COMPUTER By Mr. Thoke V.

NETWORKS NOTES
AITP,Vita(Virendra.
[email protected]
)(8928135013)

The notes are more preferable because of its taken from

reference book like TCP/IP by Forouzan(Mcgraw Hill
Publication) , Module Answer of MSBTE and resources like
Internet. So use it and do your study best. THAKING YOU.
Course Name: Computer Engineering Group Course Code: CO/CD/CM/CW

Semester: Fourth Subject Title: Computer Network Subject Code: 17429

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 CHAPTER 1 BESIC NETWORK CONCEPT

1.1 Fundamentals Of Computer Networks:

1. Definition: a) Networks: - A network is a set of devices (often referred to as

nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer,
printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network
2. Definition of Computer Network: A set of devices interconnected to each
other for sharing information/data, resources within a particular time limit.

Need of Computer Network:

Computer networks help users on the network to share the resources and in
communication.

1. Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-
ROM drives, hard drives etc. Without computer networks, device sharing is
not possible.
2. File sharing: Networking of computers helps the network users to share
data files.

3. Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this
allows to implement client/server applications
4. User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroups, and video conferencing etc.
5. Network gaming: A lot of network games are available, which allow multi-
users to play from different locations.
6. Voice over IP (VoIP): Voice over Internet Protocol (IP) is a revolutionary
change in telecommunication which allows to send telephone calls (voice
data) using standard Internet Protocol (IP) rather than by traditional PSTN.

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Applications:

1) Banking 2) Video conferencing 3) Marketing 4) School 5) Radio 6)

Television 7) E-mail 8) Companies
OR
1. Sharing the resources such as printers among all the users.
2. Sharing of expensive software & hardware.
3. Communication from one computer to other.
4. Exchange of data & information amongst the users, via the network.
5. Sharing of information over the geographically wide areas.
6. for connecting the computers between various buildings of an
organization.
7. for educational purposes. 8. Maintenance is limited to the servers &
clients.
8. Maintenance is limited to the servers & clients.

Computer network components

Computer networks share common devices, functions, and features including

servers, clients, transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other
hardware and software resources, network interface card(NIC), local operating
system(LOS), and the network operating system (NOS).

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  Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the
network operating system. Servers provide access to network resources to all
the users of the network. There are many different kinds of servers, and one
server can provide several functions. For example, there are file servers,
print servers, mail servers, communication servers, database servers, print
servers, fax servers and web servers, to name a few.
 Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared
network resources. Client computers are basically the customers (users) of
the network, as they request and receive services from the servers.
 Transmission Media (Cables) - Transmission media are the facilities used
to interconnect computers in a network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission media are sometimes called
channels, links or lines.
 Shared data - Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients such
as data files, printer access programs and e-mail.
 Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared printers and peripherals
are hardware resources provided to the users of the network by servers.
Resources provided include data files, printers, software, or any other items
used by clients on the network.
 Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special
expansion card called a network interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares
(formats) and sends data, receives data, and controls data flow between the
computer and the network. On the transmit side, the NIC passes frames of
data on to the physical layer, which transmits the data to the physical link.
On the receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received from the physical
layer and processes the message based on its contents.
 Local Operating System - A local operating system allows personal
computers to access files, print to a local printer, and have and use one or
more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer. Examples are
MS-DOS, UNIX, Linux, Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows XP etc.
 Network Operating System - The network operating system is a program
that runs on computers and servers, and allows the computers to
communicate over the network.
 Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple
computers. It is like a distribution center. When a computer request
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 information from a network or a specific computer, it sends the request to
the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request and transmit it to
the entire network. Each computer in the network should then figure out
whether the broadcast data is for them or not.
 Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer
network components. Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced
features. It uses physical device addresses in each incoming messages so that
it can deliver the message to the right destination or port.

Network Benefits

1. Sharing Information

 File sharing :- is the practice of distributing or providing access to digital

media, such as computer programs, multimedia (audio, images and video),
documents or electronic books. File sharing may be achieved in a number of
ways. Common methods of storage, transmission and dispersion include
manual sharing utilizing removable media, centralized servers on computer
networks,.
 Email is an information and communications technology. It uses technology
to communicate a digital message over the Internet. Users use email
differently, based on how they think about it. There are many software
platforms available to send and receive. Popular email platforms include
Gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail, Outlook, and many others

2. Sharing Resources:-

 Printer sharing: - Printers, like other pieces of computer hardware, include

drivers and utilities for connecting the devices to a home or corporate
network. You can even connect multiple printers to one network for sharing
the devices with others. Having multiple printers on a network confers
several advantages, including the ability to select which printer you want to
send documents to and offering an available printer in the event that one or
more printers is not working correctly.
 Application Services:-

 Directory services

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  e-Mail
 File sharing
 Instant messaging
 Online game
 Printing
 File server
 Voice over IP
 Video on demand
 Video telephony
 World Wide Web
 Simple Network Management Protocol
 Time service
 Wireless sensor network

3. Facilitating Centralized Management-

Managing Software, Maintaining the Network, Backing up data

4. Classification of Network by their geographical area.

PAN:- A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for

data transmission among devices such as computers, telephones and
personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for communication among the
personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for
connecting to a higher level network and the Internet
CAN:- A campus network, campus area network, corporate area
network or CAN is a computer network made up of an interconnection of
local area networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area.[1][2] The
networking equipment’s (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical
fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned by the
campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government etc.

University campuses:-College or university campus area networks often

interconnect a variety of buildings, including administrative buildings,
academic buildings, university libraries, campus or student centers,

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 residence halls, gymnasiums, and other outlying structures, like conference
centers, technology centers, and training institutes.

Corporate campuses:- Much like a university campus network, a

corporate campus network serves to connect buildings. Examples of such are
the networks at Googleplex and Microsoft's campus. Campus networks are
normally interconnected with high speed Ethernet links operating over
optical fiber such as gigabit Ethernet and 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

LAN vs. MAN vs. WAN:-

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 Disadvantages of LAN:-
 Power - a good LAN is required to be on all the times.
 Security - each computer and device become another point of entry
for undesirables.
 Investment in Higher Costs due to server systems.
 Frustration if having a problem setting up.
 A lot of times a network shares one Internet connection - if all
computers running at once, can reduce speed for each.
 Area covered is limited.

Explain PAN with suitable diagram. Differentiate between PAN and CAN.
(Two points only)

A personal area network (PAN) is a network organized

around an individual person. A PAN can also be used for communication among
personal devices themselves (interpersonal communication).PAN network can be
constructed using cables or it can be wireless. A personal area network (PAN) is
the interconnection of information technology devices within the range of an
individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters. For example, a person
traveling with a laptop, a personal digital assistant (PDA), and a portable printer
could interconnect them without having to plug anything in, using some form of
wireless technology. Typically, this kind of personal area network could also be
interconnected without wires to the Internet or other networks.

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PAN CAN
1. PAN is definitively the smallest type
1. This is a network spanning multiple
of network you can currently use and
LANs within a limited geographical
the name comes from Personal Area
area.
Network
2. PAN is the interconnected network of 2.It can connect different buildings in its
technologic devices within the reach of campus such as various departments,
an individual library etc.
3. Range of maximum 10 meters. 3. The range of CAN is 1KM to 5KM
4. PAN is mainly used for personal 4. CAN is mainly used for corporate
communication. campuses

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CHAPTER 2- NETWORK TOPOLOGIES AND NETWORKING DEVICES

Give any four selection criteria for selecting network topology. Selection
criteria for selecting network topology.

1. Size of the network & number of devices or nodes being connected.

2. Ease of configuration & installing.

3. The ease of adding new device in an existing network.

4. The ease of fault indication & reflection.

5. Number of physical links required to be used for connecting the devices.

6. Need of network connecting devices such as repeaters, switches, hubs etc.

7. Costs involved.

8. Need of security.

9. Need of network administration.

DIFFERENT NETWORKING DEVICES:-

The components of computer network are:

 Hub
 Router
 Modem
 Bridge
 Switches
 Network Interface Card
 Cables and connectors
 Crimping tool
 LAN tester

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EXPLANATION:
1) HUB: Hub is a connecting device; it is also known as multiport repeater.

It is normally used for connecting stations in a physical star topology All networks
require a central location to bring media segments together. These central locations
are called hubs. A hub organizes the cables and relays signals to the other media
segments.

There are three main types of hubs: 1) Passive 2) Active 3) Intelligent

Passive Hubs: A passive hubs simply combines the signals of a network segments.
There is no signal processing or regeneration. A passive hub reduces the cabling
distance by half because it does not boost the signals and in fact absorbs some of
the signal. With the passive hub each computer receives the signal sent from all the
other computers connected to the hub.

Active hubs: They are like passive hubs but have electronic components for
regeneration and amplification of signals. by using active hubs the distance
between devices can be increased. The main drawback of active hubs is that the
amplify noise along with the signals. They are also much expensive than passive
hubs.
Intelligent hubs: in addition to signal regeneration, intelligent hubs perform some
network management and intelligent path selection. One advantage to this is that
all transmission media segment can be connected permanently because each
segment will be used only when a signal is sent to a device using that segment.

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2) ROUTER: Router is a device that connects 2 or more networks. It consists
of hardware and software .hardware includes the physical interfaces to the various
networks in the internetwork. Software in a router is OS and routing protocols
management software.
1) Router use logical and physical addressing to connect two or more logically
separate networks.

2) They accomplish this connection by organizing the large network into logical
network called subnets.

3) Each of the subnet is given a logical address. This allows the network to be
separate but still access to each other and exchange data.

4) Data is grouped into packets. Each packet has physical device address and
logical network address.

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3) MODEM: Modem works as modulator as well as demodulator. Modem
converts analog signal to digital signal and vice versa. In case of networking data
has to be transferred from one location to another location. At present to transfer
such data whatever the infrastructure (PSTN) is available .it is of analog
technology but computer sends digital data to transfer this data to another location
it is needed to convert into analog format so that it can be transferred by using
currently available infrastructure.

4) SWITCH:-

On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub. Despite their similar
appearance, switches are far more efficient than hubs and are far more desirable for
today’s network environments. Figure 3.4 shows an example of a 32-port Ethernet
switch.

As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of twisted-pair

cable. Multiple switches are often interconnected to create larger networks. Despite
their similarity in appearance and their identical physical connections to
computers, switches offer significant operational advantages over hubs.
As discussed earlier in the chapter, a hub forwards data to all ports,
regardless of whether the data is intended for the system connected to the port.
This arrangement is inefficient; however, it requires little intelligence on the part of
the hub, which is why hubs are inexpensive.

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 Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards
data only to the port on which the destination system is connected. It looks at the
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected to it to
determine the correct port. A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into
every NIC. By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed,
the switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link dramatically. In
effect, the switch literally channels (or switches, if you prefer) data between the
ports. Figure 3.5 illustrates how a switch works.

―Cabling Standards, Media, and Connectors,‖ that collisions occur on the

network when two devices attempt to transmit at the same time. Such collisions
cause the performance of the network to degrade. By channeling data only to the
connections that should receive it, switches reduce the number of collisions that
occur on the network. As a result, switches provide significant performance
improvements over hubs.
Switches can also further improve performance over the performance of
hubs by using a mechanism called full-duplex. On a standard network connection,
the communication between the system and the switch or hub is said to be half-
duplex. In a half-duplex connection, data can be either sent or received on the wire
but not at the same time. Because switches manage the data flow on the
connection, a switch can operate in full-duplex mode—it can send and receive data
on the connection at the same time. In a full-duplex connection, the maximum data
throughput is double that for a half-duplex connection—for example, 10Mbps

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becomes 20Mbps, and 100Mbps becomes 200Mbps. As you can imagine, the
difference in performance between a 100Mbps network connection and a 200Mbps
connection is considerable.

5) GATEWAY:-

Although some textbooks use the terms gateway and router interchangeably,
most of the literature distinguishes between the two. A gateway is normally a
computer that operates in all five layers of the Internet or seven layers of OSI
model. A gateway takes an application message, reads it, and interprets it. This
means that it can be used as a connecting device between two internetworks that
use different models. For example, a network designed to use the OSI model can
be connected to another network using the Internet model. The gateway connecting
the two systems can take a frame as it arrives from the first system, move it up to
the OSI application layer, and remove the message. Gateways can provide security.
We learn that the gateway is used to filter unwanted application-layer messages.

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State the situations under which gateways are necessary in the network.
(Necessary2Marks. example2Marks)
Gateway operates at all 7 layers of the OSI model. It is a device, which
connects two different dissimilar n/w which have same function of communication.
Situation where gateways are necessary for different n/w like Ethernet, Token
Ring, and FDDI etc. It can communicate if they are using same protocol for
communication like TCP/IP 08 Apple talk if they are using different protocol from
a gateway cash forward packet across different n/w s that may also use different
protocol. Eg: if n/w A is a Token Ring network using TCP/IP & network B is a
Novell Network, a gateway can relay frames between two. This means that a
gateway has not only had, but also between different protocols. In certain
situations the only changes required are to the frame header. In other cases, the
gateway must take case of different frame sizes, data rates, format,
acknowledgement schemes, and priority schemes tec.

6) BRIDGE:-
Bridges are networking devices that connect networks. Sometimes it
is necessary to divide networks into subnets to reduce the amount of traffic on each
larger subnet or for security reasons. Once divided, the bridge connects the two
subnets and manages the traffic flow between them. Today, network switches have
largely replaced bridges. A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based
on the destination MAC address written into each frame of data. If the bridge
believes the destination address is on a network other than that from which the data
was received, it can forward the data to the other networks to which it is connected.
If the address is not on the other side of the bridge, the data is blocked from
passing. Bridges ―learn‖ the MAC addresses of devices on connected networks by
―listening‖ to network traffic and recording the network from which the traffic
originates. The advantages of bridges are simple and significant. By preventing
unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other network segments, a bridge can
dramatically reduce the amount of network traffic on a segment. Bridges also make
it possible to isolate a busy network from a not-so-busy one, thereby preventing
pollution from busy nodes.

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7) NIC: - Network Interface Card:-

NICs—sometimes called network cards—are the mechanisms by which

computers connect to a network. NICs come in all shapes and sizes, and they come
in prices to suit all budgets.
 Network compatibility—perhaps this is a little obvious, but sometimes
people order the wrong type of NIC for the network. Given the prevalence of
Ethernet networks, you are likely to have to specify network compatibility
only when buying a NIC for another networking system.
 Bus compatibility—newly purchased NICs will almost certainly use the
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, although if you are replacing
a card in an older system, you might have to specify an Industry Standard
Architecture (ISA) bus card instead. If the card you are buying is PCI, check
to see what kind of PCI interface is being used. Many high-end server
systems now come with 64-bit PCI slots; if you have them, it is definitely
worth taking advantage of the extra performance they offer. Such 64-bit PCI
slots can be easily identified because they are the same color and width as
32-bit PCI slots but are longer. 64-bit slots are referred to as PCI-X and are
backward compatible with 32-bit PCI. Figure 3.18 shows 32-bit PCI slots on
a system board.

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  Port compatibility—generally a NIC has only one port, for twisted-pair
cabling. If you want some other connectivity, you need to be sure to specify
your card accordingly; for example, you might need a fiber-optic or coaxial
cable port.
 Hardware compatibility—before installing a network card into a system,
you must verify compatibility between the network card and the operating
system on the PC in which you are installing the NIC. If you are using good-
quality network cards from a recognized manufacturer, such verification
should be little more than a formality.

Installing Network Cards

o At some point in your networking career, it is likely that you will have
to install a NIC into a system. For that reason, an understanding of the
procedures and considerations related to NIC installations is useful.
Here are some of the main things to consider:
 A driver: - Almost every NIC is supplied with a driver disk, but the
likelihood of the drivers on the disk being the latest drivers is slim. Always
make sure that you have the latest drivers by visiting the website of the NIC
manufacturer. The drivers play an important role in the correct functioning
of the NIC, so spend a few extra minutes to make sure that the drivers are
installed and configured correctly.
 NIC configuration utilities--in days gone by, NICs were configured with
small groups of pins known as jumpers, or with small plastic blocks of
switches known as dipswitches. Figure 3.23 shows an example of jumpers.
Unless you are working with very old equipment, you are unlikely to
encounter dip switches.
Although these methods were efficient and easy to use, they have now
largely been abandoned in favor of software configuration utilities, which
allow you to configure the settings for the card (if any) and to test whether
the card is working properly. Other utilities can be used through the
operating system to obtain statistical information, help, and a range of other
features.
 System resources:- To function correctly, NICs must have certain system
resources allocated to them: the interrupt request (IRQ) and memory
addresses. In some cases, you might need to assign the values for these
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 manually. In most cases, you can rely on plug-and-play, which assigns
resources for devices automatically.
 Physical slot availability:- Most modern PCs have at least three or four
usable expansion slots. Not only that, but the increasing trend toward
component integration on the motherboard means that devices such as serial
and parallel ports and sound cards are now built in to the system board and
therefore don’t use up valuable slots. If you’re working on older systems or
systems that have a lot of add-in hardware, you might be short of slots.
Check to make sure that a slot is available before you begin.
 Built-in network interfaces:- A built-in network interface is a double-edged
sword. The upsides are that it doesn’t occupy an expansion slot, and
hardware compatibility with the rest of the system is almost guaranteed. The
downside is that a built-in component is not upgradeable. For this reason,
you might find yourself installing an add-in NIC and at the same time
disabling the on-board network interface. Disabling the onboard interface is
normally a straightforward process, achieved by going into the BIOS setup
screen or, on some systems, a system configuration utility. In either case,
consult the documentation that came with the system or look for information
on the manufacturer’s website.
As time goes on, NIC and operating system manufacturers are making it
increasingly easy to install NICs in systems of all sorts and sizes. By understanding
the requirements of the card and the correct installation procedure, you should be
able to install cards simply and efficiently.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology

upon which the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network,
mesh network, star-bus network, tree or hierarchical topology network. Network
topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical
relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is,
network topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if
networked computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are
connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a bus topology.

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In this regard the visual and operational characteristics of a network are distinct;
the logical network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout.
Networks may be classified based on the method of data used to convey the data,
these include digital and analog networks.

Network topology is the physical interconnections of the elements (links, nodes,

etc.) of a computer network.[1][2] A local area network (LAN) is one example of a
network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given
node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more other nodes in the network
and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a geometrical shape
that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the
mapping of the data flows between the nodes in the network determines the logical
topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be
identical in any particular network.

Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of

the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study
of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical
interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two
networks and yet their topologies may be identical.

The study of network topology recognizes four basic topologies:

 Bus topology
 Star topology

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  Ring topology
 Tree topology

Physical topologies

The mapping of the nodes of a network and the physical connections between them
– i.e., the layout of wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections
between the nodes and the cabling or wiring system[1].

BUS

Bus network topology:-

In local area networks where bus technology is used, each machine is

connected to a single cable. Each computer or server is connected to the
single bus cable through some kind of connector. A terminator is required at
each end of the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing back and forth
on the bus cable. A signal from the source travels in both directions to all
machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the MAC address or IP
address on the network that is the intended recipient. If the machine address
does not match the intended address for the data, the machine ignores the
data. Alternatively, if the data does match the machine address, the data is
accepted. Since the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather
inexpensive to implement when compared to other topologies. However, the
low cost of implementing the technology is offset by the high cost of
managing the network. Additionally, since only one cable is utilized, it can
be the single point of failure. If the network cable breaks, the entire network
will be down, since there is only one cable. Since there is one cable, the
transfer speeds between the computers on the network is faster.

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Advantages

 Easy to implement and extend

 Well suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds
(quick setup)
 Cheaper than other topologies.
 Cost effective as only a single cable is used
 Cable faults are easily identified.
 Weight reduction due to less wires

Disadvantages

 Limited cable length and number of stations.

 If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
 Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy
traffic.(shared bandwidth)
 Proper termination is required (loop must be in closed path).
 Significant Capacitive Load (each bus transaction must be able to stretch to
most distant link).
 It works best with limited number of nodes.
 It is slower than the other topologies.

Standing Wave: As in bus topology there is necessity of proper termination if there

is no termination the waves get reflected at the ends and gets added in other
incoming waves causing cancellation. this addition and cancellation of waves leads
to a standing wave.

Linear bus

The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium which has exactly two
endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also commonly referred to as the
backbone, or trunk) – all data that is transmitted between nodes in the
network is transmitted over this common transmission medium and is able to

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 be received by all nodes in the network virtually simultaneously
(disregarding propagation delays)[1].

Note: The two endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally
terminated with a device called a terminator that exhibits the characteristic
impedance of the transmission medium and which dissipates or absorbs the
energy that remains in the signal to prevent the signal from being reflected
or propagated back onto the transmission medium in the opposite direction,
which would cause interference with and degradation of the signals on the
transmission medium (See Electrical termination).

Distributed bus

The type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the network are
connected to a common transmission medium which has more than two
endpoints that are created by adding branches to the main section of the
transmission medium – the physical distributed bus topology functions in
exactly the same fashion as the physical linear bus topology (i.e., all nodes
share a common transmission medium).

Notes:

1.) All of the endpoints of the common transmission medium are normally
terminated with a device called a 'terminator' (see the note under linear bus).

2.) The physical linear bus topology is sometimes considered to be a special

case of the physical distributed bus topology – i.e., a distributed bus with no
branching segments.

3.) The physical distributed bus topology is sometimes incorrectly referred

to as a physical tree topology – however, although the physical distributed
bus topology resembles the physical tree topology, it differs from the
physical tree topology in that there is no central node to which any other
nodes are connected, since this hierarchical functionality is replaced by the
common bus.

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STAR

Star network topology

In local area networks where the star topology is used, each machine is connected
to a central hub. In contrast to the bus topology, the star topology allows each
machine on the network to have a point to point connection to the central hub. All
of the traffic which transverses the network passes through the central hub. The
hub acts as a signal booster or repeater which in turn allows the signal to travel
greater distances. As a result of each machine connecting directly to the hub, the
star topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement. An
advantage of the star topology is the simplicity of adding other machines. The
primary disadvantage of the star topology is the hub is a single point of failure. If
the hub were to fail the entire network would fail as a result of the hub being
connected to every machine on the network.

Notes:

1.) A point-to-point link (described above) is sometimes categorized as a

special instance of the physical star topology – therefore, the simplest type
of network that is based upon the physical star topology would consist of
one node with a single point-to-point link to a second node, the choice of
which node is the 'hub' and which node is the 'spoke' being arbitrary[1].

2.) after the special case of the point-to-point link, as in note 1.) above, the
next simplest type of network that is based upon the physical star topology
would consist of one central node – the 'hub' – with two separate point-to-
point links to two peripheral nodes – the 'spokes'.

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 3.) Although most networks that are based upon the physical star topology
are commonly implemented using a special device such as a hub or switch as
the central node (i.e., the 'hub' of the star), it is also possible to implement a
network that is based upon the physical star topology using a computer or
even a simple common connection point as the 'hub' or central node –
however, since many illustrations of the physical star network topology
depict the central node as one of these special devices, some confusion is
possible, since this practice may lead to the misconception that a physical
star network requires the central node to be one of these special devices,
which is not true because a simple network consisting of three computers
connected as in note 2.) above also has the topology of the physical star.

4.) Star networks may also be described as either broadcast multi-access or

non-broadcast multi-access (NBMA), depending on whether the technology
of the network either automatically propagates a signal at the hub to all
spokes, or only addresses individual spokes with each communication.

Extended star

A type of network topology in which a network that is based upon the

physical star topology has one or more repeaters between the central node
(the 'hub' of the star) and the peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being
used to extend the maximum transmission distance of the point-to-point
links between the central node and the peripheral nodes beyond that which is
supported by the transmitter power of the central node or beyond that which
is supported by the standard upon which the physical layer of the physical
star network is based.

Note: If the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical extended
star topology are replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid network
topology is created that is referred to as a physical hierarchical star topology,
although some texts make no distinction between the two topologies.

Distributed Star

A type of network topology that is composed of individual networks that are

based upon the physical star topology connected together in a linear fashion

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 – i.e., 'daisy-chained' – with no central or top level connection point (e.g.,
two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their associated star connected nodes
or 'spokes').

Advantages

 Better performance: The star topology prevents the passing of data packets
through an excessive number of nodes. At most, 3 devices and 2 links are
involved in any communication between any two devices. Although this
topology places a huge overhead on the central hub, with adequate capacity,
the hub can handle very high utilization by one device without affecting
others.
 Isolation of devices: Each device is inherently isolated by the link that
connects it to the hub. This makes the isolation of individual devices
straightforward and amounts to disconnecting each device from the others.
This isolation also prevents any non-centralized failure from affecting the
network.
 Benefits from centralization: As the central hub is the bottleneck,
increasing its capacity, or connecting additional devices to it, increases the
size of the network very easily. Centralization also allows the inspection of
traffic through the network. This facilitates analysis of the traffic and
detection of suspicious behavior.
 Simplicity: This topology is easy to understand, establish, and navigate. Its
simplicity obviates the need for complex routing or message passing
protocols. And, as noted earlier, the isolation and centralization it allows
simplify fault detection, as each link or device can be probed individually.

Disadvantages

The primary disadvantage of a star topology is the high dependence of the

system on the functioning of the central hub. While the failure of an individual link
only results in the isolation of a single node, the failure of the central hub renders
the network inoperable, immediately isolating all nodes. The performance and
scalability of the network also depend on the capabilities of the hub. Network size
is limited by the number of connections that can be made to the hub, and
performance for the entire network is capped by its throughput. While in theory

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traffic between the hub and a node is isolated from other nodes on the network,
other nodes may see a performance drop if traffic to another node occupies a
significant portion of the central node's processing capability or throughput.
Furthermore, wiring up of the system can be very complex.

RING (ACCESS METHOD : TOKEN RING)

Ring network topology

In local area networks where the ring topology is used, each computer is
connected to the network in a closed loop or ring. Each machine or computer
has a unique address that is used for identification purposes. The signal
passes through each machine or computer connected to the ring in one
direction. Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing scheme, used to
control access to the network. By utilizing this scheme, only one machine
can transmit on the network at a time. The machines or computers connected
to the ring act as signal boosters or repeaters which strengthen the signals
that transverse the network. The primary disadvantage of ring topology is
the failure of one machine will cause the entire network to fail.

Advantages

 Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit
 Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
 Can create much larger network using Token Ring
 Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the
computers

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Disadvantages

 One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU can create

problems for the entire network
 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
 Network adapter cards and MAU's are much more expensive than Ethernet
cards and hubs
 Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load

MESH

The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number
of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to
and including all the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.

Fully connected mesh topology

Fully connected

The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is
connected to each of the other nodes in the network with a point-to-point
link – this makes it possible for data to be simultaneously transmitted from
any single node to all of the other nodes.

Note: The physical fully connected mesh topology is generally too costly
and complex for practical networks, although the topology is used when
there are only a small number of nodes to be interconnected.

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Partially connected mesh topology

Partially connected

The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are
connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point
link – this makes it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy
that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh topology without the
expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in the
network.

Note: In most practical networks that are based upon the physical partially
connected mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted between nodes in
the network takes the shortest path (or an approximation of the shortest path)
between nodes, except in the case of a failure or break in one of the links, in
which case the data takes an alternate path to the destination. This requires
that the nodes of the network possess some type of logical 'routing'
algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any particular time.

TREE

Tree network topology

Also known as a hierarchical network.

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The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the
hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the
second level nodes and the top level central 'root' node, while each of the second
level nodes that are connected to the top level central 'root' node will also have one
or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level)
connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central 'root' node
being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy
of the tree is symmetrical.) Each node in the network having a specific fixed
number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the
number, being referred to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.

1.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology must
have at least three levels in the hierarchy of the tree, since a network with a
central 'root' node and only one hierarchical level below it would exhibit the
physical topology of a star.

2.) A network that is based upon the physical hierarchical topology and with
a branching factor of 1 would be classified as a physical linear topology.

3.) The branching factor, f, is independent of the total number of nodes in

the network and, therefore, if the nodes in the network require ports for
connection to other nodes the total number of ports per node may be kept
low even though the total number of nodes is large – this makes the effect of
the cost of adding ports to each node totally dependent upon the branching
factor and may therefore be kept as low as required without any effect upon
the total number of nodes that are possible.

4.) The total number of point-to-point links in a network that is based upon
the physical hierarchical topology will be one less than the total number of
nodes in the network.

5.) If the nodes in a network that is based upon the physical hierarchical
topology are required to perform any processing upon the data that is
transmitted between nodes in the network, the nodes that are at higher levels
in the hierarchy will be required to perform more processing operations on

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 behalf of other nodes than the nodes that are lower in the hierarchy. Such a
type of network topology is very useful and highly recommended.

Hybrid Topology:-

Hybrid topology is one that uses two or more basic topologies together Fig.1
depicts this. In this case, the bus, star & ring topologies are used to create this
hybrid topology. There are multiple ways in which this can be created. The hybrid
topology which is to be used for a particular application depends on the
requirements of that application. In practice, many networks are quite complex but
they can be reduced to some form of hybrid topology.

ADVANTAGES of Hybrid Topology

1) Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in

this type of topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the
rest of network and required corrective measures can be taken, WITHOUT
affecting the functioning of rest of the network.
2) Scalable: It’s easy to increase the size of network by adding new components,
without disturbing existing architecture.

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3) Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given
to nodes
where traffic is high as well as where chances of fault are high.
4) Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we
can design it in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized
while there weaknesses are neutralized.

DISADVANTAGES of Hybrid Topology

1) Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is its

design. Its not easy to design this type of architecture and its a tough job for
designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2) Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very
expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent
enough to work with different architectures and should be function even if a part of
network is down.
3) Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they
require a lot of cables, cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.

Applications: widely used in WAN.

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 CHAPTER 3 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical

path between transmitter and receiver. For guided media, electromagnetic waves
are guided along a solid medium, such as copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable,
and optical fiber. For unguided media, wireless transmission occurs through the
atmosphere, outer space, or water.
The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by
the characteristics of the medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case
of guided media, the medium itself is more important in determining the
limitations of transmission.
For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the
transmitting antenna is more important than the medium in determining
transmission characteristics.
One key property of signals transmitted by antenna is directionality. In
general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is, the signal
propagates in all directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is possible
to focus the signal into a directional beam.
In considering the design of data transmission systems, key concerns are
data rate and distance: the greater the data rate and distance the better. A number of
design factors relating to the transmission medium and the signal determine the
data rate and distance:
• Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a
signal, the higher the data rate that can be achieved.
• Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the
distance.
For guided media, twisted pair generally suffers more impairment than
coaxial cable, which in turn suffers more than optical fiber.
• Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency
bands can distort or wipe out a signal. Interference is of particular concern for
unguided media but is also a problem with guided media. For guided media,
interference can be caused by emanations from nearby cables. For example,
twisted pairs are often bundled together and conduits often carry multiple cables.
Interference can also be experienced from unguided transmissions.

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Proper shielding of a guided medium can minimize this problem.
• Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to construct a point-to point
link or a shared link with multiple attachments. In the latter case, each attachment
introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line, limiting distance and/or data
rate.

State the factors to be considered for selecting transmission media. (Eight

points) ( 1/2 marks for any eight factors)
Eight factors to be considered:
1. Type of medium.
2. No of conductors/connectors.
3. Flexibility.
4. Durability.
5. Bandwidth.
6. Reliability of connection
7. Required speed

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8. Distance
9. Ease of installation and maintenance access
10. Technical expertise required to install and utilize
11. Resistance to internal EMI , cross talk of parallel wires
12. Resistance to external EMI outside the cable.
13. Attenuation characteristics
14. Cost
OR
1. Cost & Ease of installation: Costing is an important factor, when we select a
media. Because absolute cost and ease of installation data are difficult to provide
without referring to specific implementations, one can make relative judgments by
comparing each medium to the others.
2. Type of cable: Coaxial cable, Twisted Pair Cable, Fiber Optic Cable
3. No of conductors/connectors: RJ-45, BNC, LC & ST
4. Noise: It leads to distortion of a signal. Noise immunity of transmission media is
considered at the time of selecting particular network.
5. Bandwidth: Higher bandwidth transmission media support higher data rate.
6. Radiation: It is leakage of signal from media caused by undesirable
characteristics of media.
7. Durability: Life span of media
8. Interference: interference occurs when undesirable electromagnetic waves affect
the signal. Interference can be caused by many factors, including
• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
• Radio wave interference (RFI)
9. Attenuation: Attenuation refers to the tendency of electromagnetic waves to
weaken or become distorted during transmission. It is loss of energy as the signals
propagates outwards. Attenuation increases with distance, as a wave passes
through a medium, some of its energy is absorbed or scattered by the medium’s
physical properties.

GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA:-

For guided transmission media, the transmission capacity, in terms of either
data rate or bandwidth, depends critically on the distance and on whether the
medium is point-to-point or multipoint. Table 4.1 indicates the characteristics

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typical for the common guided media for long-distance point-to-point applications;
we defer a discussion of the use of these media for multipoint LANs to Part Four.

Transmission capacity (bandwidth and data rate) depends on distance and

type of network (point-to-point or multipoint)
TWISTED PAIR
 Least expensive and most widely used
 Physical description
o Two insulated copper wires arranged in regular spiral pattern
o Number of pairs are bundled together in a cable
o Twisting decreases the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs
in the cable, by using different twist length for neighboring pairs

Applications
 Most common transmission media for both digital and analog signals
 Transmission Media 25
 Less expensive compared to coaxial cable or optical fiber
 Limited in terms of data rate and distance
 Telephone network
o Individual units (residence lines) to local exchange (end once)
o Subscriber loops
o Supports voice track using analog signaling
o May handle digital data at modest rates using modems
 Communications within buildings
Connection to digital data switch or digital pbx within a building

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  Allows data rate of 64 kbps

Transmission characteristics
 Requires amplifiers every 5-6 km for analog signals
 Requires repeaters every 2-3 km for digital signals
 Attenuation is a strong function of frequency
o Higher frequency implies higher attenuation
 Susceptible to interference and noise
 Improvement possibilities
o Shielding with metallic braids or sheathing reduces interference
o Twisting reduces low frequency interference
 Different twist length in adjacent pairs reduces crosstalk

UNSHIELDED AND SHIELDED TWISTED PAIRS

 Unshielded twisted pair (utp)
o Ordinary telephone wire
o Subject to external electromagnetic interference

 Shielded twisted pair (stp)

o Shielded with a metallic braid or sheath
o Reduces interference
o Better performance at higher data rates
o More expensive and difficult to work compared to utp
Category 3 and Category 5 utp
 Most common is the 100-ohm voice grade twisted pair
 Most useful for LAN applications
 Category 3 utp
o Transmission characteristics specified up to 16 mhz
o Voice grade cable in most once buildings
o May have data rates up to 16 Mbps over limited distances
o Typical twist length 7.5 to 10 cm
 Category 4 utp
o Transmission characteristics specified up to 20 mhz
 Category 5 utp
o Transmission characteristics specified up to 100 mhz
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 o Data grade cable in newer buildings
o May have data rates up to 100 Mbps over limited distances
o Much more tightly twisted, with typical twist length 0.6 to 0.85 cm,
for better performance

Explain twisted pair cable with neat sketch. (Diagram - 2Marks Explanation -
2Marks)
Ans: A type of cable that consists of two independently insulated wires twisted
around one another. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk
and electromagnetic induction. While twisted-pair cable is used by older telephone
networks and is the least expensive type of local-area network (LAN) cable, most
networks contain some twisted-pair cabling at some point along the network.
Types :
i ) Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) Unshielded twisted pair is the most
common kind of copper telephone wiring. Twisted pair is the ordinary copper wire
that connects home and many business computers to the telephone company. To
reduce crosstalk or electromagnetic induction between pairs of wires, two insulated
copper wires are twisted around each other. Each signal on twisted pair requires
both wires.

SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR CABLE (STP)

STP is a type of copper telephone wiring in which each of the two copper
wires that are twisted together are coated with an insulating coating that functions

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as a ground for the wires. The extra covering in shielded twisted pair wiring
protects the transmission line from electromagnetic interference leaking into or out
of the cable. STP cabling often is used in Ethernet networks, especially fast data
rate Ethernets.

Advantages of Twisted pair cable

1. It can be used to carry both analog and digital data.
2. It is relatively easy to implement and terminate.
3. It is the least expensive media of transmission for short distances.
4. If portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged it does not affect the
entire network.

COAXIAL CABLE:-

Physical description
 Consists of two conductors with construction that allows it to operate over a
wider range of frequencies compared to twisted pair
 Hollow outer cylindrical conductor surrounding a single inner wire
conductor
 Inner conductor held in place by regularly spaced insulating rings or solid
di-electrical material
 Outer conductor covered with a jacket or shield
 Diameter from 1 to 2.5 cm
 Shielded concentric construction reduces interference and crosstalk
 Can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared
line than twisted pair
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Applications
 Most common use is in cable TV.
 Traditionally part of long distance telephone network
 Can carry more than 10,000 voice channels simultaneously using frequency-
division multiplexing
 Short range connections between devices
Transmission characteristics
 Used to transmit both analog and digital signals
 Superior frequency characteristics compared to twisted pair
 Can support higher frequencies and data rates
 Shielded concentric construction makes it less susceptible to interference
and crosstalk than twisted pair
 Constraints on performance are attenuation, thermal noise, and
intermodulation noise
 Requires appliers every few kilometers for long distance transmission
 Usable spectrum for analog signaling up to 500 mhz
 Requires repeaters every few kilometers for digital transmission
 For both analog and digital transmission, closer spacing is necessary for
higher frequencies/data rates

Draw and explain Co-axial cable. (Diagram 1 mark, explaination 1 mark, any
2 advantages & disadvantages 1 mark each)
Coaxial cable (also called as coax) has an inner central copper conductor
surrounded by an insulating sheath, which in turn is enclosed in the metal mesh.
This outer conductor (shield) acts not only as a second conductor for completing
the circuit but also acts as shield against noise. This whole arrangement is enclosed
in protective plastic cover as shown in fig. Co-axial cables are divided into various
categories depending upon the thickness & size of the shields, insulators and the
outer coating & other considerations. They are commonly used by cable companies
to carry cable transmissions. The various coaxial cable standards are RG8, RG-
9,RG-11,RG-58 and RG-59.
Advantages of coaxial cable are:-
1. It carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable.
2. Lower attenuation than twisted pair cable.
3. Supports higher bandwidth.
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 Disadvantages of coaxial cable are:-
1. Cost of coaxial cable is more than twisted pair cable.
2. Less flexible.
3. More difficult to install in a building where a number of twists and turns are
required.
4. Limited to size of network.

OPTICAL FIBER
Thin, flexible material to guide optical rays, cylindrical cross-section with three
concentric links

 Innermost section of the fiber

1. Core

 One or more very thin (dia. 8-100 _m) strands or fibers

2. Cladding
 Surrounds each strand
 Plastic or glass coating with optical properties different from core
 Interface between core and cladding prevents light from escaping the core

 Outermost layer, surrounding one or more claddings

3. Jacket

 Made of plastic and other materials

 Protects from environmental elements like moisture, abrasions, and crushing
 Comparison with twisted pair and coaxial cable
Capacity
 Much higher bandwidth
 Can carry hundreds of Gbps over tens of kms
 Smaller size and light weight
 Very thin for similar data capacity

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Draw and explain fiber optic cable.(2 marks for diagram, 2 marks for
explanation)

As shown in the figure, at the center is the glass core through which the light
propagates. In multimode fibers, the core is typically 50 microns in diameter. In
single mode fibers, the core is 8 to 10 microns. The core is surrounded by a glass
cladding with a lower index of refraction than the core, to keep all the light in the
core. A thin plastic jacket is used to protect the cladding. Fibers are grouped in
bundles, protected by an outer sheath. Fibers can be connected in three different
ways. First they can terminate in connectors and be plugged into fiber sockets.
Connectors lose about 10 to 20 percent of the light, but they make it easy to
reconfigure systems. Second they can be spliced mechanically. Mechanical splices
just lay the two carefully – cut ends next to each other in a special sleeve and
clamp them in place. Alignment can be improved by passing light through the
junction and then making small adjustments to maximize the signal. Third, two
pieces of fiber can be fused to form a solid connection. A fusion splice is almost as
good as a single drawn fiber.

Explain different modes of fibre optic cable.(For each mode 2 marks)

Current technology supports two modes for propagating light along optical
channels. 1. Multimode. 2. Single mode.
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Multimode can be implemented in two form:
1. Step index.
2. Graded index.

Multimode:
 Multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths.
 How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core
as shown in the fig. In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core
remains constant from the center to the edges.
 A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it
reaches the interface of the core and the cladding.
 At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density, this alters
the angle of the beam‟s motion.
 The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which
contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
 A multimode graded index fiber decreases this distortion of the signal
through the cable.
 In this, density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to
its lowest at the edge.
 Following fig shows the impact of this variable density on the propagation
of light beams.

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Single mode:
 The single mode fiber is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than
that of multimode fiber and with substantially lower density.
 The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 900
to make the propagation of beams almost horizontal.
 In this case propagation is almost identical and delays are negligible.
 All the beams arrive at the destination together and can be recombined with
little distortion to the signal.

Compare guided and unguided media(WIRED or WIRELESS MEDIA) used

in computer network.

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How cross cable is created? Draw figure and explain. Give its application.
(Creation: 4M; Diagram : 2M; Application : 2M)
Crossover cable is created by connecting the two UTP cables by swapping
transmission and reception signals as shown below: Here, One end of the cable is
crimped in the same way as straight cable, on the other end the following change
has to be done, 1-White and 3 orange- white are to be connected 2 –Green and 6
orange are to be connected as shown in the fig below.

 While connecting one computer to another without going through router,

Application:

switch or hub, the crossover cables are used.

 These are also used when connecting one computer to a device directly,
without any other connecting device.
 Cross cable is used for connecting similar level devices.
 For example : two computers or connecting computer with hub since all are
level 1devices.

What is the frequency band used for cellular telephony? How a mobile call is
transmitted and received? (Explanation of cellular telephony – 2 Marks,
Explanation of mobile call transmission & reception – 2 Marks) What is the
frequency band used for cellular telephony? How a mobile call is transmitted
and received.

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 Analog transmission is used for cellular telephony. Frequency modulation is
used for communication between the mobile phone and cell office. Two frequency
bands are allocated for this purpose. One band of them is for the communication
that is initiated by mobile phone & the other band for the land phone. Each channel
requires a full-duplex dialog. For preventing interference, adjacent channels are
rarely allocated; some of them are also required for control purposes. This reduces
the number of channels available for each cell. The same frequency band can be
used for multiple non-adjacent cells as shown in fig.

Calls using Mobile phones: Call is made from the mobile phone by entering 7-,
8-, or 10-digit phone number; the mobile phone itself scans the band & seeks a
channel for setting up the call. After seeking, it sends this number to the closest
cell office, which in turn, sends it to the CTO. If the called party is available, CTO
lets MTSO (mobile telephone switching office) know. At this point, MTSO
allocates an empty voice channel to the cell to establish the connection. The mobile
phone adjust its tuning to the new channel & the dialog begins. When a land phone
places a call to a mobile phone, the telephone central office sends the number to
the MTSO. The MTSO performs a lookup to see where the mobile phone is
currently placed by sending appropriate query signal to all the cells. This process is
known paging. The cell where the mobile phone is currently located responds to
the MTSO. Incoming calls work differently. To start with idle phone is
continuously listen to paging channel to detect messages at directed at them. The
MTSO then transmit the incoming call signal to that mobile phone & when the
mobile phone is answered, the MTSO assigns a voice channel to the call, thus
enabling the conversation.

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Explain handoff procedure of cellular mobile phone. (Handoff Procedure -2
Marks, Types of Handoff – 2 Marks)
Ans: Assume that there is a call going on between two parties over a voice
channel. When the mobile unit moves out of coverage area of a particular cell site
the reception becomes weak. Then the cell site will request a hand off.
The system will switch the call to a new cell site without interrupting the call or
changing the user. This procedure is called as the hand off procedure or handover
procedure.
Following are various types of handoffs. Supported by a Mobile Station (MS):
1. Hard Hand Off
2. Soft Hand off
3. Queued hand off
4. Delayed hand off
5. Forced hand off

1. Hard hand off:

A hard handoff is a handoff technique used with cellular networks that
requires the user's connection to be entirely broken with an existing base station
before being switched to another base station.
2. Soft hand off:
The hand off is known as soft handoff if the MS starts communication with a
new base station without stopping the communication with the older base station.
3. Delayed Hand off:
In many situations, instead of one level, a two level handoff procedure is
used, in order to provide a high opportunity for a successful handoff. A hand off
can be delayed if on available cell take the call.
4. Forced Handoff:
A forced handoff is defined as the off which would normally occur but
prevented from happening or a handoff that should not occur but is forced to
happen.
5. Queued handoff:
In the queued handoff process, the MTSO arranges the handoff requests in a
queue instead of rejecting them, if the new cell sites are busy.

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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:
In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and
receiver is done with the help of satellite. In this process, the signal which is
basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite called
UPLINK (6 GHz). Then the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the
receiver’s antenna present on the earth’s surface called as DOWNLINK (4 GHz),
as shown in the diagram given

 As the entire signal transferring is happening in space. Thus this type

of communication is known as space communication.
 The satellite does the functions of an antenna and the repeater
together.
 If the earth along with its ground stations is revolving and the satellite
is stationery, the sending and receiving earth stations and the satellite
can be out of sync over time.
 Therefore Geosynchronous satellites are used which move at same
RPM as that of the earth in the same direction.
 So the relative position of the ground station with respect to the
satellite never changes.
 However 3 satellites are needed to cover earth’s surface entirely.

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 Application of satellite:
 Satellite television
 digital cinema
 satellite radio
 satellite internet access

What is Bluetooth?
1. A cable-replacement technology that can be used to connect almost any
device to any other device
2. Radio interface enabling electronic devices to communicate wirelessly via
short range (10 meters) ad-hoc radio connections
3. a standard for a small , cheap radio chip to be plugged into computers,
printers, mobile phones, etc.
4. Uses the radio range of 2.45 GHz
5. Theoretical maximum bandwidth is 1 Mb/s
6. Bluetooth is short range wireless technology.
7. Range of Bluetooth is 10 meters.
8. Bluetooth Architecture defines 2 types of networks.
1) Piconet
2) Scatternet

 It consists of 1 master node and 7 slave nodes.

Piconet

 Piconet has 8 active nodes (7+1) in the range of 10 meters.

 There can be only 1 master station in each piconet.
 Communication is between master and slave, Slave-slave
communication is not possible.

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  Piconet can have 255 parked nodes, that can not take part in
communication. There will be 7 slaves in active state and 255 nodes
in parked state.

Scatter net
 It is formed by combining various piconets.
 Slave in one piconet can act as master in other piconet.
 Such a node can receive message from the master in the first
piconet and deliver the message in second piconet.
 Station can be member of two piconets.
 Station cannot be master of two piconets.

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INFRA RED
Today, two different basic transmission technologies can be used to set up
WLANs.
One technology is based on the transmission of infra red light (e.g., at 900
nm wavelength), the other one, which is much more popular, uses radio
transmission in the GHz range (e.g., 2.4 GHz in the license-free ISM band). Both
technologies can be used to set up ad-hoc connections for work groups, to connect,
e.g., a desktop with a printer without a wire, or to support mobility within a small
area.
Infra-red technology uses diffuse light reflected at walls; furniture etc. or directed
light if a line-of-sight (LOS) exists between sender and receiver. Senders can be
simple light emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser diodes. Photodiodes act as receivers.
Details about infra-red technology, such as modulation, channel impairments etc.
can be found in Wesel (1998) and Santa Maria (1994).
● The main advantages of infra-red technology are its simple and extremely cheap
senders and receivers which are integrated into nearly all mobile devices available
today. PDAs, laptops, notebooks, mobile phones etc. have an infra-red data
association (IrDA) interface. Version 1.0 of this industry standard implements data
rates of up to 115 kbit/s, while IrDA 1.1 defines higher data rates of 1.152 and 4
Mbit/s. No licenses are needed for infra-red technology and shielding is very
simple. Electrical devices do not interfere with infra-red transmission.
● Disadvantages of infra-red transmission are its low bandwidth compared to
other LAN technologies. Typically, IrDA devices are internally connected to a
serial port limiting transfer rates to 115 kbit/s. Even 4 Mbit/s is not a particularly
high data rate. However, their main disadvantage is that infra-red is quite easily
shielded. Infra-red transmission cannot penetrate walls or other obstacles.
Typically, for good transmission quality and high data rates a LOS, i.e., direct
connection, is needed.

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 CHAPTER 4 THE OSI MODEL

The layered model that dominated data communication and networking

literature before 1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
Everyone believed that the OSI model would become the ultimate standard for data
communications—but this did not happen. The TCP/IP protocol suite became the
dominant commercial architecture because it was used and tested extensively in the
Internet; the OSI model was never fully implemented.

Services: - Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately
below it. The sender at the higher layer uses the services of the middle layer. The
middle layer uses the services of the lower layer. The lower layer uses the services
of the carrier.

THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a

multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.
Almost three-fourths of countries in the world are represented in the ISO. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI
model is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable. The OSI model was
intended to be the basis for the creation of the protocols in the OSI stack. The OSI
model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven
separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving
information across a network.

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 THE OSI 7 LAYERS

Layered Architecture

The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer 1), data
link (layer 2), network (layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), and
presentation (layer 6), and application (layer 7). The layers involved when a
message is sent from device A to device B. As the message travels from A to B, it
may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes usually
involve only the first three layers of the OSI model. They identified which
networking functions had related uses and collected those functions into discrete
groups that became the layers. Each layer defines a family of functions distinct
from those of the other layers. By defining and localizing functionality in this
fashion, the designers created an architecture that is both comprehensive and
flexible. Most important, the OSI model allows complete interoperability
between otherwise incompatible systems. Within a single machine, each layer
calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the
services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between machines,
layer x on one machine logically communicates with layer x on another machine.
This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and
conventions called protocols.

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Horizontal communications

 The horizontal communication between the different layers is logical; there

is no direct communication between them. Information included in each
protocol header by the transmitting system is message that will be carried to
the same protocol in the destination system
 For two computers to communicate over a network, the protocols used at
each layer of the OSI model in the transmitting system must be duplicated at
the receiving system.
 The packet travels up through the protocol stack and each successive header
is stripped off by the appropriate protocol and processed.
 When the packet arrives as it destination, the process by which the headers
are applied at the source is respected in reverse.
 The protocol operating at the various layers communicate horizontally with
their counterparts in the other system, as shown in below fig..

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 Vertical Communications

 In addition to communicating horizontally with the same protocol in the

other system, the header information also enables each layer to
communicate with the layer above and below it.
 The headers applied by the different protocols implemented the specific
functions carried out by those protocols.
 For Example: When a system receives a packets and passes it up through
the protocol stack, the data link layer protocol header includes afield that
identifies which network-layer protocol the system should use to process
the packet.
 Network –layer protocol header in tern specifies one of the transport-
layer protocols and the transport-layer protocol identifies the application
for which the data is ultimately destined.
 Vertical communication makes it possible for a computer to support
multiple protocols at each of the layers simultaneously.

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Data encapsulation in OSI: -

Each layer in the layered architecture provides service to the layers which
are directly above and below it. The outgoing information will travel down through
the layers to the lowest layer. While moving down on the source machine, it
acquires all the control information which is required to reach the destination
machine. The control information is in the form of headers and footers which
surrounds the data received from the layer above. This process of adding headers
and footers to the data is called as data encapsulation. The headers and footers
contain control information in the individual fields. It is used to make message
packet reach the destination. The headers and footers form the envelope which
carries the message to the desired destination.

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LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Physical Layer

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a
physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission media. It also defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media. The physical layer

defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and the
transmission media. It also defines the type of transmission media
 Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits
(sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals—electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the
type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).
 Data rate. The transmission rate—the number of bits sent each second—is
also defined by the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines
the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
 Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver must not only use the
same bit rate but must also be synchronized at the bit level. In other words,
the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
 Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are

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 connected together through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a
link is shared between several devices.
 Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network. Devices can be connected using a mesh
topology (every device connected to every other device), a star topology
(devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology (each
device is connected to the next, forming a ring), or a bus topology (every
device on a common link).
 Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of
transmission between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In
the simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive. The
simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two
devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or
simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper
layer (network layer).
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 Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical /Local addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to
define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a
system outside the sender’s network, the receiver address is the address of
the connecting device that connects the network to the next one.
 Flow control. If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate produced at the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow
control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
 Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also
uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally
achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
 Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link,
data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control
over the link at any given time.

Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer
oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network

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(link), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its
final destination. If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no
need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is
often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

 Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link

layer handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network
boundary, we need another addressing system to help distinguish the source
and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the packet
coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.
 Routing. When independent networks or links are connected together to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to
their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide
this mechanism.

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 Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire

message. A process is an application program running on the host. Whereas the
network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does
not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one
independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or
not it does.

The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message
arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the
source-to-destination level.

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

 Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the

same time. For this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not
only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running
program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the
other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address
called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each
packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to
the correct process on that computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number. These numbers
enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving
at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
 Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as
an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination
machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets.
After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.

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  Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for
flow control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end
rather than across a single link.
 Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for
error control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-
process rather than across a single link. The sending transport layer makes
sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without
error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved
through retransmission.

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 Session Layer

The services provided by the first four layers (physical, data link, network
and transport) are not sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the
network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating systems.

Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

 Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
It allows the communication between two processes to take place in either
half duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
 Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints
(synchronization points) into a stream of data. For example, if a system is
sending a file of 2,000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every
100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of
page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are
pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

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 Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two systems.

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following

 Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are

usually exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers,
and so on. The information should be changed to bit streams before being
transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems,
the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes
the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format.
The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common
format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption. To carry sensitive information a system must be able to
assure privacy. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original
information to another form and sends the resulting message out over the
network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the
message back to its original form.
 Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in
the information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

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 Application Layer

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access
the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management,
and other types of distributed information services.

Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

 Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software

version of a physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote
host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal
at the remote host. The user’s computer talks to the software terminal,
which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host believes
it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows you to log
on.
 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM). This application
allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read
data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local
computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
 E-mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
 Directory services. This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.

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 CHAPTER 5 TCP/IP SUITS

ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP
protocols: physical address, logical address, port address, and application-
specific address. Each address is related to a one layer in the TCP/IP architecture.
Physical Addresses
The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a
node as defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data
link layer. It is the lowest-level address. The physical addresses have authority
over the link (LAN or WAN). The size and format of these addresses vary
depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical
address that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). LocalTalk (Apple),
however, has a 1-byte dynamic address that changes each time the station comes
up.
Example 2.3
In Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (a LAN). At the data
link layer, this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These are the
only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at
this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection. As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the
computer with physical address 87 is the receiver. The data link layer at the sender
receives data from an upper layer. It encapsulates the data in a frame, adding a
header and a trailer. The header, among other pieces of information, carries the
receiver and the sender physical (link) addresses. Note that in most data link
protocols, the destination address 87 in this case, comes before the source address
(10 in this case). The frame is propagated through the LAN. Each station with a
physical address other than 87 drops the frame because the destination address in
the frame does not match its own physical address. The intended destination
computer, however, finds a match between the destination address in the frame and
its own physical address. The frame is checked, the header and trailer are dropped,
and the data part is DE capsulated and delivered to the upper layer.

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Port Addresses
The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data
to travel from a source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination
host is not the final objective of data communications on the Internet. A system
that sends nothing but data from one computer to another is not complete. Today,
computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The end
objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another
process. For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by using
TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with computer B by using
the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive data
simultaneously, we need a method to label the different processes. In other words,
they need addresses. In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is
called a port address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.

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Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses
A source address is always a unicast address—the frame comes from only
one station. The destination address, however, can be unicast, multicast, or
broadcast. How to distinguish a unicast address from a multicast address. If the
least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0, the address is
unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.
A unicast destination address defines only one recipient; the relationship
between the sender and the receiver is one-to-one. A multicast destination address
defines a group of addresses; the relationship between the sender and the receivers
is one-to-many. The broadcast address is a special case of the multicast address;
the recipients are all the stations on the LAN. A broadcast destination address is
forty-eight 1s.

Introduction to IP Address;-

The identifier used in the IP layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite to identify
each device connected to the Internet is called the Internet address or IP address.
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the
connection of a host or a router to the Internet; an IP address is the address of the
interface.

IPv4 addresses are unique. They are unique in the sense that each addresses
defines one, and only one, connection to the Internet. Two devices on the Internet
can never have the same address at the same time. However, if a device has two

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connections to the Internet, via two networks, it has two IPv4 addresses. The IPv4
addresses are universal in the sense that the addressing system must be accepted by
any host that wants to be connected to the Internet.

Address Space

A protocol like IPv4 that defines addresses has an address space. An address
space is the total number of addresses used by the protocol. If a protocol uses b bits
to define an address, the address space is 2b because each bit can have two different
values (0 or 1). IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is
232 or 4,294,967,296 (more than four billion). Theoretically, if there were no
restrictions, more than 4 billion devices could be connected to the Internet.

Notation

 There are three common notations to show an IPv4 address:

 Binary notation (base 2),
 Dotted-decimal notation (base 256),
 Hexadecimal notation (base 16).

Binary Notation: Base 2

In binary notation, an IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits. To make the

address more readable, one or more spaces is usually inserted between each octet
(8 bits). Each octet is often referred to as a byte. So it is common to hear an IPv4
address referred to as a 32-bit address, a 4-octet address, or a 4-byte address. The
following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:

Dotted-Decimal Notation: Base 256

To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read, an IPv4 address
is usually written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot) separating the bytes.
This format is referred to as dotted-decimal notation. Note that because each byte
(octet) is only 8 bits, each number in the dotted-decimal notation is between 0 and
255.

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Hexadecimal Notation: Base 16

We sometimes see an IPv4 address in hexadecimal notation. Each

hexadecimal digit is equivalent to four bits. This means that a 32-bit address has 8
hexadecimal digits. This notation is often used in network programming.

Example 5.4

Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to hexadecimal

notation. a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 b. 11000001 10000011
00011011 11111111

Solution

We replace each group of 4 bits with its hexadecimal equivalent .Note that
hexadecimal notation normally has no added spaces or dots; however, 0X (or 0x) is
added at the beginning or the subscript 16 at the end to show that the number is in
hexadecimal. a. 0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF16 b. 0XC1831BFF or C1831BFF16

CLASSFUL ADDRESSING

IP addresses, when started a few decades ago, used the concept of classes.
This architecture is called classful addressing. In the mid-1990s, a new
architecture, called classless addressing, was introduced that supersedes the
original architecture.

Classes

In classful addressing, the IP address space is divided into five classes:

A, B, C, D, and E. Each class occupies some part of the whole address

space.

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Recognizing Classes

We can find the class of an address when the address is given either in
binary or dotted decimal notation. In the binary notation, the first few bits can
immediately tell us the class of the address; in the dotted-decimal notation, the
value of the first byte can give the class of an address. Note that some special
addresses fall in class A or E. We emphasize that these special addresses are
exceptions to the classification.

Netid and Hostid

In classful addressing, an IP address in classes A, B, and C is divided into

netid and hostid. These parts are of varying lengths, depending on the class of the
address. Figure 5.8 shows the netid and hostid bytes. Note that classes D and E are
not divided into netid and hostid, for reasons that we will discuss later.

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 In class A, 1 byte defines the netid and 3 bytes define the hostid. In class B,
2 bytes define the netid and 2 bytes define the hostid. In class C, 3 bytes define the
netid and 1 byte defines the hostid.

In class A, 1 byte defines the netid and 3 bytes define the hostid. In class B, 2 bytes
define the netid and 2 bytes define the hostid. In class C, 3 bytes define the netid
and 1 byte defines the hostid.

CLASSES AND BLOCKS

One problem with classful addressing is that each class is divided into a
fixed number of blocks with each block having a fixed size. Let us look at each
class.

Class A

Since only 1 byte in class A defines the netid and the leftmost bit should be
0, the next 7 bits can be changed to find the number of blocks in this class.
Therefore, class A is divided into 27 = 128 blocks that can be assigned to 128
organizations (the number is less because some blocks were reserved as special
blocks). However, each block in this class contains 16,777,216 addresses, which
means the organization should be a really large one to use all these addresses.
Many addresses are wasted in this class.

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Class B

Since 2 bytes in class B define the class and the two leftmost bit should be
10 (fixed), the next 14 bits can be changed to find the number of blocks in this
class. Therefore, class B is divided into 214 = 16,384 blocks that can be assigned
to 16,384 organizations (the number is less because some blocks were reserved as
special blocks). However, each block in this class contains 65,536 addresses. Not
so many organizations can use so many addresses. Many addresses are wasted in
this class.

Class C

Since 3 bytes in class C define the class and the three leftmost bits should be
110 (fixed), the next 21 bits can be changed to find the number of blocks in this
class. Therefore, class C is divided into 221 = 2,097,152 blocks, in which each
block contains 256 addresses that can be assigned to 2,097,152 organizations (the
number is less because some blocks were reserved as special blocks). Each block
contains 256 addresses. However, not so many organizations were so small as to be
satisfied with a class C block.

Class D

There is just one block of class D addresses. It is designed for multicasting,

as we will see in a later section. Each address in this class is used to define one
group of hosts on the Internet. When a group is assigned an address in this class,

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every host that is a member of this group will have a multicast address in addition
to its normal (unicast) address.

Class E

There is just one block of class E addresses. It was designed for use as reserved
addresses

Network Mask

The methods we described previously for extracting the network address are
mostly used to show the concept. The routers in the Internet normally use an
algorithm to extract the network address from the destination address of a packet.
To do this, we need a network mask. A network mask or a default mask in
classful addressing is a 32-bit number with n leftmost bits all set to 1s and (32 − n)
rightmost bits all set to 0s. Since n is different for each class in classful addressing,
we have three default masks in classful addressing.

SUBNET:-

A subnet is a logical grouping of connected network devices. Nodes on a

subnet tend to be located in close physical proximity to each other on a LAN.
Network designers employ subnets as a way to partition networks into logical

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segments for greater ease of administration. When subnets are properly
implemented, both the performance and security of networks can be improved.

In Internet Protocol (IP) networking, devices on a subnet share contiguous

ranges of IP address numbers. A mask (known as the subnet mask or network
mask) defines the boundaries of an IP subnet. The correspondence between subnet
masks and IP address ranges follows defined mathematical formulas. IT
professionals use subnet calculators to map between masks and addresses. Subnet
masking for 2 subnet: To calculate the number of subnets or nodes, use the formula
(2n-2) where n = number of bits in either field, and 2n represents 2 raised to the nth
power. Multiplying the number of subnets by the number of nodes available per
subnet gives you the total number of nodes available for your class and subnet
mask. Also, note that although subnet masks with non-contiguous mask bits are
allowed, they are not recommended.

Super-netting:

To create a super network, the procedure is to be reversed. The networks are

combined by creating space for a larger number of hosts. To accomplish this, we
start with the default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 and use some of the bits
reserved for the Netid to identify the Hostid. The following exampleshows we
would create a new supernetwork by combining four separate subnetworks.

Example: If a packet arrives at the router with the destination address

192.168.64.48, the supernet mask 255.255.252.0 is applied to the destination

address.

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11000000.10101000.01000000.00110000 (destination IP address)
AND
11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000 (supernet mask)
Returns
11000000.10101000.01000000.00000000

IP FUNCTIONS:-

1. Addressing: In order to perform the job of delivering datagrams, IP must know

where to deliver them to. For this reason, IP includes a mechanism for host
addressing. Furthermore, since IP operates over internetworks, its system is
designed to allow unique addressing of devices across arbitrarily large networks. It
also contains a structure to facilitate the routing of datagrams to distant networks if
that is required.

2. Data Encapsulation and Formatting/Packaging: IP accepts data from the

transport layer protocols UDP and TCP. It then encapsulates this data into an IP
datagram using a special format prior to transmission.

3. Fragmentation and Reassembly: IP datagrams are passed down to the data

link layer for transmission on the local network. However, the maximum frame
size of each physical/data-link network using IP may be different. For this reason,
IP includes the ability to fragment IP datagrams into pieces so they can each be
carried on the local network. The receiving device uses the reassembly function to
recreate the whole IP datagram again.

4. Routing / Indirect Delivery: When an IP datagram must be sent to a destination

on the same local network, this can be done easily using the network's underlying
LAN/WLAN/WAN protocol using what is sometimes called direct delivery.
However, in many (if not most cases) the final destination is on a distant network
not directly attached to the source. In this situation the datagram must be delivered
indirectly. This is accomplished by routing the datagram through intermediate
devices

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IPv4 vs IPv6

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CONNECTION ORIENTED AND CONNECTIONLESS SERVICES.
Connection-oriented
Communication includes the steps of setting up a call from one computer to
another, transmitting/receiving data, and then releasing the call, just like a voice
phone call. However, the network connecting the computers is a packet switched
network, unlike the phone system's circuit switched network. Connection-oriented
communication is done in one of two ways over a packet switched network: with
and without virtual circuits. Connection oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless service. We can send the message in connection oriented service if
there is an error at the receivers end. Example of connection oriented is TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.
Connectionless
Communication is just packet switching where no call establishment and
release occur. A message is broken into packets, and each packet is transferred
separately. Moreover, the packets can travel different route to the destination since
there is no connection. Connectionless service is typically provided by the UDP
(User Datagram Protocol. The packets transferred using UDP are also called
datagrams.

Difference between connection oriented and connectionless services:

1. In connection oriented service authentication is needed while connectionless
service does not need any authentication.
2. Connection oriented protocol makes a connection and checks (confirms delivery
of message) whether message is received or not and sends again if an error occurs
connectionless service protocol does not guarantees a delivery.
3. Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service.
4. Connection oriented service interface is stream based and connectionless is
message based.

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PROTOCALS;- - Protocol is set of rules and conventions. Sender and receiver in
data communication must agree on common set of rules before they can
communicate with each other. Protocol defines.
a) Syntax (what is to be communicated)
b) Semantics (how is it to be communicated
c) Timing (When it should be communicated)

Connection Oriented: - 1) TCP 2) SLIP 3) PPP 4) SMTP

Connectionless protocols: 1) IP 2) ICMP 3) UDP

1. TCP:-
Following are some of the services offered by TCP to the process at the
application layer:
a) Stream delivery service
b) Sending and receiving buffers
c) Bytes and segments

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 d) Full duplex service
e) Connection oriented service
f) Reliable service.
g) Process to process communication
a. Stream delivery service:
TCP is a stream oriented protocol. It allows the sending process to
deliver data as a stream of bytes and the receiving process to obtain as a
stream of bytes. TCP creates a working environment in such a way that the
sending and receiving processes seem to be connected by an imaginary
―tube‖ This is called as stream delivery service.
b. Sending and receiving buffers:
The sending and receiving process may not produce and receive data
at the same speed. Hence TCP needs buffers for storage. There are two types
of buffers used in each direction:
1) Sending buffer
2) Receiving buffer.
A buffer can be implemented by using a circular array of 1 byte
locations as shown .The movement of data in one direction on the sending
side the buffer has these types of locations:
1. Empty Locations
2. Location containing the bytes which have been sent but not
acknowledgement. These bytes are kept in the buffer till an
acknowledgement is received.
3. The locations containing the bytes to be sent by the sending TCP.

c. Bytes and segments:

 Buffering is used to handle the difference between the speed of data

transmission and data consumption.
 But only buffering is not enough.
 We need one more step before sending the data.
 The IP layer, as a service provider for TCP, need to send data in the
form of packets and as a stream of bytes.
 At the transport layer, TCP groups a number of bytes together into a
packet called a segment.

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  A header is added to each segment for the purpose of exercising
control. The segments are encapsulated in an IP datagram and then
transmitted.
 The entire operation is transparent to the receiving process.
 The segments may be receiver out of order, lost or corrupted when it
reaches the receiving end.

d. Full duplex service:

 TCP offers full duplex service where the data can flow in both the
direction simultaneously.
 Each TCP will then have a sending buffer and receiving buffer.
 The TCP segments are sent both the directions.

e. Connection oriented service:

TCP is a connection oriented protocol. When process –I wants to

communicate (send and receive) with another process (process-2), the
sequence of operations is as follows:

 TCP of process -1 informs TCP of process -2 and gets its approval.

 TCP of process -1 and TCP of process -2 exchange data in both the
directions.
 After completing the data exchange, when buffers on both sides are
empty, the two TCPs destroy their buffers.
1. The type of connection in TCP is not physical, it is virtual. The
TCP segment is encapsulated in an IP datagram and can be sent out
of order.
2. These segments can get lost or corrupted and have to be resent.
3. Each segment may take a different path to reach the destination.

f. Reliable services:

TCP is a reliable transport protocol. It uses an acknowledgment

mechanism for checking the safe and sound arrival of data.

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 g. Process to process communication:

 The TCP user port numbers a transport layer addresses.

 Show some well-known port number used by TCP.
 Note that if an application can use both UDP and TCP, the
same port number is assigned to this application.
2. FTP

FTP is a stranded mechanism provided by the Internet for copying a file

from one host to the other.
1. Some of the problem in transferring files from one system to the other are
as follows:
 Two systems may use different file name conventions.
 Two systems may represent text data in different types.
1. The directory structure of the two systems may be different.
2. FTP provides a simple solution to all these problems.
3. The basic model of FTP is shown
4. FTP established two connections between the client and server. One is for
data transfer and the other is for the control information.
5. The fact that FTP separates control and data makes it very efficient.
6. The control connection uses simple rules of communication. Only one line
of command or a line of response is transferred at a time.
7. But the data connection uses more complex rules due to the variety of data
types being transferred.
8. FTP uses port 21 for the control connection and port 20 for the data
connection.
9. As shown in the figure client has three components namely:
i. User interface

ii. Control process and

iii. Data transfer process.

10.The Server has two components: the control process and data transfer
process.

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 11.The control connection is maintained during the entire interactive FTP
session. The data connection is first opened, file is transferred and data
connection is closed. This is closed. This is done for transferring each file.

 This connection is created in the same way as the other application programs
CONTROL CONNECTION:

described earlier.
 Control connection remains alive during the entire process.
 The IP uses minimize delay type services because this is an interactive
connection between a user and server.

DATA CONNECTION:

 Data connection uses the port 20 at the site. This connection is opened when
data to be transferred is ready and it is closed when transfer of data is over.
 The service types used by IP is maximize throughput.

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 3. TELNET
TELNET is abbreviation for Terminal Network. It is standard TCP/IP
protocol for virtual terminal services proposed by ISO. TELNET enables
establishment of connection to a remote system in such a way that a local
terminal appears to be terminal at remote system. TELNET is general
purpose client server application program.

Local Login

When user log in to local time sharing system it is called local login.
The keystrokes accepted by terminal driver. Terminal driver passes the
character to the operating system. Operating system, in tern interprets the
combination of character and invokes the desired application or utility.

Remote login

When user wants to access the application or utility located at the

remote machine, he or she performs remote login. Here the telnet client and
server program come into use. The user sends the keystrokes to local
operating system. Local operating system accept is, but do not interpret
them. The characters are sending to TELNET client. TELNET client
transform the character to a universal character set called Network Virtual
Terminal Character and deliver them to the local TCP/IP stack.

The command/text in NVT form travel through internet, and arrive at

TCP/IP stack of remote Machine. Here the characters are delivered to the
operating system and Passed to the TELNET server. Which changes the
characters to the understandable characters by the remote computer?
However characters could not directly pass to the operating system because
remote operating system is not designed to receive characters from TELNET
server. The solution is to add piece of software called Pseudo- terminal
driver, which pretends that characters are coming from terminal. The
operating system passes the characters to appropriate application program.

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 4. IP
 IP is internet Protocol.
 It is unreliable protocol because it does not provide any error control
and flow control.
 Packets in IP are called ―Datagram‖
 Datagram is variable length packet with two parts –header and data

 It is internet control message protocol.

5. ICMP

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  It reports error and sends control messages.
 Error reporting messages include – destination unreachable, source
quench , time exceed, parameter problem , redirection etc.
 Query message includes –echo request and reply, time stamp request
and reply, router solicitation and advertisement. etc

 UDP is user datagram protocol.

6. UDP

 It is connectionless protocol because data is sent without establishing

a connection between sender and receiver before sending the data.
 UDP is unreliable because data is delivered without
acknowledgement.
 UDP does not perform Auto retransmission.
 UDP does not use flow control .
 UDP has high transmission speed.
7. SLIP
 SLIP is serial line internet protocol
 SLIP does not perform error detection and correction.
 SLIP does not provide any authentication.
 SLIP is not approved internet standard.
 SLIP supports only Internet protocol (IP)
 SLIP supports static IP address assignment
8. PPP
 PPP is point to point protocol.
 PPP perform error detection
 PPP provides authentication and security.
 PPP is approved internet standard.
 PPP supports IP and other protocols.
 PPP supports Dynamic IP address assignment

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  Networking H/W demands that a datagram contain the physical address
9. ARP:(Address resolution protocol)

of the intended recipient.

 If problem Address Resolution protocol (ARP) was developed.
 ARP takes the IP address of a host as input & gives its corresponding
physical address as the output.
 As if doesn’t know who must be having address if sends the broadcast
message to all the computer on the network.
 The computer whose IP address matches the broadcast IP address sends a
reply and along with if, its physical address to the broadcasting computer.
 All other computers lignose the broadcast message as IP address is
different now, when it is responding whose IP address gets match is
aware of the sender.
 So it doesn’t require sending broadcast message.

 As it knows sender hardware as well as IP address that the reason it

uncast the reply so that senders only receive it.

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  ARP is used for solving the problem of finding out which Ethernet
10.RARP: (Reverse Address Resolution protocol)

address corresponding to a given IP address.

 But sometimes we have to solve a reverse problem. That means we have
to obtain the IP address corresponding to the given Ethernet address.
 Such a problem can occur when booting a diskless workstation.
 The problem of obtaining the IP address when an Ethernet address is
given, can be solved by using RARP(Reverse Address Resolution
protocol)
 The newly booted workstation is allowed to broadcast its Ethernet
address. The RARP server looks at this request. Then it looks up the
Ethernet address in its configuration files and sends back the
corresponding IP address.
 Using RARP is actually better than embedding an IP address in the
memory image because it allows the same image to be used on all
machines.
 If the IP address were buried inside the image, each workstation would
need its own image.
 The disadvantage of RARP is that it uses a destination address of all
ls(limited broadcasting) to reach the RARP server.
 But such broadcasts are not forwarded by routers, so a RARP server is
needed on each network.

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 11.BOOTP:
The Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) is a computer networking protocol
used in Internet Protocol networks to automatically assign an IP address to
network devices from a configuration server. The BOOTP was originally
defined in RFC 951. When a computer that is connected to a network is
powered up and boots its operating system, the system software broadcasts
BOOTP messages onto the network to request an IP address assignment. A
BOOTP configuration server assigns an IP address based on the request
from a pool of addresses configured by an administrator. BOOTP is
implemented using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) as transport protocol,
port number 67 is used by the server to receive client requests and port
number 68 is used by the client to receive server responses. BOOTP operates
only on IPv4networks.

 It is Simple Mail transfer Protocol.

12.SMTP

 It is connection oriented text based protocol in which sender

communicates with receiver using a command and supplying data
over reliable TCP connection.
 SMTP is standard application layer protocol for delivery of email over
TCP/IP network.
 SMTP establish a TCP connection between Sender And port number
25 of receiver.
 It is limited in its ability to queue messages at the receiving end, it is
usually used with one of two other protocols, POP3 or IMAP, that let
the user save messages in a server mailbox and download them
periodically from the server

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 Compare OSI reference model and TCP/IP network Mode.

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Viren Sir ([email protected])(8928135013) Page 92