acid. The Pepsin breakdown protein
into amino acid. The feed particles then moves into the gizzard which is
a bean shaped strong muscular organ, which crushes or breakdown feed
particles by its rhythmic contraction into pulp. This process is assisted
by the presence of insoluble grit, the feed then passes into the duodenum
loop which is the first part of the small intestine where most of the
enzymatic digestions of feed take place. The pan crease secret various
amylotic, proteolitic and lipolitic enzyme into the duodenum. The liver
also produces bile which hydrolyses fats. Digestion is completed in the
small intestine and the nutrients are absorbed through its wall. At the
junction of the large and small intestine are two blind sacks known as
caeca. Their main function is for fibre digestion and water absorption.

Large intestine is also responsible for water absorption and storage of

feacal matter or digesta which passes into the cloaca where they are
secreted.

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.1 Nutrients Requirement of Poultry

3.1.1 Nutrition

Nutrition is the process which provides nourishment to a living

organism. This implies the provision of certain food elements (nutrients)
which the body of the organism absorbs and uses to perform its normal
function associated with life as well as storing the excess in its tissue.
The nutrients required by poultry include:

1) Energy 4) Minerals
2) Protein 5) Water
3) Vitamins

3.1.2 Energy

Energy requirement by poultry are supplied from carbohydrate and

lipids. In adverse condition, protein can also be broken down to supply
energy. The energy in poultry is normally expressed in unit of
metabolizable energy per unit weight e.g. kilo joule/gram (KJ/G) or
requirement in terms of metabolizable energy per day (KJ/day).

The metabolizable energy refers to that portion of the feed which is

available to the bird for the production of meat and egg and for the
maintenance of vital function and body temperature.

Birds are usually given free access to feed and they eat to satisfy their
energy requirement. The more increase in energy value of feed the less
its intake and the reverse is true.

Sources of energy
Maize; Sorghum; Millet; Wheat; Barley; Maize bran; Wheat bran;
Brewers dried grain (BDG); Cassava; Yam; Vegetable oils (groundnut
coconut, soybean cotton seed e.t.c.)

3.1.3 Protein

Proteins are nitrogen containing compounds. They promote growth and

flesh formation. Proteins are made up of units of amino acids. The
synthesis of proteins in the body requires about twenty different amino
acids. Ten of these amino acids cannot be synthesis by the birds and
must be provided in the diet. These are termed essential amino acids.
Examples include:

Phenyl alanine; Valine; Threonine; Tryptophan; Isoleucine;

Methionine; Histidine; Arginine; Leucine; Lysine

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

The non-essential amino acids are:

Alamine, Aspartic acid, Glycine, Proline, Hydroxyl praline,
Tyrosine, Serine, Cysteine, Cystine, Glutamine.

Of all the essential amino acids. Lysine, methionine and tryptophan are
called critical amino acids because they are the most limiting amino
acids in feed stuff.

In general deficiency of essential amino acids leads to poor growth, poor

egg production and low feed utilization.

Sources of proteins

Sources are of two types, plants and animal sources.

Plant sources
Sunflower meal, Palm kernel meal, Soya bean, Bambara nut, Cotton
seed cake, Ben seed meal, Bambara nut meal, Locust bean meal, Shear
butter meal, Groundnut cake, Soybean meal, Cowpea e.t.c.

Animal sources
Fish meal, Meat meal, Maggot meal, Termite meal, Chicken offal
meal, Grasshopper meal, Feather meal, Meat and bone meal, Blood
meal e.t.c.

3.1.4 Water

Water is the most important nutrient of farm animals. The body of

chicken is composed of at least 70% of water so also the egg. It is
usually made freely available to poultry.
The water intake of birds varies with age, temperature, size, diet and rate
of egg production.

Table 3.1 Estimated water intake (at 21◦C) of chicken of various

ages:
Age (week) water intake/100 birds (litre/day)

0 - 2 4 - 5
2 - 5 7 - 10
5 - 10 15
10 - 20 18 - 22
Adult layers 20 - 30

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

Lack of water can seriously retard growth rate and impaired egg
production. In tropical countries water deprivation can lead to death
within a very short period of time

3.1.5 Minerals

Minerals are inorganic substances required by farm animals to build

their skeleton and perform various metabolic function in the body.
Minerals are classified into two groups based on their level of
requirement.
1) Macro or major elements which are minerals required in
relatively large quantity
which are calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium chlorine and
sulphur.
2) Micro or minor elements which are required in small quantities.
These are iron, zinc,
copper, molybdenum, selenium, iodine, manganese, cobalt and fluorine.
The major minerals in poultry feeding are calcium and phosphorus.
The common sources of minerals include:
Bone meal
Oyster shell
Limestone
Di calcium phosphate
Common salt
Wood ash
Green grass etc
The micro minerals are usually in corporated as pre-mix in which form
they contains most of the trace minerals in the right proportion required
by the various classes of chicken.

3.1.6 Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds not synthesis by the body but essential
for normal growth and good health. They are required in small amount.
There are thirteen vitamins required by poultry. They are the fat soluble
and water soluble vitamin.

Fat soluble vitamins include:

Vitamin A, D, E, K

Water soluble vitamins include:

Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Pyridoxine (B6)
Pantothenic acid
Nicotinic acid

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ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Biotin
Folic acid
Cobalamine (B12)
Ascorbic acid
Some of these vitamins are available in green feeds, grains and animal
proteins.
All are available in synthetic form (vitamin premix).

3.1.7 Feed additives

1) Anti oxidants: examples include ethoxyquine or butylated

hydroxytoluene at the rate of 112g per tone of feed to prevent
oxidation of vulnerable vitamins especially vitamin A.
2) Coccidiostats: This is usually introduced at prophylactic levels in
broilers diet according to the recommendation of the
manufacturers. It is completely withdrawn towards the end of the
fattening period

3.1.8 Types of poultry feed

Table 3.2 Types of poultry feed

Classes of poultry Age (weeks) Ration

Broilers 0-6 Broiler starter

Broilers 7-10 Broiler finisher
Layers, Breeders & 0-8 Chicken starter mash
pullets 9-16 Growers mash
17 and above layers mash.

3.2 Recommended Nutrient Allowance for Poultry under

Tropical Climatic Conditions

Table 3.3 Nutrient allowance for poultry under tropical climatic

conditions
Nutrients Chicken Layers Broiler Broiler
ration growers ration starter finisher
ration
Crude protein 19.5 15.0 16.5 22.0 20.0
(%)
Crude fibre (%) 5.0 6.0 5.0 5.5 5.5
Metabolizable 2700 2650 2600 850 2900
energy(kcal/kg)
Calcium (%) 1.0 0.80 3.20 1.0 0.80

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

Phosphate (%) 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.70 0.50

Sodium (%) 0.15 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.12
Vitamin A (iu) 5000 3500 4000 5000 3500
Lysine (%) 100 0.65 0.70 1.30 1.10
Methionine 0.40 0.30 0.35 050 0.40
(%)
Tryptophan 0.20 0.15 0.18 0.25 0.20
(%)

3.3.1 Feed requirement and body weight of Broilers

Table 3.4 Feed requirement and body weight of Broilers

Age (weeks) Average Feed Feed
weight/bird requirement/ requirement
(Kg) 100 birds (kg) cumulative/100
birds
1 0.036 10 10
2 0.080 18 28
3 0.140 21 49
4 0.200 26 75
5 0.350 39 140
6 0.510 52 166
7 0.90 58 224
8 1.5 67 286
9 2.1 67 358
10 2.5 71 424

3.3.2 Growth rate, feed intake and floor space requirement of

pullets

Table 3 .5 Growth rate, feed intake and floor space requirement of

pullets
Age week Body weight(g) Feed/bird/Day Floor space
(gm) cm2/ bird
1 45 10 232
2 90 16 232
3 126 22 232
6 270 44 464
10 427 63 0.10
15 652 69 0.18
18 780 75 0.30
20 850 79 0.30

25
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Note An average layer would consume 100gm of feed per day or up to

130gm for heavy breeds.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Poultry nutrients is made up of Water, Carbohydrates, Fats and oils,

Proteins (amino acids), Vitamins and Minerals, when these nutrients are
ingested by poultry is capable of
being digested, absorbed and utilized to supply us with eggs and poultry
meat.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt that:

 The fowl is a simple stomach animal and digestion starts in the

mouth, ends in the small intestine and nutrients are absorbed
through its wall.
 Caecum is for digestion of fibre and water absorption, while the
large intestine is for absorption of water and storage of faecal
matter.
 Energy required by poultry is supplied from carbohydrates, lipids
and sometimes proteins.
 Essential amino acids are those amino acids that cannot be
synthesized by the bird and must be provided in the diet. In
poultry, lysine, methionine and tryptophan are the critical amino
acids because they are the most limiting amino acids in feed stuff.
 Minerals are classified into macro or major and minor or micro
elements. Those minerals required in large quantities are the
major or macro minerals while those required in small quantities
are the micro or minor minerals
 13 vitamins are required by poultry, they are either fat or water
soluble.

26
ANP 301 MODULE 1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lee, S and Summers, J. D. (2000) Broiler breeder production.

McDonald, P., Edward, R.A., Greenhalgh, J. F. D. and Morgan, C.A.

(1998) Animal Nutrition 5th edition.

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management

Smith, A. J. and Coste, R. (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical Agriculturalist

(CTA) Macmillan

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. P. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.

27
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

UNIT 4 INCUBATION AND HATCHERY PRACTICES

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Incubation is the management of fertilized eggs to ensure normal

development of embryo into normal chick. Incubation can be achieved
naturally (when the hen sits on the eggs for a period of time and keeps
the eggs warm until hatching) or artificially by using machines known
as incubators which provide the necessary heat until hatching. Some
essential requirements of incubation include temperature, humidity,
turning of the eggs, candling e.t.c.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 to be familiar with the anatomical features of the hen’s

reproductive system.
 to know the composition of the egg and factors affecting the egg
size.

28
ANP 301 MODULE 1

 to understand the term ‘incubation’ its types, its essential

elements as well as the basic operations of the incubator.
 to be exposed to the concept of hatchability and it’s application in
calculating the overall productive performance of the farm.
 to recognized the techniques used in sex separation of young
chicks.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Reproductive System of the hen

infundibulum

magnum

isthmus
shell gland

Fig 4: 1Urogenital and reproductive systems of a laying hen.

Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 131

The left ovary produces numerous ova. Mature ova are released into the
infundibulum where fertilization takes place. The ovum then migrates down
to magnum where it receives its albumen, then to the isthmus where the shell
membranes, some albumen, water and mineral salts are added. The shell is
formed in the uterus for 18-21 hours.
From ovulation to laying takes 24-26 hours.

29
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.2 The avian egg shell

Chalazae inner shell

Fig 4:2 Diagrammatic representation of an egg
Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page159

The avian egg is described as irregular ovoid and it is divided into three
main parts
Shell and shell membrane 12%
Albumen and Chalazae 56%
Yolk 32%

3.2.1 Composition of the egg

Nutrients Yolk Albumen Shell

Water 48 86 2
Protein 17 12 5
Fat 33 12 -
Ash 1 1 93
Carbohydrate 1 1 -

Factors affecting Egg size

1) Genetic factors
2) Age of the birds
3) Protein level of the diet
4) Environmental factors
5) Size of the birds
6) Ovum size
7) Intensity of egg laying

30
ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.3 Incubation

Incubation is the process of aiding the development of a fertilized egg

into a life chick by providing such factors as adequate temperature,
humidity, ventilation and turning. There are two methods of incubation.

1) Natural incubation
That is getting the hen to sit on fertilize egg to incubate the egg.
2) Artificial incubation
Artificial incubation is carried out with incubator using fuels such
as kerosene, gas, coal etc.

3.3.1 Essential requirement of artificial incubation

1) Adequate ventilation- there should be sufficient oxygen to supply the

respiratory need of the embryo. Also carbon dioxide resulting from
embryonic metabolism should not be allowed to accumulate.
2) Relative humidity of 60-65% should be provided to prevent
excessive water loss by the egg.
3) Adequate temperature should be provided to ensure that life within
the egg is maintained at the optimum level. The temperature of
37.5◦C is ideal.
4) Turner: There should be a turner to prevent the embryo getting
stucked shell. This should be done at least three times daily.

3.3.2 Operation of the incubator

This is divided into two phases

1) Setting of the eggs 0-18 days.

2) Hatching of the eggs 19-21 days.

Some incubators combine the two operations while others are separate.
The selected eggs are set on trays with the large ends up and placed in
the incubator.

31
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Fig. 4.3 Eggs in incubating compartments

Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 170

The temperature requirement during the first week is 38oC, 39oC for the
second week and 40oC for the third week.

The relative humidity requirement is 60-65%. There should also be free

passage of air in the incubator. The egg should be turn at least three
times daily up to the 18th day. On the seventh and sixteenth day of
incubation the eggs are checked for infertile eggs and dead embryo by
candling. Candling is the process of testing incubated eggs for fertility
and development of the embryo. This is done by holding the egg before
a strong shaded light see fig 4.4 or placing a strong hand torch under the
tray.

Fig 4 :4 A simple candling device (Chris Mc Kinnell)

Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 170

32
ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.4 Hatching

The eggs are moved from the incubator to the hatching compartment on
the 18 day. The eggs are layed (Placed) flat in preparation for hatching.
The relative humidity should be higher (70%) in hatching compartment.

3.4.1 Hatchability

Hatchability refers to percentage of eggs that were hatched, it should be

about 80-90% from a good flock

Hatch of fertile
This refers to percentage of fertile eggs that were hatched.

Hatch of total
This refers to percentage of total eggs that were hatched.
Example: supposing 500eggs were incubated, after 7 days. 450 were
found to be fertile. If 400 of the fertile eggs hatched into chicks.
Calculate hatch of fertile and hatch of total?

Solution: Total eggs = 500

Fertile eggs = 450
Hatched eggs = 400
%hatch of fertile = 400/450 x 100 = 88.89%
% hatch total = 400/500 x 100 =80.0%

Note:
1) Hatch of fertile is usually higher than hatch of total.
2) Hatch of fertile is more precise because fertility is considered.
3) Hatch of fertile is of practical importance as it refers to the
performance of the breeder stock.

3.4.2 Factors affecting hatchability

There are six factors affecting hatchability.

1) Fertility
2) Genetic
3) Nutrition
4) Diseases
5) Egg selection
6) Management practices

3.4.3 Fertility

Percentage fertility is the percentage of egg that are fertile and should be
about 90-95% for a good flock.

33
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Fertility is affected by the following

a) 1Mating ratio: mating ratio of 10 : 1 is recommended. If the
ratio is higher the fertility of the egg will be lower.
b) Age of breeders: Fertility declines with age
c) Length of period between mating: A mated hen stores sperm and
uses it up to 2 weeks.

Generally it requires 2 weeks after mating the flock before satisfactory

fertility is achieved. The removal of the male from the flock is followed
by decline in fertility within 2 weeks and few if any fertile eggs will be
produced after 3 weeks.

3.4.4 Genetic factors

Hatchability is an inherited trait so strains (breeds) that possess high
hatchability should be selected.

i) In-breeding without selection for hatchability has been shown to

lower hatchability in poultry.
ii) Cross breeding usually result in increase hatchability.
iii) Lethal or semi- Lethal genes may affect either fertility,
hatchability and
livability (life).
iv) Rate of egg production: Eggs layed by hen producing at a high
rate are more fertile
than eggs layed by low producers.
v) Age: Hatchability is maximum half way into the second laying
year for females.
While for male is one year after sexual maturity.

3.4.5 Nutrition

The egg must contain the entire nutrients needed by the embryo for
development. Breeder hen must be fed ration which supplies adequate
quantities with the nutrients needed for the embryo to develop.

3.4.6 Disease

Eggs for hatching should be collected from healthy flocks. Disease

causing organisms like Salmonella and Mycoplasma are transmitted
from infected hen chiefly through the egg. Breeding stocks should be
tested regularly to prevent infection.

34
ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.4.7 Egg selection

Certain physical characteristics of eggs are related to hatchability among

these are size, weight (50-60g), shape, shell quality and internal quality.

3.4.8 Management practices

Eggs for hatching should be collected immediately and stored below

20oC to arrest embryonic development. Fertile eggs deteriorate in
quality after 4 days.
Fertile eggs should be stored at a temperature around 10oC and humidity
80%. Eggs should be stored with the broad end upward. Proper hygiene
should be maintained in the hatchery. Eggs should be collected at least 3
times daily. Soiled eggs should be rejected or fumigated with formaline
solution.

3.5 Sex Separation

The early separation of the sex of young chicks is important economic

factor. There are several ways of sexing chicks.

1) By manual vent inspection at day old. At the center of the vent of

a male chick is located a pin edge size structure called the
process. This can be easily seen with aid of the magnifying lens.
A female vent shows no such structure.
2) Sexing can also be done when the chicks are five to eight weeks
old. Such a separation is based on larger size combs and wattles,
longer tail feathers, stouter shanks, with prominent scales and
generally larger body size in cockerels than in pullets.
3) Sex-linked colour differentiations: for example at day old, golden
comet breed have dark gold coloured pullets while the cockerels
look white.

35
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

4.0 CONCLUSION

The avian egg therefore, can be divided into three main parts as shell
and shell membranes, albumen and chalazae and the yolk. The egg can
be incubated either naturally or artificially. Hatchability as well as
fertility is affected by genetic factors but again it is management which
go above genetics in its effect.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt that:

 Factors affecting egg size include; genetic factors, age of the

birds, protein level of the diet, environmental factors, size of the
birds, ovum size and intensity of laying.
 The essential requirements of artificial incubation are adequate
ventilation, relative humidity of 60-65%, temperature of 37.5˚C
and turning at least three times daily.
 Incubator operation is divided into setting and the hatching phase.
 Hatchability refers to percentage of eggs that were hatched; it
should be about 80-90% from a good flock.
 Factors affecting hatchability are fertility, genetic, nutrition,
diseases, egg selection and management practices.

36
ANP 301 MODULE 1

MANAGEMENT OF DAY-OLD GROWERS, LAYERS

AND BROILERS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The management of day old chicks is an important and delicate

operation. Any mismanagement at this stage will show up later as heavy
financial loss to the farmer through excessive mortality, disease
outbreak and poor productivity. Growers refers to growing pullets of 9-
20 weeks of age. The birds may be kept in the same pen that was used
for the initial rearing of the chicken but there should be enough floor and
feeding space. At this stage the birds are changed from chick mash to
growers mash. Layer is a matured female chicken meant for egg
production. Layers are normally moved to the laying quarters at 18
weeks of age. They are either reared in battery cages or deep liter. The
diet of the birds should be changed to layer mash.

3.0 Management of Day Old Chicks

The management of day old chicks is an important and delicate

operation. Any mismanagement at this stage will show up later as heavy
financial loss to the farmer through excessive mortality, disease
outbreak and poor productivity. The management starts before the
arrival of the chicks. Two weeks to the arrival of the birds, the brooding
pen should be clean and disinfected. Litter material should be spread to
about 6-8 cm. of height.

3.1 Feeding and watering Equipment

Feeding and watering equipment of small sizes should also be provided.

Twenty four hours before the arrival of the birds, brooder should be set
to required temperature(35oC).

Feed and water should be put in place before birds arrival. On arrival
dead and weak chicks should be removed. Chicks destined or meant to
be layers should be fed chick starter mash while broilers should be fed
broiler starter mash.

3.2 Temperature requirement of chicks

Table 5.1 Temperature requirement of chicks

Age of chick Temperature

37
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION
Day old - 1 week 35oC

1 - 2 weeks 30oC

2 - 3 weeks 26oC

3 - 4 weeks 23oC

Brooder space requirement is 40-60 cm2 per chick. Overcrowding of the

bird should be avoided as this can lead to slow growth rate, disease build
up, feather and toe pecking, this can be prevented by debeaking.

38
ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.3 Broiler Management

The broiler is a young chicken of either sex, being intensively fed for
meat production. With good strain, diet and management, they reach
market weight of 1.5- 2kg live weight in 8-12 weeks. At this stage their
meat is tender, juicy and well flavoured.

The broiler pen should be prepared as above prior to arrival of the

chicks. When the broilers attend the age of 5-6 weeks, they should be
transferred to the broiler finisher pen with free air movement. They
should also be changed from broiler starter ration to broiler finisher
ration. The broiler starter is a high protein moderate energy ration, while
the broiler finisher is a high energy moderate protein ration. At this age
the birds should average 500-900g in weight and consume about 58g of
feed per day per bird. They should be allowed adequate floor space of
about 0.25cm2 per chick to prevent cannibalism.

Vaccination should be ensured at the right time. Good sanitary condition

should be maintained.

Coccidiostat should be included in their feed which should be

withdrawn two weeks to marketing time. This is to prevent the transfer
of the drug to the tissues of the birds and then further to the consumer.
Broilers should have free access to water and feed at all times.

Note
Broilers make economic gains within 10 weeks, beyond 12 weeks, they
tend to eat much more than they gain resulting in lowered profitability.
It is therefore essential to market them at about 8-12 weeks of age.

3.4 Signs of a good Broiler

The sign of a good broiler chicken include

1) Constricted pelvic bone
2) Dry and constricted vent
3) Not very bright comb

3.5 Management of Growers

Growers refers to growing pullets of 9-20 weeks of age. The birds may
be kept in the same pen that was used for the initial rearing of the
chicken but their should be enough floor and feeding space. At this stage
the birds are changed from chick mash to growers mash. This diet is
lower in protein (15-16%) and energy compared to the chick and
broilers mash. This is to prevent excessive fat deposition by the pullets.
The diet need not contain a coccidiostat. Feed wastage during the

39
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

growing phase can be a very serious problem. This can be reduced by

using feeds that reduce spillage. They should also be deworm from 16th
week.

3.6 Management of Layers

Layer is a matured female chicken meant for egg production. Layers are
normally moved to the laying quarters at 18 weeks of age. They are
either reared in battery cages or deep liter. The diet of the birds should
be changed to layer mash. This diet is higher in calcium, energy and
protein compared to the growers mash. Two weeks to commencement of
laying, level of calcium in the diet should be increased to 3-4%. This is
to enable adequate deposition of calcium in their bones for use in shell
formation when the birds start to lay. The laying birds should be fed
adlibitum because any form of rationing would result in reduced rate of
egg production. There should be adequate water supply. This is because
lack of water will result in decreased egg production and possibly death.

Perches and nests should be provided on deep liter. To stimulate egg

production, the length of artificial day should be increased to 16-18
hours. Eggs should be collected at least twice daily and properly
recorded. The most common management problems in laying flocks are
broodiness and moulting.

3.6.1 Characteristics of good layer

1) Comb is bright red

2) Bright eyes.
3) Pelvic bone- four fingers width
4) Vent – large, soft, moist and oval vent
5) Good layers are very active and alert.
6) They have prominent, soft, smooth wattles.
7) They have worm soiled and close plumage.
8) They have bright red face

40
ANP 301 MODULE 1

Fig 5:1 A simple means of distinguishing laying birds from non laying
birds (Courtesy of ATB)
Source: (Poultry) Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 139

3.6.2 Calculating Productivity of laying flock

1. Hen day egg production (HDEP)

This is the number of eggs laid expressed as percentage of the
number of layers on hand.

HDEP = Total number of eggs laid / Total number of layers on hand

x 100

2. Hen housed egg production:(HHEP)

This is the number of eggs laid expressed as percentage of the number
of layers housed at the initial stage.
HHEP = Total number of eggs laid / Total number of layers housed
at beginning of lay x 100

4.0 CONCLUSION

Chicks may therefore be reared on litter or on the floor from day-old

until hey are ready to enter the laying house. Similarly, broiler chickens

41
ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

are reared from day-old to about 46-70 days in controlled environment

house on built-up litter of wood shavings or straw or mixture of the two
types.

5.0 SUMMARY

 In this unit we have studied that:

The management of day old chicks starts two weeks before the
arrival of the chicks.
Brooding pen should be clean, disinfected, liter material should
be spread to about a
height of 6-8 cm, feeding and watering equipment to be set and
temperature set at
35˚C.
 The broiler house should be set as above but the diet should be
broiler starter diet and at the age of 5-6 weeks the birds may be
transferred to the broiler finisher pen with free air movement. The
ration should be change to broiler finisher ration.
 The signs of good broiler include constricted pelvic bone, dry
constricted vent, an not very bright comb.
 The growers are between 9-20 weeks of age and their ration
should be changed from chick mash to growers mash, this is to
prevent excessive fat deposition.
 Layers are normally moved to laying quarters at the age of 18
weeks either in deep liter or battery cage system and their diet
changed to layers mash.
 The signs of a good layer are bright red comb, bright eyes, pelvic
bone with four finger width, large vent, soft, moist and oval vent,
active and alert. Have soft smooth wattles and bright red face.

42
 ANP 301 MODULE 1

POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR PREVENTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Good management built on the foundation of basically sound units and

buildings, not only will disease be far less likely to occur but, in
addition, productivity can be enhanced at all stages.

3.0 Disease and Disease Prevention

Disease is any deviation from the normal physiological state of health.

It is always better to prevent a disease than to cure it. It is necessary to
aimed at disease prevention by planning a disease control programme
with a veterinarian. Poultry birds should be vaccinated against prevalent

43
 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

diseases. It is important to maintain strict sanitation practice by cleaning

the poultry house and surroundings regularly. Prevent birds, personnel,
vehicles and stray birds from entering the farm unless disinfection is
properly carried out. Where there is an out break of a disease
immediately contact a veterinarian

3.1 Diseases of poultry

Diseases of poultry can be broadly classified into:

a) Pathogenic diseases:
These are diseases brought about by the presence of one or more
pathogenic or causative organisms.

b.) Management diseases:

Bad management can be caused of pathogenic invasion and can also
cause diseases directly e.g. overcrowding can lead to rapid transfer of
disease from sick animals to healthy ones. It can also cause inadequate
access to feed and water. Other examples of poor or bad management
that can lead directly to diseases are:

i) Failure to vaccinate at the right time.

ii) Failure to remove dead birds promptly.
iii) Poor or old litter.
iv) Failure to remove droppings regularly
v) Overcrowding
vi) Poor ventilation
vii) Poor incubation hygiene
viii) Uncontrolled access to poultry farms and lack of foot baths
ix) Indiscriminate transfer and mixing of eggs, stock and poultry
equipment.

c.) Deficiency diseases

These are diseases caused by lack of one or more essential
nutrients needed for growth and development in the body.

d.) Metabolic diseases

These are group of diseases which are caused by a faulty
metabolic process in the body. This is caused by the absence in
the body of certain fat carrying substances resulting in the
accumulation of fat in the liver, intestines, gizzard, kidneys and
heart.

44
ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.2 Disease Prevention

The following precautions can be taken by poultry keepers to prevent

the spread of diseases.
i) The setting and management of poultry houses: this is very
important in any disease control programme. It is necessary to
ensure that birds of different ages are not kept in close proximity,
this is to prevent diseases spreading from older birds to younger
ones.
ii) The poultry house should be thoroughly clean and disinfected and
a gap of at least 2 weeks allowed before bringing in a new batch
of birds.
iii) Sick birds should also be removed promptly to prevent them
becoming a source of infection to other birds.
iv) Dead birds should be buried or incinerated.
v) Control by vaccination: Birds should be vaccinated against the
common diseases in a locality.
vi) Control by Chemotherapy or prophylaxis: Another way of
preventing diseases is by the use of good management associated
with prophylactics such as Coccidiostats and sulpha drugs.

Table 6.1 The most important vaccinations against common diseases

in the tropics:
Disease Vaccination Age of bird
New castle Intra occular Day old
Lasota 3-4 weeks
Komorov 6 weeks
Mareks disease *MD-Vaccine Day old
(infectious bronchitis) *IB- Vaccine *7-10ddays
Via water **2-3 weeks
Or Intra occular again 24 weeks
Infectious bursal Gumboro vaccine 10-14 days
disease (Gumboro) 5 weeks
(IBD)
Fowl pox Chicken N.P.X Day old
Fowl pox vaccine 3 weeks
poxine and poxinet
Re- Vaccinate 12-14 weeks
Fowl typhoid fowl typhoid vaccine 4 weeks
Fowl cholera Fowl cholera vaccine 12 weeks
Repeat again 17 weeks

* Broilers * MD Marek’s disease

** Pullets * IB Infectious Bronchitis

45
 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.3 Common Diseases of Chicken

Table 6.2 Common diseases of Chickens

Name Means of causative Signs Prophylaxis Treatment
Transmission Organism

New castle Bird to bird Virus Paralysis Vaccination None

Disease by droplet in difficulty either dead
air in or live
breathing vaccine
greenish
diarrhoea
Infectious Bird to bird Virus Antibiotics
bronchitis Respiratory Vaccination to control
problems secondary
large infections
decrease in
egg
Fowl cholera Through Bacterium production. Annual Remove,
or water and . Severe vaccination slaughter
pasteurellosis food to nose diarrhea with live and destroy
and mouth Blue vaccine infected
combs and birds. Clean
wattles infected
reduction premises
in food
intake

Names Means of Causativ Sings Prophylax Treatment

Transmissi e is
on organism
Marek’s . Affected None
disease Bird to bird birds 12- Vaccinatio
and Virus 24 weeks n Isolation
leukosis old.
Causes
paralysis
and
death of
10-
30% of Cull
Fowl pox Mosquitoes flock Vaccinatio clinically
and other Virus n Isolation affected
biting Scabs on birds.
insects and the Vaccinate
through comb, uninfected

46
ANP 301 MODULE 1
wattles,

47
 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

damaged eyelids ones.

skin Death

Gumboro Isolation
disease Virus vaccines None
(infectiou By direct Prostratio are
s bursitis) contact n of birds available
especially in Diarrhoe
young birds a
Pullorum
disease Salmonel Adult Sulphur
From hen to la carriers drugs or
chick bacterium High should be furazolidone
through egg death removed
rate in
chicks.
Name of White
Disease diarrhea Prophylax Treatment
Means of Causativ is
transmissio e
n organism Signs
Coccidios Sulphanamid
is Feed e,
From the Protozoa coccidiosta pyrimidine
droppings of Watery t Separate or prolium
of infected infected and young and in water
birds eimeria bloody adults
spp diarrhea
High
death
rate

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1a) List the poor management practices that can lead to disease in a
poultry farm.
b) Describe the precautions to be taken by poultry keepers to
prevent the spread of diseases.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Diseases of poultry can be broadly classified into pathogenic,

management, deficiency and metabolic diseases, there control and
prevention is of paramount importance to ensure both maximum
profitability and productivity.

48
ANP 301 MODULE 1

UNIT 7 POULTRY PRODUCTS AND MARKETING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Poultry Products and Marketing
3.2 Egg marketing
3.3 Egg grading
3.3.1 Exterior qualities used for grading eggs
3.3.2 Interior qualities used for grading eggs
3.4 Egg processing and preservation
3.5 Marketing Table Birds
3.5.1 Processing of Table Birds
3.5.2 Killing
3.5.3 Scalding
3.5.4 Picking or plucking
3.5.5 Dry plucking
3.5.6 Dressing and Evisceration
3.5.7 Chilling
3.5.8 Storage
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Any farmer who’s production capacity is more than what he can eat with
his family and relatives, he must fine a market for the surplus otherwise
it becomes a burden on him.

The need for poultry meat or egg varies from Country to country and
from locality to locality. The marketing of poultry meat is different from
the marketing of poultry eggs.

In developing countries like Kenya, where there is shortage of animal

protein, marketing of broilers depend on their market price. For farmers
near a town or a city, setting the market price at a level which the
consumer will be prepared to pay , will be met with people eager to buy
and disposal of products will not be a problem. For farmers from rural
areas that are away from the main market, the cost of transporting his
product to the market may make his product more expensive with no
profit.

49
 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 to understand how the poultry egg are processed preserved over

time.
 to be familiar with external and internal egg quality
characteristics that are used in grading of an egg.
 be aware of the procedure of processing table birds for marketing
purposes.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Poultry Products and Marketing

It is of no value to produce poultry commodities (egg and Meat) without

serious effort to secure a market for them.

3.2 Egg marketing

The egg is a highly perishable product and if not given proper care
between the time it is laid and time it is consumed, it may deteriorate
markedly in several respects for example

 Gross changes in weight as a result of evaporation of moisture

through the shell mostly from the albumen.
 Flavour and odour changes also occur in storage either due to
internal chemical changes or to the absorption of extraneous
odour by the egg.
 Relative changes in size and form of egg components such as
yolk and albumen can indicate age in storage.
 Other changes are inter conversion of minerals and organic
contents, specific gravity, permeability, viscosity, gaseous
concentration and microbial changes.

3.3 Egg grading

The most important point considered in egg for consumption is quality.

In general the interior and exterior factors are considered.

3.3.1 Exterior qualities used for grading eggs

1. Soundness of shell
2. cleanliness
3. size

50
ANP 301 MODULE 1

4. colour
5. shape and texture

3.3.2 Interior qualities used for grading eggs

1. Condition of the yolk

2. condition of the shell
3. condition of the air cell.

3.4 Egg processing and preservation

Eggs are processed to prolong their keeping or storage life. Methods of

prolonging edible life of an egg include:

i) Prevent contamination with faeces and other dirt

ii) Chilling at temperatures between -0.5oC and -2oC and relative
humidity of 88% (can store for 2-3 months)
iii) Chemical treatments aimed at sealing the shell pores and thus
preserving the egg contents from environmental changes and
gaseous diffusion using example. Vegetable oils, Vaseline, lard,
gelatin, agar-agar and alum as coating agents.
iv) Heat treatment: egg can be momentarily (5 seconds) dipped in
boiling water to coagulate the thin film of albumen enclosing the
egg membrane.
v) Dehydration: usually applied to the shelled eggs to produce
powdered products or flakes.

3.5 Marketing Table Birds

Table birds are broilers, old hens cockerels and cocks. They can be
marketed live or dressed and ready to cook. Consumers in the southern
part of Kenya buy very little live poultry but in the northern part of the
country, live birds are commonly sold in the markets.

3.5.1 Processing of Table Birds

It involves the following stages:

i) Killing and bleeding.

ii) Scalding
iii) Plucking or picking
iv) Dressing and evisceration.

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 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.5.2 Killing

Birds are killed by any of the following methods.

i) By hatching off the head from the live chicken.

ii) By cutting the head off with a knife.
iii) By cutting the jugular vein.

After killing, the chicken is allowed to bleed.

3.5.3 Scalding

Scalding is the used of hot water (50-55oC) to soften the skin and
facilitate the removal of the feathers.

3.5.4 Picking or plucking

The scalded bird is then de feathered by hand picking. However, in

commercial processing units, mechanical pluckers consisting of rotating
drums with several stickers usually of rubber or plastics are used.

3.5.5 Dry plucking

Chickens can also be de feathered by plucking of the feathers by

plucking of feathers without scalding. Though laborious the method
preserves a good colour of the skin and keeps longer than scalded
carcass.

The birds can also be de feathered by means of fire or Wax plucking.

3.5.6 Dressing and Evisceration

Dressing entails the removal of the head, neck, feet, gizzard, lungs, liver,
intestine, crop, legs and other intestinal tissues. The internal evisceration
is done by slitting between the end of the keel bone and the rectum and
then plunging the hand to remove the contents of the body cavity. The
dressed chicken is sold whole or in parts.

3.5.7 Chilling

Dressed chickens are usually chilled to prevent bacterial growth and

enzymatic activities. This is achieved by placing the carcass in a cold
chamber with temperature of 1-5oC.

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ANP 301 MODULE 1

3.5.8 Storage

The temperature depends on the length of time that the carcass are to be
stored. For a day or two temperature of 2oC is ideal. If for a long period
of time, they should be frozen to -5oC to -18oC.

In Kenya the prices of poultry products is determine by the forces of

demand and supply. A typical market organization of poultry products in
a developing economy is as follows:

super markets *Packaging

a) Table Birds *Packing
*Cold stores
Producer Abattoir
farms * Ware house
Consumer

Cooperative

b) Marketing eggs

Packagin
Super markets
Producer g house
consumer Cold
Farms
stores
Cooperative stores
Ware
Fig. 7.2 Diagrammatic representation of marketing table birds and eggs

In underdeveloped economy like Kenya, the scheme represented above

does not operate. Consequently there are no accurate trends on
production, supply and demand; price changes are violent and difficult
to control. Couple with this , the poor cold storage facilities makes the
handling of poultry products precarious and the prices unstable.

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 ANP 301 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

4.0 CONCLUSION

In developing countries like Kenya, where there is shortage of animal

protein, marketing of broilers depend on their market price. For farmers
near a town or a city, setting the market price at a level which the
consumer will be prepared to pay , will be met with people eager to buy
and disposal of products will not be a problem. For farmers from rural
areas that are away from the main market, the cost of transporting his
product to the market may make his product more expensive with no
profit.
It is therefore of no value to produce poultry commodities (egg and
Meat) without serious effort to secure a market for them.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we learnt that:

 Egg shelf life deteriorates over time causing gross changes in

weight, flavour and odour changes, relative changes in size and
form also inter conversion of minerals and organic contents.
 Methods of prolonging edible life of an egg are prevention of
contamination with faeces and dirt, chilling at -0.5˚C and -2˚C
and relative humidity of 88%, sealing the hell pores with
vegetable oil or vaseline, heat treatment etc.
 Exterior qualities used for egg grading are soundness of shell,
cleanliness, size, shape and texture while interior qualities
include conditions of yolk, shell and air cell.
 Table birds can be marketed live or dressed and they are
processed by killing, bleeding, scalding, plucking, dressing and
evisceration.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lee, S. and Summers, J. D. (2000) Boiler breeder production.

McDonald, I. and Low, J.(1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Smith, A. J. and Coste, R (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical Agriculturalist

(CTA) Macmillan.

54
ANP 301 MODULE 2

55
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO PIG
MANAGEMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The origin of the pig is difficult to understand, it is possible that it is

mainly derived from the European wild boar. Pigs were thought to have
been domesticated as early as 200BC. Since then man has developed the
pig as meat animal

World pig population

The estimated world pig population of 826 million (FAO, 1988) means
that there is approximately one pig for every six people in the world. A
comparison of the meat produced by pig with other domestic species has

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

revealed that more pig meat is produced than any other meat despite the
fact that pigs are numerically fewer than other domestic species.

Table 1.1 A comparison of the main livestock species in the world in

terms of numbers and meat production
Domestic species Numbers Meat output
(million head) (000 metric tonnes per
year)
Cattle 1 253 50 098
Buffalo 137
Sheep 1 174 8 801
Goat 521
Poultry 10 050 11 495
Pigs 826 63 917
(Source: FAO Quarterly bulletin of statistics, 1989)

Distribution and Consumption

The distribution of pigs around the world is not the same. Almost half the
world’s pig population is in Asia, 30 percent in Europe and the former
USSR. The population of pigs in large parts of the tropical and sub-
tropical developing regions for example Africa and Latin America is
relatively small. See fig.1.1

S. Americcca
6.00%
Africa 1.50%
Oceania 0.60%
N & C America
10.50%

USSR 9.50%
Asia 49.00%

Europe
22.90%

Fig 1.1 Regional distribution of the world pig population (FAO 1988)
Source: (Pigs) The Tropical Agriculturalist by D. H. Holness, A. J. Smith, and R. Coste page 2

It is important to note that most of the world pigs population is located in

China.

There is marked differences in the consumption patterns of pig meat

throughout the world. In some parts of Europe, annual per capita
consumption of pig mea is over 50kg, and represents some 60 percent of
the total meat consumed. In he developing countries and particularly in
 Africa, estimated annual per capita consumption ranges from 1 to 3 kg,
and forms less than 10 percent of the total meat diet.

The reasons for the un even distribution of pigs throughout the tropical
and sub-tropical world are many. In Asia and parts of China, pork is the
predominant component of the diet. While in areas where the Islamic
religion prevails, e.g. the Middle East, Pakistan and parts of Africa,
Muslims are forbidden to eat any pig meat, similarly, believers in the
Jewish faith are instructed not to eat pork meat, and many Zionist sects
obey the same rules. Social factors also play an important role in pig
population for example in some pacific islands, pigs are highly regarded
as a source of wealth and associated with marriage customs.

3.0 Taxonomy (Biological Classification)

Below is the taxonomy of the pig:

Kingdom - Animalia
Phylum - Chordata (Animas with back bones)
Class – Mammalia (Warm blooded animals that suckle their young)
Order - Artiodactyy (Even toed hoof)
Family - Suidae (non-ruminant or single stomach system)
Genus – Sus (Restricted wild European boars with which domestic
pigs are bred From)
Specie – Sus Scrofa and sus Vitatus

3.1 Advantages of pig farming

1) They have the potential to be highly prolific. Because they are

cable of producing large litters after a relatively short gestation
period, and have a short generation interval and grow fast.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

2) Their productivity in terms of yield of meat per tonne of live

weight of breeding females per year is in the region of six times
that of cattle.
3) There body size makes them more flexible for Marketing and
consumption compared to cattle.
4) Pigs meat is suitable for processing and some of the processed
products have a
longer shelf life than fresh meat, and can thus be distributed to a
wider section of
the population.
5) Pigs are efficient feed converters to meat twice as efficiently as
ruminants.(i.e.
they have high feed efficiency)
6) Pig production provides quick turn-over on investment compared
with cattle.
7) Curative and preventive drugs are available for most swine
diseases.
8) Pigs also gives useful by-product like their feaces can be used as a
good source of manure.
9) Pigs can be reared almost any where given suitable housing and
management although their management in extreme temperature
can be expensive.
10) They produce meat without contributing to the deterioration of the
natural grazing lands. This is important considering the steady
desertification, soil erosion and loss of productive land in some
areas of the tropics.

3.2 Disadvantages of pig farming

1) There is poor product acceptance in areas where the Islamic

religion prevails, e.g. the Middle East, Pakistan and parts of
Africa, Muslims are forbidden to eat any pig meat, similarly,
believers in the Jewish faith are instructed not to eat pork meat,
and many Zionist sects obey the same rules. In other words there
is strong taboo against the eating of poultry product, thereby
negatively affecting the market for the products.
2) While Social factors play an important role in their acceptance, the
pig has historically been considered an un clean animal,
wallowing in filth, an object of dislike and a risk to human
health.
3) The digestive tract of pigs and Birds is relatively short compared
to other farm animals and can only utilize high quality concentrate
feeds (E.g. staple grains and oilseeds) These are
also use as feed for human making them to be in direct competition
with man.
4) They cannot provide a source of drought power for farming
 operations.
5) They are raised close to human habitation and thereby making heir
waste product a pollution problem.

II) Terminology
1) Boar - mature uncastrated male.
2) Barrow: - mature castrated male before puberty.
3) Hog: - castrated male.
4) Stag: - adult male castrated later in life.
5) Shoat: - swine of both sex weighing 30-80kg
6) Gilt - young female swine before farrowing.
7) Sow: - adult or mature female after one or two pregnancies
8) Barrener: - sterile female
9) Farrow: - giving birth to young ones.
10) Herd: - group of swine
11) Litters: - young ones (piglets).

3.3 Breeds of Pigs

There are over 90 recognized breeds and an estimated 230 varieties of

pigs in the world. They can be broadly classified into indigenous or
unimproved types or the more modern exotic types which have been
selected and developed for specific commercial purposes.

3.3.1 Indigenous breeds (unimproved)

These are mostly found in developing countries and have evolved a

variety of shapes and sizes in order to survive in a range of different
environments. Generally they are smaller and shorter of leg than the
exotic types (mature weight of females 40- 120 kg), with the typical
unimproved conformation of a large head, well- developed forequarters
and relatively light hindquarters. This renders them more mobile and
better able to forage and root for themselves. They are early sexually
maturing and females may show first oestrus as early as three months of
age. There are many variations of coat colour, but black and brown are
most common and white is infrequent. The degree of hairiness also varies,
and both hairless and relatively long –haired types are found. Within the
major regions of the tropics, the main breeds and types are as follows:

Africa
Pigs are not characterized into specific breeds in most African Countries.
They are known as ‘indigenous,’ ‘local’ or unimproved pigs.

In some parts of Africa more specific use is made of pigs for meat
production and the bakosi in the Cameroons and the Ashanti Dwarf in
Ghana are examples of indigenous breeds. Their characteristics include
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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

small with mature female size of 40-60kg, and are mainly black in colour
with prick ears.
The unimproved pigs of East, Central and Southern Africa are mostly
descended from stock introduced by early European travelers, and
therefore not truly indigenous, they are relatively wide spread.

The productivity of these unimproved breeds in Africa is influenced by

their environment and some typical reproductive performance figures are
shown in Table 1.2

The trials indicated that although litter sizes tended to be smaller, total
live weight of the litter as a proportion of the weight of the sow at
farrowing was of the same order as exotic sows (11 percent).

Table 1.2The reproductive performance of unimproved breeds of

pigs in Africa

Kenya Zimbabwe South Ghana

Africa (Ashanti)
(Dwarf)
Litter-size at birth 6.5 7.9 7.2 6.3
Litter-size at weaning 5.5 7.5 - -
Pre-weaning mortality 15.0 5.0 - -
(%) 9.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
Average weaning age - 7.6 9.0 7.0
(wks)
Average weaning mass
(kg)

Source: (Pigs) The Tropical Agriculturalist by D. H. Holness, A. J. Smith, and R. Coste page 23

3.3.2 Exotic breeds in the tropics

3.3.3 Duroc

This has droppy ears and is deep red or rusty colour. It is a fast growing
large breed.

The Duroc produces a very good carcass and is said to be an excellent

 meat producer.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Also it has the ability to grow to heavier weights without depositing too
much fat.

The duroc is a hardy animal which survives well in tropical climate. It is

generally used for
cross-breeding.

Fig1.2 A Duroc sow

Source: (Pigs) The Tropical Agriculturalist by D. H. Holness, A. J. Smith, and R. Coste page 29

3.3.4 Large white (Yorkshire)

This breed was first developed in Yorkshire, England. It has erect ears
and is white in colour and females are prolific. It is renowned for its
strength of leg. The breed can be used for both pork and bacon
production. It is a fairly hardy animal but will suffer from sun-burn if it
is not kept in a building out of the sun.

Fig1.3 A large white (yokshire) boar

Source: (Pigs) The Tropical Agriculturalist by D. H. Holness, A. J. Smith, and R. Coste page 29

3.3.5 Landrace
It is characterized by its forward-pointing lop ears and possesses a long,
smooth body with light shoulders and well developed hams. It is white in
colour, this swine is good for bacon production, but has a higher level of
 susceptibility o stress and requires a high level of management.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Fig1.4 A landrace boar

Source: (Pigs) The Tropical Agriculturalist by D. H. Holness, A. J. Smith, and R. Coste page 29

Fig 1.5 A Hampshire boar

Source: (Pigs) The Tropical Agriculturalist by D. H. Holness, A. J. Smith, and R. Coste page 30
 3.3.6 Hampshire

This swine is black with distinct white saddle which encircles the
forequarter. They are prolific, good mothers, and good milking ability. It
has more meat than the large white and landrace. It is probably best kept
for cross breeding.

3.3.7 Tamworth

his hardy animal is reddish colour and with erect ears. It is an efficient
converter of feed. The breed is relatively slow-maturing. In the past it has
been very popular for cross-breeding purposes in tropical regions.
Other exotic breeds include the Chester white, the large black, the middle
white e.t.c.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The estimated world pig population of 826 million (FAO, 1988) means
that there is approximately one pig for every six people in the world. A
comparison of the meat produced by pig with other domestic species has
revealed that more pig meat is produced than any other meat despite the
fact that pigs are numerically fewer than other domestic species.

5.0 SUMMARY

 The distribution of pigs around the world is not the same. Almost
half the world’s pig population is in Asia, 30 percent in Europe
and the former USSR. The population of pigs in large parts of the
tropical and sub-tropical developing regions for example Africa
and Latin America is relatively small.
 Advantages of pig farming include: the potential to be highly
prolific, body size makes them more flexible for Marketing and
consumption compared to cattle, Pigs meat is suitable for
processing and the processed products have a longer shelf life than
fresh meat, efficient feed converters, useful by-product e.t.c. while
their disadvantages include poor product acceptance, social and
religious factors, pollution e.t.c.
 There are over 90 recognized breeds and an estimated 230 varieties
of pigs in the world. They can be broadly classified into
indigenous or unimproved types or the more modern exotic types

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

which have been selected and developed for specific commercial

purposes.
 Bakosi in the Cameroons and the Ashanti Dwarf in Ghana are
examples of indigenous breeds. While the exotic breeds include:
Duroc, Large white (Yorkshire), Landrace, Hampshire, Tamworth.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Holness, D.H., Smith, A.J. and Coste, R. (1991) Pigs The Tropical
Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.
 PIG PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

The system of pig production is diverse there is the traditional method of

rearing in large parts of the tropics which is the simplest and cheapest.
The intensive system on the other hand entails considerable capital and
specialized management skills. The integrated systems involve the
production of pigs with other enterprises like fish farming, production of
algae, methane gas generation, ducks and vegetable production. Such
types of operations enhance the efficiency of resource use and increase
output for the overall operation. Regardless of the system of production,

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

any one considering pig production on a large scale should investigate the
marketing and processing facilities available and obtain expert advice.

3.0 Small-scale Systems

3.1 Pig kept as scavengers

Is a traditional method of rearing pigs in many areas of the tropics where

pigs are kept as scavengers, with no housing or medical care. It is simple
and cheap, usually few pigs are allowed to wander freely and pick up food
where ever they can. Supplementary food will be given where available
in the form of kitchen wastes, rice bran, by-products of beer-making,
maize stalks etc. These supplementary foods generally consist of low
nutritional value and indigenous breeds of pigs predominate on the
scavenging system. They are well adapted to the local environment and
their relatively small size and mobility render them best able to cope with
the conditions.

3.1.1 Advantages of small-scale systems

1) It is cheap and simple involving small or no amount of capital.

2) The pig plays an important socio-economic role as a form of
bank, and pigs are sold at times of cash shortages or unexpected
needs in the family.
 3.1.2 Disadvantages of small-scale systems

1) Pigs raised on this system are susceptible to infestation with

parasites and carry heavy burden of intestinal round worms and
tapeworms.
2) Productivity is normally low because of seasonal supply of food
resulting in irregular breeding of sows.
3) There is high rates of piglet mortality and low growth rates.
4) There is hazard of the scavenging system to humans because pigs
have access to sources of parasites, e.g. human excreta, which can
then be transmitted back to man when he eats the meat.

3.0 Semi-Intensive Production

This system is also known as ‘backyard’ system, here pigs are confined
to a house and are fed by the farmer. The house is in the form of pens
made from simple construction using bamboo and elevated. Feeding is
based on kitchen waste, vegetables and by-product foods and
management is generally minimal.

3.3.1 Advantages of semi-intensive

1) More attention is giving to the pigs than in the scavenging system.

2) Generally, herd sizes and productivity tend to be higher in these
systems than in the scavenging systems.

3.3.2 Disadvantages of semi-intensive

1) Productivity is relatively low compared to the intensive

production.
2) Mortality can be high.

3.4 Intensive Production

This is an improvement from the small-scale production to a commercial

production of pigs. Units may comprise up to 50 head, and the producer
will grow and /or purchases food specifically high pig enterprise. In this
system the housing is more sophisticated made up of concrete hard floor,
adequate shelter, shed and pen space and appropriate feed and watering
facilities.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.4.1 Advantages of intensive pig production

1) There is improvement in the management and protection against

infectious diseases and parasites by the farmer through the use of
veterinary drugs and vaccines.
2) The system is characterized by rising high performance breeds for
example exotic or cross breeds with indigenous breeds.
3) Markets are well established through arrangements with local
butchers on regular bases or into the large-scale commercial sector,
to bring in a regular income for the enterprise.
4) No risks of trouble from predators and thieves.

3.4.2 Disadvantages

1) It is capital intensive
2) High level of management skills is needed.
3) Increase chances of nutrient deficiency especially when pigs are
not well fed.

3.5 Large-scale Systems

3.5.1 Intensive

This is an intensive system of rearing and is the most common method of

large- scale production. It is capital intensive and involve sow herds from
40 up to 1000 head. High performance breeds of pigs are used and are
provided with optimum conditions of housing, feeding and management
in order to ensure maximum output. Housing is designed for different
classes of the stock and environmental conditions. This system is usually
incorporated with grain production and stock feed manufacturing
operations on the one hand, and marketing on the other. The pigs will
invariably be marketed through a processor in order t maximize returns
on the carcass.

3.5.2 Advantages of large-scale systems

1) No risks of trouble from predators and thieves.

2) With proper condition, there is less risk of parasitic infection.
3) Generates revenue for nation and a source of employment for the
people
 3.5.3 Disadvantages

1 High level of managerial skill is needed.

2 Increase chances of nutrient deficiency especially when pigs are
not well fed.
3 Difficulties of keeping the floor clean especially during the rainy
season when humidity is very high.
4 It involves high capital investment.

3.6 Extensive systems

There is a trend in Europe and America towards less intensive system of

pig production particularly for sows. This system is often known as
‘outdoor’ system. In this system sows are kept in paddocks and providing
individual huts for farrowing and shelter. Weaner pigs are generally raised
under more intensive conditions.
Production of these types exists in the tropics and there are greater
potentials in the systems.

3.6.1 Advantages of the extensive system

1) Less capital is required for the establishment compared to the

intensive systems.
2) Sows can gain access to foods such as pastures, crop residues,
cassava roots and sweet potatoes.

3.6.2 Disadvantages of the extensive systems

In the tropics shade and wallows must be provided, there must be tight
control of parasites and adequate fencing to prevent contact with endemic
diseases e.g. African swine fever.

3.7 Integrated Systems

This is the practice of integration of pig production with other enterprises

and has been practiced in tropical countries. Various combinations are
used for e.g. fish farming, production of algae, methane gas generation,
ducks and vegetable production. This type of combinations along with pig
production enhances the efficiency of resource use and increase output
for the overall enterprise.

3.7.1 Advantages of integrated systems

1) By fertilizing fish ponds with pig manure and effluent, algae are
generated which can then be utilized by fish. If sufficient water is
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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

available for suitable fish ponds, pig sties can either be constructed
above the ponds.
2) Manure from the pigs can be channeled into the ponds to supply
nutrients to the fish ponds there by generating more revenue to the
farmer.
3) Alternatively, the nutrient-rich water from the pigs can be used for
irrigating vegetables
4) Ponds can also be dried in rotation and vegetables grown in dry
pond beds for family and commercial purposes.
5) The pig effluent can be used to produce algae which is then
harvested and dried and fed back to pigs or other livestock.
6) The anaerobic fermentation of pig effluent can be used in the
production of methane gas. Relatively simple digesters can
produce a steady source of methane which can be used as a means
of energy for domestic and agricultural use

3.7.2 Disadvantages of the integrated systems

1) It is capital intensive.
2) It requires high level of managerial skills.

3.8 Housing

Pigs do better when housed, and their buildings should be of concrete or

with stones due to their rooting nature. Pigs productivity are more when
they are housed in a thermally neutral environment i.e. when the
environmental temperature around the pig is consistently between the pigs
lower critical temperature (LCT) and upper critical temperature (UCT).
The pig’s metabolic heat production is then at minimum, and it is neither
using feed energy to keep warm, nor reducing feed intake to keep cool.
Other consideration for pig comfort include:

a) Protection from other climatic extremes such as direct sun, wind

and rain,
b) Provision of dry conditions which are hygienic and do not
predispose the pig to disease as they easily get pneumonia.
c) Allowance for natural behavioral pattern of the pig as far as
possible and minimizing the effect f social dominance
d) Provision of accessible food and clean water;
e) Providing conditions such that good stockman ship can be
practiced.
f) Effective disposal of waste matter.
 3.8.1 General consideration of designing pig house

Right design of house is of paramount importance so that investment is

justified by improved productivity. The land has to be well drained, non
swampy and outskirts of the settlement away from public utilities like
source of drinking water to prevent contamination. If the land is swampy
drainage system should be constructed and the building foundation should
be aid with stones and concrete and well elevated.

In very cold areas, beddings of dry grass or wood shavings could be

provided in their sleeping sties to provide warmth and easy cleaning of
the sties, this also helps the pigs look cleaner.

Adequate ventilation should be provided by having enough windows on

the building to allow for cross ventilation. This windows may be open or
close depending on the need and situation in the environmental
temperature.

Most of the breeds of pigs in Kenya are either exotic or cross breeds they
are tolerant to cold. However, if they are taken to the southern humid or
hot northern parts of Kenya the paramount consideration is generally to
ameliorate the effects of excess heat by provision of adequate shade and
wallows as a means of coolant to prevent heat stress.

Alternatively pigs should be sprinkled with water when there is excessive

heat.

Pigs buildings should be of concrete or with stones due to their rooting

nature. They should be placed in their sites according to their ages and
sexes to make for uniform feeding and prevent indiscriminate mating and
high in-breeding.

Some examples of pigs housing include:

i) Danish swine house

ii) Traditional swine house
iii) field

i) Danish swine house:-

A fattening house with a central feeding passage along the walls.

ii) Traditional pig house

Swine house:-for a small farmer , a series of simple pens with an outside
run attached, may be sufficient , swine require warm dry housing as they
easily get pneumonia. The floor should be well concrete and the unit not
too near the dwelling house of the farmer because of smell ad flies.
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iii) Field housing;

This can be a simple shelter made of wood. The shelter is in a field and
the swine have free range .Generally it is not advisable to keep swine
outside in the tropics as they are then subject to African swine fever and
kidney worm.

Table 2.1 Recommended space requirements for pigs

Class of swine Area

Boars 9 m2

Dry sows 2 m long x 0.64 m wide

Stalls As for stalls put similar
Cubicles exercise
Yards area
Farrowing accommodation 3-4 m2 per sow
Pen including crate
Fattening/follow-on (including 6.2m2
creep area) 10m2
Weaners
Cages (per pig) 0.2m2 lying area + 0.2m2
Yards (per pig) slatted area
Porkers 0.7-0.9m2
(pen, including dunging area)
Baconers 0.73m2 per pig
(pen including dunging area)
0.93m2 per pig

Heavy pigs

Trough space (par pig)

Fatteners
Maiden gilts, sows 0.2-0.3m2
0.35m2

3.9 Pig Equipment

The following are tools to work with in a pig farm

1) Scalpel blades for incision and castration

2) Syringes and needles
3) Thermometer for taking temperature
4) Antiseptics and Disinfectants for cleaning wounds and
 disinfecting pen

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

5) Restraining ropes (snare) used in restraining pigs during farm

operations.
6) Tail docking forceps
7) Cotton wool and bandages for dressing and bandaging of wounds
8) Protective clothing like boots, laboratory coats, head wear
9) Teeth clippers for cutting piglets, needle teeth.
10) Feeders and drinkers
11) Muzzle for handling mouth during farm operations
12) Ear notches and ear tags and tag applicator for individual
identification.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Regardless of the system of production, any one considering pig

production on a large scale should investigate the marketing and
processing facilities available and obtain expert advice before embarking
on the operation.

5.0 SUMMARY

 The system of pig production is diverse there is the traditional

method of rearing in large parts of the tropics which is the simplest
and cheapest. The intensive system on the other hand entails
considerable capital and specialized management skills. The
integrated systems involve the production of pigs with other
enterprises like fish farming, production of algae, methane gas
generation, ducks and vegetable production. Such types of
operations enhance the efficiency of resource use and increase
output for the overall operation.
 Pigs do better when housed, and their buildings should be of
concrete or with stones due to their rooting nature. Pigs
productivity are more when they are housed in a thermally neutral
environment i.e. when the environmental temperature around the
pig is consistently between the pigs lower critical temperature
(LCT) and upper critical temperature (UCT). The pig’s metabolic
heat production is then at minimum, and it is neither using feed
energy to keep warm, nor reducing feed intake to keep cool.
 Right design of house is of paramount importance so that
investment is justified by improved productivity. The land has t be
well drained, non swampy and outskirts of the settlement away
 from public utilities like source of drinking water to prevent
contamination. If the land is swampy drainage system should be
constructed and the building foundation should be aid with stones
and concrete and well elevated.
 In very cold areas, beddings of dry grass or wood shavings could
be provided in their sleeping sties to provide warmth and easy
cleaning of the sties, this also helps the pigs look cleaner.
 Most of the breeds of pigs in Kenya are either exotic or cross
breeds they are tolerant to cold. However, if they are taken to the
southern humid or hot northern parts of Kenya the paramount
consideration is generally to ameliorate the effects of excess heat
by provision of adequate shade and wallows as a means f coolant
to prevent heat stress. Alternatively pigs should be sprinkled with
water when there is excessive heat.

6.0 ASSIGNMENT:

List all the production systems of pig farming and discuss the merits
and demerits of each system.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Holness, D.H., Smith, A.J. and Coste, R. (1991) Pigs The Tropical
Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.

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PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING PIGS AND FEED RESOURCES

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Nutrition and feeding management are very important aspect of swine

production. There fore it is extremely important that swine producers
have a good understanding of the nutrient requirement of swine during
each phase of their life cycle, a knowledge of the feed stuff which can be
used in swine feeding and an appreciation for the final point of feeding
management in order to raise swine economically. Unfortunately, many
swine farmers keep them in rather poor conditions and so are not able to
make as much profit as they should. Swine are particularly affected by
dirty, drafty housing and quickly becomes sick. They are also affected by
poor feeding. The major groups of essential nutrients for pigs are energy,
protein, minerals, vitamins and water.

3.0 Gastro Intestinal Tract (GIT) and Nutrient Utilization

Swine has the ability to obtain nutrient from a wide variety of feed stuff.
Historically the wild swine was omnivorous consuming both vegetative
and animal feeds in the early days , domestic pigs were allowed to forage
on grass , roots refuse and what ever else is available . swine is a simple
stomach animal, so it must rely largely on feeds having readily digestible
carbohydrate to meet its energy needs. The gastro intestinal tract (GIT) is
important to the animal because it is made up of a number of organs that
are responsible for utilization of food and nutrient. Further more, some
knowledge of its anatomy and function is helpful in evaluating feed stuff
and formulation of diet. Some knowledge in how the GIT digest feed and
factors that affect feed utilization is important because loses in
digestibility have a marked effect on efficiency of feed utilization. In
addition, many feed related factors may alter or change normal
functioning of the GIT. Consequently some degree of familiarity with its
anatomy and function are important for a reasonable understanding of
practices and problems in feeding livestock. The more complex
carbohydrate, cellulose hemicellulose found in roughage and other
fibrous feeds are broken down by microbial fermentation only. Swine
dose not have a rumen. The fibrous component of the diet are not utilize
as efficiently as in ruminant animals. Also simple stomach animal like
swine are dependent upon certain essential amino acids present in dietary
protein from which they build their own body protein unlike the ruminant
animal, swine cannot synthesis the essential amino acids from poor
quality protein or from non-protein nitrogen sources. The relative
amounts of the essential amino acids in the protein are extremely
 important to swine.The alimentary tract of the pig (fig ww) is designed to
digest and absorb concentrated foods. The GIT of simple stomach
mammalian specie like the pig include the mouth and associated
structures:
a. mouth
b. salivary glands
c. oesophagus
d. stomach
e. small and large intestines
f. pancrease
g. liver

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Stomach

fig 3.1 The digestive tact of pigs

Source: (Pigs) The Tropical Agriculturalist by D. H. Holness, A. J. Smith, and R. Coste page 7

These various organs and other structures are concern with procuring,
chewing and swallowing food and with the digestion and absorption of
nutrient as well as with some excretory function.

Food taken in the mouth is ground in to a pulp by mastication. At the

same time it is moistened and mixed with saliva. Saliva contains the
enzyme ptyalin which initiates the break down of starch to simpler
carbohydrates. The food then passes on into the stomach, which provides
an acid environment due to the presence of hydrochloric acid. The gastric
juice contains enzyme pepsin which begins the break down of protein.

The small intestine is the major site where food absorption occurs, and
digestive juice from the pancrease, liver and the small intestine complete
the process of digestion. Digestion has been defied simply as the
preparation of food for absorption. It may include mechanical forces such
as chewing or mastication, muscular contraction of the GIT. The overall
function of the various digestive processes is to reduce food particles to a
size of solubility that will allow for absorption. For instance, starch is
hydrolysed to maltose by amylase from the pancreatic juice. Maltose and
other disaccharides sugars are broken down by specific enzymes in the
intestinal juice, eg. Maltase, lactase and sucrase in to monosaccharides
such as glucose and fructose these are then absorbed through the gut wall.
Trypsin in the pancreatic juice acts on protein to produce polypeptides,
which are then broken down to amino acids by various peptidases in the
intestinal juice and subsequently absorbed.

Bile which is secreted by the liver, serves to emulsify fats into smaller
globules, which are then broken down by enzyme lipase into fatty acids
and glycerol ready for absorption. Lipase is present in both the pancreatic
and intestinal juices.

Absorption includes various processes that allow small molecules of

digestible food to pass through the membrane of the GIT into the blood
or lymph systems. The shape of the stomach of different animal species
 vary as thus the relative size within species as well as among species. In
swine, the stomach is relatively large with a capacity in the adult on the
order of 6-8 litres. The weight of the stomach and its content is about 4%
of body weight as compare to 1% in human. Most of the stomach is lined
with mucosan cells which produce mucus that serves to protect the
stomach lining from gastric secretions. In the central part of the stomach
there are gastric glands which produce mixed secretion of enzymes and
mucus. These gastric juices are effective in initiating digestion in the
stomach. In swine the small intestine is relatively long 15-20meters. The
first portion of secretion is the duodenum which is the side for production
of various digestive juices. Other juices enter the duodenum from the bile
duct, while Other juices are derived from the liver and the pancrease. The
small intestine is lined with small finger like projections the villi, which
serves to increase surface area for absorption. The large intestine is made
up of the caecum, colon and rectum. The relative length diameter differ
considerably in different species of animal.

Pigs are omnivores and will consume a wide range of foods from both
pant and animal sources. The natural inclination of the pig is to eat on a
‘little and often’ basis, and this is likely to maximize both total food
intake and the efficiency of food utilization.

3.1 Nutrient requirement of pigs

3.1.1 Water

Water is one of the most important nutrient classes. Swine of all ages
should have free access to fresh and clean water at all times. Limiting
water intake will result in reduce growth rate and efficiency of gain in
pigs and reduce milk production in lactating sows. A severe limitation
of drinking water can cause death in pigs. The requirement of water is
influenced by many factors including environmental temperature and
humidity, composition of the feed and weight of the pig.

Table 3.1 water requirement of pigs

Type of pig: Water requirement for each kilo of feed/litre
Fattening pigs 2.5
Lactating sows 5.0
Dry sows 3.0
Piglets’ ad libertum (freely as needed)

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3.1.2 Energy

Apart from water, sources of energy are the most important food
requirements of the pig and will most rapidly influence its survival if
withdrawn. Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work and occurs
in various inter-convertible forms such as chemical, thermal or radiant
energy. It is normally measured in heat units, traditionally the calorie, but
now the megajoule (MJ) is the most commonly-used unit (where 1 MJ =
0239 MCals).

Nursing pigs derived most of their energy from fat and sugar lactose in
milk. Most of the energy for growing pigs is derived from metabolism of
starch because of insufficient amylase starch digestive enzyme in the
small intestine. Protein I excess of the requirement can be use as an
energy source but it is too expensive or costly to use protein as a source of
energy. But in older animal sow and finishing fee, a limited amount of
energy can be derived from volatile fatty acid product produce by bacteria
fermentation of fibre. In the large intestine, energy requirement of pigs
are expressed as digestible energy (D.E.) and metabolisable energy
(M.E.). For all weight classes of pigs, the metabolisable energy (M.E.)is
approximately 96% of the digestible energy requirement. Energy
requirement of pigs are influenced by their weight which influences the
maintenance requirement by their genetic capacity for growth or milk
synthesis and by the environmental temperature in which they are housed.
The energy requirement for maintenance is directly related to metabolic
body weight and is approximately 110kcal of digestible energy (D.E.) per
kilogram body weight. Energy food is mixed with maize, rice, sorghum,
cassava, sweet potato and cereal grain.

3.1.3 Protein

Protein consists of some 20 basic units known as amino acids. When

protein is eaten by the pig, it is broken down to the amino-acids, which
are then used for the building up of the essential organs of the body and
the skeletal muscle (lean tissue). Nine of the amino acids required by the
pig cannot be synthesized by its body, and they must be supplied in the
diet. If they are present in insufficient quantities, the pig will not grow
and may not even survive.

Swine require ten (10) essential amino acid in it’s diet for normal body
function. A good quality protein is one that provides the amino acids in
the amount and proportion necessary for the particular need of the pig
(growth, reproduction and lactation). Protein food are oil seed e.g. cotton
seed, soybean groundnuts coconut bean, peas, blood meal, fishmeal, e.t.c.
amino acid requirement are influenced mostly by age and weight of the
pig. In a daily basis the requirement increase as the pig increases weight.
 Table3.2 The essential amino-acids for pigs, and the amount of
essential amino-acids in the ‘ideal’ protein for growing
pigs
Essential amino-acids Amounts of ideal requirement
for growing pigs (g/kg protein)

Lysine 70
Methionine and cystine 35
Threonine 42
Tryptophan 10
Isoleucine 38
Leucine 70
Histidine 23
Phenylalanine and tyrosine 67
Valine 49
(Source: ARC, 1981)

3.1.4 Minerals

Compared with energy and protein, minerals are required in very small
amount. Thirteen minerals are required in the diet. Major minerals
includes calcium, phosphorus, sodium, magnesium, choline and the trace
minerals includes iron, iodine and selenium. The two minerals required in
the greatest amount by swine are calcium and phosphorus. Adequate
levels of both calcium and phosphorus must be included in the diet for
strong skeletal structure.

3.1.5 Vitamins

Vitamins can be defined as organic compounds which function in small

amounts (mg or µg) and are essential to the normal functioning of the
animal body. They cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts by body
tissues and when lacking, provoke deficiency diseases.

Fourteen vitamins are required by swine, all in very small amounts. Fat
soluble vitamins are A D E and K. while water soluble vitamins are
vitamin C and B complex, Riboflavin, Pantotheic acid, Niacin, Vitamin
B12, Choline, Pyridoxine, Thiamin, Folic acid and Biotin. Cereal, grains
and plant protein supplements are very poor sources of many of the
vitamins. From a practical stand point, vitamin premix should be added
to swine feed.

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3.2 Feeding

The three swine feed usually available commercially are:

a) Creep feed-16% protein
b) Sow and Weaner meal 14% and
c) Swine finishing meal 12% for fattening of swine for pork and
bacon.
Minerals are very important and ratio must contain some
limestone, bone meal and common salt. A sudden change in feed
stuff upset swine and prevent them from gaining weight. Changes
in feed stuff should be made as gradually as possible over a period
of a week or more.

Table 3.4: Approximate daily food allowances for different classes

of pigs
Boars 3 kg sow and weaner meal (less if getting too fat) 2.0-2.5 kg
Dry sows Farrowed1sow:
kg plus
Fattening
0.5 kgpigs
for each piglet.
8 weeks
10 weeks 1.0 kg
12 weeks 1.25 kg
14 weeks 1.50 kg
16 weeks 18 weeks 1.75 kg 22 weeks 24 weeks 26 weeks 28 weeks
20 weeks
2.0 kg
2.50 kg
2.50 kg 275 kg
3.0 kg
3.0 kg
3.0 kg

3.3 Anti-nutritional Factors

In the tropics, plant proteins are by far the most common source of protein
for pigs and a number of these are associated with anti-nutritional factors.
These can be in the form of toxins or other substances which interfere
with digestion and utilization, and it is essential that these factors are
taken into account when formulating rations. Example is soybean which
contain a trypsin inhibitor. This inhibits the action of trypsin in the pig’s
gut and can reduce the digestibility of protein so that only 30 percent of it
will be digested.
 4.0 CONCLUSION

Nutrition and feeding management are very important aspect of swine

production. Knowledge of the nutrient requirement of swine during each
phase of their life cycle is extremely important and swine are affected by
poor feeding. The major groups of essential nutrients for pigs are energy,
protein, minerals, vitamins and water.

5.0 SUMMARY

 Swine dose not have a rumen. The fibrous component of the diet
are not utilize as efficiently as in ruminant animals. pigs are also
dependent upon certain essential amino acids present in dietary
protein from which they build their own body protein unlike the
ruminant animal, swine cannot synthesis the essential amino acids
from poor quality protein or from non-protein nitrogen sources.
 Digestion has been defined simply as the preparation of food for
absorption. It may include mechanical forces such as chewing or
mastication, muscular contraction of the GIT.
 The three swine feed usually available commercially are: Creep
feed-16% protein, Sow and Weaner meal 14% and Swine finishing
meal 12% for fattening of swine for pork and bacon.

ASSIGNMENT

1. With the aid of a diagram discuss the anatomy and physiology of

the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T) of the pig and explain how
nutrient utilization is accomplished.
2. Briefly describe the requirement of different classes of pigs for the
following nutrients,
i) Water
ii) Energy
iii) Protein
iv) minerals
v) Vitamins

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

, D.H., Smith, A.J. and Coste, R. (1991) Pigs The Tropical

Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

McDonald, P., Edward, R.A., Greenhalgh, J.F.D. and Morgan,C.A.

(1998) Animal Nutrition 5th edition.
McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics
Macmillan education Ltd.

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.
 UNIT 4 MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK,
PIGLETS, WEANERS, GORWING AND
FINISHING PIGS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Good management of pigs on the farm is essential towards the

profitability of the herd. The farmer must work hard to ensure that the
well-being and productivity of his animals are realized. Considering the
huge investment involve high degree of attention to all aspect of
management must be followed to ensure success.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.0 Management Considerations

3.0.1 Stockman ship

This refers to the relationship between the farmer and his pigs. The farmer
should be friendly to his pigs and vigilant for any irregularities arising
from them. He should be able to pick any abnormality and act promptly
to intervene as appropriately as possible. Where there is need for
veterinary assistance he should consult a veterinarian for help or advice.

3.0.2 Handling and restraint

The necessity of restraint arises because, unfortunately, all the animals do

not reciprocate your love for them. Handling of animals is a major
concern to the livestock industry, especially handling of domesticated
animals like pigs for routine management activities. Large domesticated
animals have to be handled with respect to their size, and this applies
particularly when they are sick. Such animals may attack from a sense of
frustration. Pigs should be handled by the ears or by the hind legs above
the hock. A twitch may be applied over the upper jaw behind the tusk and
twist for the purpose of restraint. A pig-catcher which has a loop, the size
of which can be altered by means of a ratchet on the made wide and
slipped over the snout, large pigs can also be handle by use f a pignet.
Small pigs can be caught by the hind leg seized above the neck or by the
ears.
 Securing for veterinary treatment
Tethering

Guiding pig forward with solid boarders holding for c castration

Fig4.1 Handling pigs

Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low page
83

3.0.3 Hygiene

This is one of the important aspect of pig farming to prevent infection and
ensure success and profitability.

Animals should be fed properly and adequate amount of clean water

given. Prevent food and water from contamination by animal faeces.
Isolate sick animals to prevent spread of infection. Maintain safe
environment by preventing pollution, keep animals in dry clean places
through periodic emptying and resting of each house. For the farrowing
house, this should consist of a week’s rest in between each batch of
farrowing sows. For fattening pens, a five-day break after each group of
fatteners is adequate. Immediately after it is empty, each pen should be
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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

thoroughly scrubbed and cleaned, washed and soaked in disinfectant and

allowed to remain dry for the remainder of the period that is empty. Avoid
stressing pigs through unnecessary handling and movements. Animals get
infection and suffer more from diseases when they are stressed.

3.1 Management of Breeding Stock

3.1.1 Selecting boar for service

Boars are selected following performance testing to ensure efficient

performance of their offspring. This include:

1) Faster growth rate than average

2) Has less back fat than average
3) Has eaten less food than average
4) It has utilized its feed more efficiently as a result of producing less
fat.
5) Must have two equally sized and firmly suspended testicles and
with good sexual libido
6) Has good conformation, strong straight feet and good
temperament.

Young boars that are newly brought to the herd must be given care to be
able to adapt to their new environment. They should be dewormed,
sprayed/dipped against ecto- parasites and exercised daily to allow him
get used to his stock man as well as the sights and smells of the piggery.
The boar should be fed t provide for continued growth, but should not be
allowed to become fat and sluggish.

3.1.2 Mating conditions

Recent studies has indicated that where boars mating on their own pens
displayed lower levels of sexual behaviour than boars mating in the
service pen. This resulted in a lower percentage of gilts being mated in
the boar pen. This has necessitated the used of a specifically designed
service pen.

3.1.3 Frequency of use and boar-to-sow ratio

A boar should not start serving until he is over eight months of age; and
during the first two months of service, only twice per week. Subsequently,
he can be used for up to six services per week. Overworking a boar will
reduce the quality f the sperm produced, leading to small litters and
increased number of sows returning to service. The standard
recommendation is one boar to 20 sows and gilts. The first service after a
rest period should not be counted as the semen may not be fertile.
 Considerable exercise is necessary to prevent the development of leg
weakness. It may be necessary to trim the boars feet regularly.

3.2 Management of Gilts/Sows

The major objective of gilt- management should be to induce all

replacement gilts to reach puberty as soon as possible after selection. This
will allow the following objectives to be achieved:

1. Disposing of gilts which are not showing any breeding activity at

an early stage.
2. Access to a pool of young, sexually-active gilts;
3. Gilts will be in their second heat or more at first mating there by
increasing the first litter –size.

Gilts and sows will tend to get too fat if they are not allowed enough
exercise. A fat sow takes longer to come on heat and is more likely to
crush her young piglets. Sexual maturity occurs as early as 4 or 5 months,
but the first service should not be until 8 months, when the weight should
be 10-130 kg. A sow has a productive life of four to five years.

3.2.1 Pigs breeding cycle

Pigs like other animals will mate only when the female is on heat or
during oestrus period. This are physiological changes that takes place in
the female which allow ovulation or shading of the egg for
fertilization to take place in the presence of the males sperms.

The normal heat period lasts for three to five days; signs of heat are:
First stage

 General restlessness
 Vulva turns red and swollen
 White mucus discharge

Second stage
 Real heat lasts for 40-60 hours
 Vulva less red and swollen, slimy mucous discharge
 Tendency to mount and be mounted
 Sow or gilt will stand still when pressure is applied to her back
 She is ready for service, this is the right stage to send her to the
boar

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Third stage
 After the heat, the sow will stand still when pressure is applied to
her back,
 The swelling of the vulva disappears

3.2.2 Recommended practices

It is important to note that few of the signs above will be seen therefore it
is best to put the sow with the boar for a short period every day when the
heat is expected.

Always take the sow to the boar not the reverse, this is less upsetting for
him. It is best to put them together just before feeding. Let the boar serve
her twice, with an interval of about 12 hours between services. If the sow
does not conceive, she will return on heat in about 3 weeks time. The
gestation period is 114 days (3 months,3 weeks, 3 days). Pregnant sows
should not be too crowded in their pens as this can cause abortion.

A week before service, give the sow/gilt 1 kg of feed extra per day
(standard is 2.5 kg/day). Continue this for one week after service. During
the last month of pregnancy give 0.5-1 kg extra feed per day, but decrease
this gradually one week before farrowing, and provide plenty of water to
help prevent congested gut during farrowing.

3.2.3 Preparation for Farrowing

1. The farrowing pen should be dry clean and free form draughts.
2. Clean and disinfect the farrowing pen thoroughly and scrub into
the crevices with insecticides to control mange and lice ten days
before the commencement of farrowing .
3. Deworm the sow with dewormers that are not contraindicated
during pregnancy two weeks before the expected farrowing.
4. The sow should be moved to the farrowing pen 4-7 days before
farrowing ad her body should be wash with soapy water and weak
disinfectant to remove dirt and parasite eggs.
5. Provide plenty of straw, chopped into short lengths of say 10 cm
to prevent the piglets being trapped in longer straw and being
crushed by their mother. The first 3 days of life are the most
critical for the piglets.
6. One day before farrowing the sow becomes restless and later milk
can be squeezed out of the teats. She will begin to make a nest with
straw.
7. Use a well designed farrowing pen for example farrowing crate to
prevent the sow from accidentally crushing the piglets.
 During farrowing the sow/gilt will lie down and grunt. It will be lifting
her hind legs as labour pains increases. Generally pigs have little
difficulty farrowing and will farrow with little interference from the
attendant. Farrowing normally takes 4 to 6 hours but some sows will take
up to 18 hours or more.

When a piglet is born it will severe the naval cord and then walks round
the sows hind legs to find the teats and within 45 minutes start suckling
it’s first colostrum.

The after birth (placenta) will either come out as the last piglet is born or
immediately after that. The placenta need to be buried as soon as possible
to prevent the sow/gilt from eating it, as this may open her appetite for
her own piglets.

3.3 Management of Piglets

The piglet is born with very limited supplies of energy. This is further
complicated by the stresses of the birth process. The piglet is born with
thin skin and short hair. Thus it is less protected against extremes of
temperature and humidity. In cold weather a small area can be heated with
50 watt electric light bulb hung 30-40 cm above the piglets, kerosene
lamp, or stove. They should also be provided with warmth in the form of
beddings made up of wood shavings or hay. In humid areas they should
be put in a well ventilated pen. Farmers should make sure their piglets has
taken colostrums ‘the first milk’ which is rich in various nutrients and
antibodies except iron and copper.

3.3.1 Creep feeding

Young piglets from 10 days onwards should have a high protein diet
available to them. They has to be fed in small creep r area where the
mother cannot eat the feed. The feed conversion rate of young piglets is
very high thus creep feeding is particularly economic.

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Creep feeding is very important as the piglets become used to feeding on

meal at an early age; the sows milk also begin to decrease just as the
piglets require more feed.

3.3.2 Provision of iron

It is necessary for piglets to be given iron this can be in the form of an

injection of 2ml iron dextran, or as pills or in their creep feed or swab the
sow’s teats with an appropriate solution that contains iron or copper, like
ferrous sulphate, or administer in water daily, for the first five days of life.
Piglet needle teeth should be clipped off with a pair of clippers to prevent
them from wounding their sows teat which might make her refuse them
suckling. If piglets are reared on a concrete floor, provide clean soil or
earth (sod) which is of up-rooted grass with both roots and earth intact at
a corner of the pen as a source of iron and copper.

By observing good management and sanitary practices as mentioned

above the piglets will double their birth weights within 5-8 days. At
weaning i.e. between 4-6 weeks of age they should weigh 10-12 times
more than their birth weight. Growth rates in large litters are usually less
uniform than smaller ones. Bigger piglets usually prefer the better front
teats and so gain more weight and faster than the rest. Piglets usually stick
to teats they started with.

3.4 Management of Weaners

Weaning is the separation of young piglet from it’s mother with the aim
of stopping them from suckling milk. This could take place between 4 to
6 weeks of their life. At this age, the piglets will eat feeds and fend for
themselves.

When changing to weaners ration, for the first few days, some quantity of
creep feed is to be mixed in the ration, and then gradually reduced until
only the weaners ration is now fed. Early weaning at 3 weeks is possible
but requires intensive management and extra care and expensive
equipment.

To minimize stress to the piglets, do the following:

 Remove the sow but leave the piglets in the pen as this lessens the
stress to the young piglets.
 If the litter is more than 10 piglets, those that are relatively bigger
and heavier should be removed a little earlier, not more than 4 to 5
of them removed while the rest should be allowed on the sow for
about 6 days more. This will increase the weight of the smaller
piglets
  Stocking density at weaning should be high to promote warmth but
should not be over crowded as they will struggle and fight for feed
causing reduction in growth rate and reduction in weight gain of
the weaker ones.
 After one week, deworm the piglets and move them to the
fattening pen. The sow will come on heat again 2 to 7 days after
weaning.

3.5 Management of Growing and Finishing Pigs

By the 8-9 weeks of age the growing pig is over the stress of weaning,
and its digestive system will be competent to deal with a range of protein
and energy sources, some 80% of the food used in a pig unit is consumed
by the growing and finishing pigs, therefore the efficiency of food
utilization during this phase is crucial factor affecting profitability.

The management system which is adapted must relate to the specific

objectives of each unit and these may range from home consumption of a
cheap a carcass as possible to the production of sophisticated bacon
products. These considerations dictate the type of pig to be produced.
Feeding and management must be geared to optimize performance. The
small scale rural producer, for example, will attempt to maximized the
use of cheaper, lower quality feedstuffs. It must be remembered however,
that the growing pig has only a limited ability to digest and utilize fibre
in the diet and too much bulky food may depress growth to such an extent
as to render its inclusion uneconomic. Under commercial conditions
different priorities may be given to factors such as food-conversion
efficiency and food cost per pig growth rate, carcass leanness and grading
according to the relative economic advantages they confer in the whole
production unit.

3.6 Culling of Sows

To maintain overall productivity in the herd, it is important to have a

culling policy so that sows removed at the correct time. The reasons for
culling include;

Lameness, other injury, farrowing problems, poor litter-size, poor

mothering ability, and low fertility. For a sow that regularly produces a
good litter will eventually start to decline with age, probably around her
tenth litter if she is producing well, a god guide is to allow her to remain
in the herd until her performance falls below the average of the gilts in
the herd. At the same time it is important to have a supply of pregnant
gilts available to replace sows that need to be culled.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

4.0 Conclusion
Proper management of each class of pigs on the farm is essential towards
the profitability of the herd. The farmer must make every effort to ensure
that the well-being and productivity of his animals are achieved.
5.0 Summary
 Consideration for management of pigs includes a) stockman ship
this refers to the relationship between the farmer and his pigs. b)
Handling and restraint: The necessity of restraint arises because,
unfortunately, all the animals do not reciprocate your love for
them. c) Hygiene:
 This is one of the important aspect of pig farming to prevent
infection and ensure success and profitability.
 Boars are selected following performance testing to ensure
efficient performance of their offspring. This include, faster
growth rate than average with less back fat than average, It has
utilized its feed more efficiently as a result of producing less fat,
must have two equally sized and firmly suspended testicles and
with good sexual libido also good conformation, strong straight
feet and good temperament.
 A boar should not start serving until he is over eight months of
age; and during the first two months of service, only twice per
week. Subsequently, he can be used for up to six services per
week. Overworking a boar will reduce the quality f the sperm
produced, leading to small litters and increased number of sows
returning to service. The standard recommendation is one boar to
20 sows and gilts.
 Piglets should be provided with warmth in the form of beddings
made up of wood shavings or hay. In humid areas they should be
put in a well ventilated pen. Farmers should make sure their piglets
have taken colostrums ‘the first milk’ which is rich in various
nutrients and antibodies except iron and copper. Young piglets
from 10 days onwards should have a high protein diet available to
them. This has to be fed in small creep (creep feeding) or area
where the mother cannot eat the feed.
 Weaning is the separation of young piglet from its mother with the
aim of stopping them from suckling milk. This could take place
between 4 to 6 weeks of their life. At this age, the piglets will eat
feeds and fend for themselves.
 By the 8-9 weeks of age the growing pig is over the stress of
weaning, and its digestive system will be competent to deal with a
range of protein and energy sources some 80% of the food used in
a pig unit is consumed by the growing and finishing pigs, therefore
the efficiency of food utilization during this phase is crucial factor
affecting profitability.
 ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss pig management considerations under the following:

i) Stockman ship
ii) Handling and restraint
iii) Hygiene
b) List the criteria used in selecting boar for breeding and explain the
care needed for young boars before their first service.
c) What are the main objectives in sow/gilt management?
d) Explain in detail how to manage a piglet highlighting creep
feeding, provision of iron etc.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Holness, D.H., Smith, A.J. and Coste, R. (1991) Pigs The Tropical
Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

SWINE DISEASES AND THEIR PREVENTION

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Once disease affects a pig herd the impact on the economics of pig
production in terms of the cost of control and decreased productivity can
be enormous. The first priority must therefore always be to try to prevent
the occurrence of disease. Thus many of the management procedures are
aimed at disease prevention or at mitigating the effects of those diseases
that cannot be prevented. With skilled management, combined with well-
designed housing and sound nutrition, an overall strategy to minimize the
possibility of disease attack can be formulated.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 know the meaning of parasites their causative agents, mode of

transmission, signs,
 and control measures of swine parasites.
 understand the common bacterial and viral diseases of swine, their
causative agents,
 mode of transmission, signs, and control measures
 give examples of non specific diseases of swine.
 3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Parasites
Parasites are defined as organisms which live on and obtain food from the
body of another, known as the host. They may live on the exterior of the
pig, when they are known as external parasites, or within the internal
tissues and organs when they are known as internal parasites. Parasites
will seldom result in the death of the host except in the case of massive
infestations or if the host is also stressed in other ways.

3.1.1 External parasites

These mainly cause irritation to the skin surface, often leading to wounds
and an increased susceptibility to other infections. The most common
external parasites are mange-mites, ticks, lice, fleas and flies.

Table 5.1 showing some ectoparastes of pigs

Name Means of causative Signs control
Transmission Organism
1) Mange- Direct contact Sarcoptes Crusty, dry Regular
mites scabiei looking skin treatment
around the either
eyes, ears & dipping or
snout, skin is spraying
swollen & with anti
inflamed pig mange
constantly medication.
rubbing itself Spraying of
Tick bite & pens.
require more performance Chronic
2) Ticks than one host Tick spp depressed. cases to be
to complete Lice and culled.
3) Lice life cycle fleas Transmit
and fleas Direct contact species Babesiosis, By spraying
and other tick and dipping
borne with
diseases. suitable
(fever, acaricides
emaciation
depressed
performance Spraying of
etc. pigs and pig
quarters
Irritation, with
anaemia suitable
insecticides
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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.1.2 Endo parasites of pigs

Table 5.2 shows some endoparasites of pigs

Name Means of Causative Signs Control
and transmission agent
features Larvae By breaking the
Ingestion of Ascaris migrate life cycle i.e.
1) Round Contaminated lumbricides through liver regularly
worms feed and & lung. moving range
Live in water by Irritation in pigs on to fresh
the small infected eggs lungs causes grounds.
intestines from dung of coughing & Frequent
can grow infected pig ill-thrift in removal of
up to 300 young pigs. faeces in housed
mm long Liver damage pigs. Breeding
and 6 mm can lead to pigs should be
thick. condemnation routinely dosed
Capable at slaughter. with broad
of laying Heavy spectrum
thousands infection can anthelminthics
of eggs lead to and young stock
per day obstruction of dosed after
Small weaning.
intestines,
weakness,
weight loss
 Name and Means of Causative Signs Control
features transmission agent

2) Ingestion of Taena Lavae By

Tapeworms Contaminated solium encyst in preventing
Pig is the feed and the pig’s pigs access
intermediate water by muscle to human
host and the infected eggs particularly faeces.
adult worm from dung of the heart Regular
live in man infected and tongue. deworming
humans Pork meat is helpful.
are
condemned
at slaughter

3.2 Infectious Diseases

Table 5.3 infectious diseases of pig

Name Mode of General character Preventive
trans measures
mission

1) Africa By direct and Loss of appetite, Prevent direct

swine indirect pigs hurdling contact between
fever contact, together, small domestic and wild
(ASF) is inhalation, purplish blotches pigs. No vaccine, no
a viral ingestion on the skin, in treatment.
infection ticks at as coordination and Strict prevention of
There vectors. laboured breathing. movement of pigs,
was an Feeding personal and vehicles
epidemic infected un between pig farms.
in Kenya boiled swill, Do not feed pigs with
in 1999-- carrier uncooked garbage
2000 animals, from hotel this may
contaminated contain the virus. In
vehicles e.t.c. case of outbreak of
are very ASF , bury or burn
important in the carcasses,
transmission disinfect house with
strong disinfectants.
Rest the house for
three months.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Name Mode of trans General Preventive

mission character measures

2) Foot-and The virus is Causes blisters There is no

mouth disease carried by on the feet, cure. If
Most buffalo. snout, udder outbreak occurs
contagious of Infection can and the mouth. in nearby farms,
all known viral occur by Is painful to the pigs can be
diseases. feeding infected pig, which vaccinated.
bones or cooked cannot eat and vaccinate with
meat. often has to be the right virus
destroyed.

3) Erysipelas By animal Stages are Treatment is

Is caused by a contact or is acute, sub acute effective with
bacterium that picked up from and chronic. right antibiotics
lies in the soil the soil. Acute form and should be
sudden death is timely.
common, Excellent
marked vaccines are
constipation, available.
reddish/purplish Routine
discoloration of vaccination
the ears, programme is
abdomen and recommended
legs. Chronic to prevent
form can lead to infection.
chronic arthritis,
swollen joints
and stiffness
and heart
damage.
 Name Mode of trans General Preventive
mission character measures
4) Anthrax By contact with Two main types There is
Is an acute, and anthrax of signs exist. effective
often fatal carcasses or by A swelling in vaccine against
bacterial disease spores in the back region the disease
which contaminated which causes If the disease is
often cause food or pasture. difficulty in suspected
mortality in breathing or carcass should
humans. sudden death not be open as
with blood this releases
oozing from the infective
body orifices spores. Infected
carcass should
be buried at
sufficient depth
to prevent
transmission of
the spores.

3.3 Non -specific diseases

These include abscesses, gastric ulcers, intestinal haemorrhage syndrome

4.0 CONCLUSION

The impact of a disease in a pig herd, in terms of the cost of control and
decreased productivity can be enormous, the first priority must therefore
always be to try to prevent the occurrence of disease. Thus many of the
management procedures are aimed at disease prevention or at mitigating
the effects of those diseases that cannot be prevented.

5.0 SUMMARY

Parasites are defined as organisms which live on and obtain food from the
body of another, known as the host. They may live on the exterior of the
pig, when they are known as external parasites (ecto parasites) or within
the internal tissues and organs when they are known as internal parasites
(endo parasites). Parasites will seldom result in the death of the host
except in the case of massive infestations or if the host is also stressed in
other ways.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Examples of ecto-parasites include mange-mites, ticks, lice, fleas and

flies.
 While examples of endo parasites include round worms and tape
worms.
 Examples of infectious diseases of viral origin include African
swine fever and Foot-and mouth disease. Examples of infectious
diseases of bacterial origin include
 Swine erysipelas and Anthrax disease. Examples of non infectious
diseases include
 Abscesses and Gastric ulcers.

ASSIGNMENT

1) Discuss Mange-mites, Round worms, African swine fever, Swine

erysipelas under the following headings:
i) Causative agent and Mode of transmission
ii) General character and signs
iii) Control and prevention

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Holness, D.H., Smith, A.J. and Coste, R. (1991) Pigs The Tropical
Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.
 SWINE PROCESSING AND MARKETING

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Pig processing start by transporting them to the slaughter house. The

method, by which they are restrained, transported and the stress to which
they are subjected becomes very important. The final phase of pig
production is the sale and disposal of the end product. The pig is
extremely versatile in terms of the number of product which can be
derived from pig meat. The main categories are: Fresh meat, Cured
products, Other processed products, Lard (pig fat), Pig skin, Bristles,
Intestines, Offals, Blood, Slaughterhouse by-products and Hoofs.

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Transport

The stress of transporting pigs to the slaughterhouse can result in pigs

dying in transit, dying in lairage at the slaughterhouse, or reduced meat
quality in the carcass. The stresses which confront the pig are the
handling at loading and unloading, the new surroundings, mixing with
strange pigs, the physical discomfort of the journey, and most importantly
under tropical conditions, heat stress.

Measures taken to minimize these stress include:

1. Ensure that the loading ramp is properly designed with solid walls
and is at the correct height for the cart, truck or trailer.
2. Handle the pigs quietly and gently at all times. Avoid the use of
sticks and prodders.
3. Do not feed pigs for 12 hours before loading.
4. Avoid loading and traveling during the heat of the day.
5. Spray the pigs with cold water before loading and again in the
truck.
6. Provide cover on the truck, good ventilation, adequate bedding and
ensure the floors are not slippery. Make sure the sides of the truck
are high enough to prevent the pigs jumping out. If possible,
subdivide animals into groups of 10 or fewer, and never mix pigs
of different weight.
7. Do not stop en route to the slaughterhouse.

3.2 Lairage

It is important to penned the pigs waiting to be slaughtered under shade

and in small groups and sprayed with water, and feed only if there are
long delays before slaughter. Pigs should be handled and driven quietly
and gently at all times and supervised to prevent fighting. As far as
possible, avoid fear, they should be penned away from the sights and
smells of the slaughtering process. All the potential profits which have
been achieved during the growing period can be nullified by deaths or
damage at this stage.

3.3 Slaughter Procedure

For reasons of animal welfare, pigs should always be stunned before they
are bled. Effective stunning ensures prompt and more complete bleeding
and also minimizes Intensive muscle contraction. The main methods of
stunning are:
  Mechanical - A captive-bold pistol or other implement is used to
stunned the animal.
 Electrical - A pair o tongs is used to apply an electrical charge to
the pig’s head.
A current of 1.25 amps and 300 to 600 volts renders the pig
unconscious within one second.
 Gas - pigs can be led into a tunnel containing 70 to 80 percent
carbon dioxide, when they will lose consciousness within two
seconds.

3.3.1 Bleeding

Immediately after stunning the animal should be suspended by it hind legs

and the blood vessels of the neck completely severed to ensure thorough
and complete bleeding. The blood should be collected in clean vessels.

3.3.2 Scalding and de-hairing

By immersing the carcass in water at 65 to 75 ◦C, the hair is loose and can
be removed by scraping. Any excess hair can be burn of by a flame.
For small scale farmers who are slaughtering on the farm, a drum of water
over fire is adequate for scalding purposes. Or alternatively were water is
scarce, and if the skins are not used, de-hairing can be achieved by
covering the carcass with a 5cm deep layer of straw or dry grass and
burning it. The skin can then be scraped to remove the carbonized surface
and any remaining hair.

3.3.3 Evisceration

A long cut is made down the belly from the breast to the hams. To prevent
the meat being contaminated, the entire length of the gut should be
removed intact. Other internal organs can be separated, and the gut
emptied and cleaned away from the rest of the meat.

3.3.4 Meat hygiene

The freshly killed carcass is an ideal breeding ground for bacteria and
hygienic conditions are of paramount importance to prevent infections.
Ideally carcass should be chilled immediately after slaughter, and the
meat should remain chilled until it is cooked. Where refrigerator is not
available, carcasses should be hung in a cool room, protected from flies
by gauze, and then sold and eaten as soon as possible.

At any slaughterhouse, all carcasses should be examined by a qualified

meat inspector. He examined the carcass and offal critically for signs of

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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION
parasites infections (e.g. measly pork, ‘milk-spot’ livers, damaged lungs,
 e.t.c.). Meat that does not pass inspection is condemned and should be
burnt. The carcass slaughtered from pigs on the farm should also be
examined critically so that the transmission of disease and parasites from
pigs to humans can be avoided.

3.4 Marketing

The main systems of marketing pigs are:

Private sales This is the most common method in the tropics among small
scale producers. One, or a number of pigs are sold to local consumers,
other producers , butchers or middlemen. The pigs are sold live and the
price is generally subject to negotiation this system has the advantage of
being the simplest, but in rural areas individuals who are not aware of
current prices can be taken advantage of by speculators and dealers. Due
to this problem, marketing co-operative have bee formed in some rural
areas to ensure adequate prices for producer members.

Public sales This involve taking the pigs to a central market place, where
they are sold by auction on a live basis to the highest bidder.

Direct sale to an abattoir or butcher This is more applicable to a larger-

scale producer. The big disadvantage of direct sales is the effect of the
‘pig cycle’. This is the notorious fluctuation in price which occurs in most
countries. When pigs are in short supply, prices rise, but this in turn
stimulates increased production among producers, and consequently
prices fall. As it takes approximately a year for a producer to react to
price changes, the cycle will occur every 12 to 18 months. This leads to
lack of stability with producers going in and out of pig production.

Contact sales By entering into a contract with an abattoir to supply a

certain number of pigs over a period at a set price, the producer is largely
protected from the effects of the pig cycle. In turn, this allows him to plan
his production output over a longer time.

3.5 Uses of Pig Meat

Pig meats are marketed in the form of:

Fresh meat - This is the most important product in the tropics in general,
as processing facilities are limited. Pig destined for the fresh meat trade
are usually slaughtered at younger ages and lower weights (porkers) than
those used for processing. If sold in the commercial markets, the carcass
can be butchered into a number of whole sale cuts which can be cooked
and eaten in a number of different ways.

Cured products - These include the various bacons and hams which are
curd in brine and can also be flavoured by hanging in smoke to increase
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 INTRODUCTION TO NON-RUMINANT ANIMAL PRODUCTION

the shelf life of the product compared with fresh meat. Bacon and ham
are derived from the baconer category of pig, which is heavier than the
porker.

Other processed products- Included in this category are all the various
types of sausages, pies, luncheon, meats, hamburgers and mat pastes.
These tend to be produced from the lower value of the porker and baconer
carcasses, or mature sows and boars.

Lard (pig fat) – This is sold as a separate product for human feed, animal
feed or soap production.

Pig skin – Pig skin can be made into valuable leather.

Bristles - These can be used for brushes and are in special demand for
shaving and paint brushes.

Intestines – Is used for sausage casings.

Offals - These are all edible ad the liver in particular is delicacy.
Blood – This is collected separately and processed into sausages and other
delicacies for those who consumed it.

Slaughterhouse by-products – Bones, blood and inedible meat tissue is

converted into animal feeds.

Hoofs – These are used for gelatin and glue products.

ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Describe the uses of pig meat.

ii. Explain the negative role played by speculators and dealers in
marketing pigs.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The final phase of pig production is the sale and disposal of the end
product. The pig is extremely versatile in terms of the number of product
which can be derived from pig meat.

5.0 SUMMARY

 The stress of transporting pigs to the slaughterhouse can result in

pigs dying in transit, dying in lairage at the slaughterhouse, or
reduced meat quality in the carcass.
 Measures taken to minimize stress transit include: Ensuring that
the loading ramp is properly designed with solid walls and is at the
 correct height for the cart, truck or trailer, the pigs must be handled
quietly and gently at all times.
 While inside the lairage, it is important to penned the pigs waiting
to be slaughtered under shade and in small groups and sprayed
with water, and feed only if there are long delays before slaughter.
 Immediately after stunning the animal should be suspended by it
hind legs, and the blood vessels of the neck completely severed to
ensure thorough and complete bleeding.
 By immersing the carcass in water at 65 to 75ºC, the hair is loose
and can e removed by scraping. Any excess hair can be burnt of by
a flame.
 The main systems of marketing pigs are: Private sales, Public
sales, direct sale to an abattoir or butcher , Contact sales.
 Pig meat are marketed in the form of : Fresh meat, Cured
products, Other processed products- Included in this category are
all the various types of sausages, pies, luncheon, meats,
hamburgers and mat pastes. These tend to be produced from the
lower value of the porker and beckoner carcasses, or mature sows
and boars. Lard (pig fat), Pig skin, Bristles, Intestines, Offal,
Blood, Slaughterhouse by-products, Hoofs.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the measures taken to minimize transport stress in pigs.

2. What is the acceptable practices in a lairage?
3. List the main method of stunning pigs before slaughter.
4. Discuss the main systems of marketing pigs.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Adi, M. A. (1994) Sheep, Goat and Swine production in Kenya

Holness, D.H., Smith, A.J. and Coste, R. (1991) Pigs The Tropical
Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

169