Quantum Noise and Decoherence

Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

Axiomatization

Definition 1 (Observables in Quantum Mechanics).

In Quantum Mechanics, the observables are physical quantity that can be observed or measured experimentally. The observables are represented by
linear operators. To correspond the physical outcomes, the eigenvalues of the operators must be real. Therefore, this constrains the operators to be
Hermitian. Mathematically, algebra of observables are subset of C* algebra.

Examples: position, linear and angular momentum, energy, spin

Definition 2 (Measurements).

Measurements are the processes by which the value of the observables are determined in the experiments. When measurement is performed, the
system is forced to collapse to one of the eigenstates of the measured eigenvalue.

Example 3 (Measurements on Hilbert space).

Let H be the separable Hilbert space. Let A be the algebra of observables. Suppose T ∈ A and |ψ⟩ ∈ H . Then
n

T |ψ⟩ = ∑ λ i |ψ i ⟩

i=0

Observations

1. If the observable T is diagonalizable, then H has the eigen-decomposition. If T is Hermitian, then according to spectral theorem, there
always exists a set of orthonormal basis of H that diagonalize T. So, H always has eigen-decomposition if T is Hermitian.
2. Such orthonormal basis which decomposes H with respect to T is called measurement basis. Such example is 2-state qubit system, in which,
|0⟩ and |1⟩ are measurement basis.

Roles of measurement in classical and quantum physics

In classical physics, we can measure and extract the information out of the system without affecting it. But, in quantum physics, this is
impossible.

Preparation : Set of actions that determines all probability distributions of any possible measurement.

A state describes all details relevant for subsequent measurements.

Mathematically, Observables are hermitian elements of operator algebra A.

Definition : C -algebra
∗

A C -algebra, A, is a Banach algebra over the field of complex numbers, together with a map x
∗
↦ x
∗
for x ∈ A that satisfies the
following properties.

1. Involution
∗∗
x = x

2. For all x, y in A:
∗ ∗ ∗
(x + y) = x + y

( )
 ∗ ∗ ∗
(xy) = y x

3. For every complex number λ ∈ C and every x ∈ A :

∗ ¯ ∗
(λx) = λx

4. For all x ∈ A:
∗ ∗
∥x x∥ = ∥x∥∥x ∥

Example : Each element A ∈ A has adjoint A . †

An element E ∈ A is positive if ∃A ∈ A such that E = AA

†

For our purpose : A is always be B(H), the set of bounded operators on some Hilbert space H.

Example : Qubit or Two-state system : set of observables are 2 × 2 hermitian matrices.

A state ω on A is a positive, normalized, linear functional on A that is

ω : A ↦ C

†
ω(X X) ≥ 0

ω(I) = 1

(eats measurements and tells probability)

Closed quantum system

A quantum mechanical system is closed if

1. There is no exchange of matter or information between the system and environment.

2. The time evolution of closed quantum system follows the Schrodinger equation.

^
dU
^U
= −iH ^
dt

3. The evolution of the system is given by the unitary operator.

^ †
A(t) = U AU

Formulations of Time Evolution

1. Schrodinger picture
In Schrodinger picture, the state evolves with time, but, the operator stays constant.

|ψ⟩ ⟹ |ψ(t)⟩

2. Heisenberg picture
In Heisenberg picture, the state stays constant, but, the operator evolves with time.

^ ^
A ⟹ A(t)

Definition 4 (Hilbert space).

Hilbert space is a complex inner product space and it is complete.

1. Positivity

⟨ψ|ψ⟩ ≥ 0

2. Conjugate symmetry
–
⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩

3. Linearity

⟨ | ⟩ ⟨ | ⟩ ⟨ | ⟩
 ⟨ψ|aϕ + bξ⟩ = a ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ + b ⟨ψ|ξ⟩

4. Completeness

Theorem 5 (Schmidt decomposition).

Let H and H be Hilbert spaces. The tensor product of H

1 2 1 ⊗ H2 can be decomposed as tensor product of their orthonormal basis
n

|ψ⟩ = ∑ √ p i |ξ i ⟩ ⊗ |η i ⟩

i=1

where p is called Schmidt coefficient, p

i i > 0 and (i = 1, 2, . . . , n ≤ min[d 1 , d 2 ])

such that
n

∑ pi = 1

i=1