54 CHAPTER B BACKGROUND

B.8 A PPENDIX : U SEFUL M ATHEMATICAL F ORMULAS

We conclude this chapter with a selection of useful mathematical facts.

B.8-1 Some Useful Constants

π ≈ 3.1415926535
e ≈ 2.7182818284
1
≈ 0.3678794411
e
log10 2 ≈ 0.30103
log10 3 ≈ 0.47712

B.8-2 Complex Numbers

e±jπ/2 = ±j

1 n even
e±jnπ =
−1 n odd
e±jθ = cos θ ± j sin θ
√  
a + jb = rejθ r= a2 + b2 , θ = tan−1 ba
(rejθ )k = rk ejkθ
(r1 ejθ1 )(r2 ejθ2 ) = r1 r2 ej(θ1 +θ2 )

B.8-3 Sums
"
n
rn+1 − rm
rk = r = 1
k=m
r−1
"n
n(n + 1)
k=
k=0
2
"n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
k2 =
k=0
6
"
n
r + [n (r − 1) − 1] rn+1
k rk = r = 1
k=0
(r − 1)2
"n
r[(1 + r)(1 − rn ) − 2n(1 − r)rn − n2 (1 − r)2 rn ]
k2 r k = r = 1
k=0
(1 − r)3
 B.8 Appendix: Useful Mathematical Formulas 55

B.8-4 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

∞
" (x − a)k
(x − a) (x − a)2
f (x) = f (a) + ḟ (a) + f̈ (a) + · · · = f (k) (a)
1! 2! k=0
k!
∞
" xk
x x2
f (x) = f (0) + ḟ (0) + f̈ (0) + · · · = f (k) (0)
1! 2! k=0
k!

B.8-5 Power Series

x2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + x + + +· · ·+ +· · ·
2! 3! n!
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + · · ·
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6 x8
cos x = 1 − + − + − · · ·
2! 4! 6! 8!
x3 2x5 17x7
tan x = x + + + +· · · x2 < π 2 /4
3 15 315
x3 2x5 17x7
tanh x = x − + − +· · · x2 < π 2 /4
3 15 315
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3 n k
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x +· · ·+ x + · · · + xn
2! 3! k
(1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx |x|  1
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · |x| < 1
1−x

B.8-6 Trigonometric Identities

e±jx = cos x ± j sin x
cos x = 12 [ejx + e−jx ]
sin x = 2j1 [ejx − e−jx ]
cos (x ± π2 ) = ∓ sin x
sin (x ± π2 ) = ± cos x
2 sin x cos x = sin 2x
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
cos2 x − sin2 x = cos 2x
cos2 x = 12 (1 + cos 2x)
sin2 x = 12 (1 − cos 2x)
56 CHAPTER B BACKGROUND

cos3 x = 14 (3 cos x + cos 3x)

sin3 x = 14 (3 sin x − sin 3x)
sin (x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y
cos (x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y
tan x ± tan y
tan (x ± y) =
1 ∓ tan x tan y
sin x sin y = 2 [cos (x − y) − cos (x + y)]
1

cos x cos y = 12 [cos (x − y) + cos (x + y)]

sin x cos y = 12 [sin (x − y) + sin (x + y)]
√  
a cos x + b sin x = C cos (x + θ ) C= a2 + b2 , θ = tan−1 −b
a

B.8-7 Common Derivative Formulas

d d du
f (u) = f (u)
dx du dx
d dv du
(uv) = u + v
dx dx dx
d u v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v v
dxn
= nxn−1
dx
d 1
ln(ax) =
dx x
d log e
log(ax) =
dx x
d bx
e = bebx
dx
d bx
a = b(ln a)abx
dx
d
sin ax = a cos ax
dx
d
cos ax = −a sin ax
dx
d a
tan ax =
dx cos2 ax
d a
(sin−1 ax) = √
dx 1 − a2 x2
d −a
(cos−1 ax) = √
dx 1 − a2 x2
d a
(tan−1 ax) =
dx 1 + a2 x2
 B.8 Appendix: Useful Mathematical Formulas 57

B.8-8 Indefinite Integrals

# #
u dv = uv − v du
# #
f (x)ġ(x) dx = f (x)g(x) − ḟ (x)g(x) dx
# #
1 1
sin ax dx = − cos ax cos ax dx = sin ax
a a
# #
x sin 2ax x sin 2ax
sin2 ax dx = − cos2 ax dx = +
2 4a 2 4a
#
1
x sin ax dx = (sin ax − ax cos ax)
a2
#
1
x cos ax dx = (cos ax + ax sin ax)
a2
#
1
x2 sin ax dx = (2ax sin ax + 2 cos ax − a2 x2 cos ax)
a3
#
1
x2 cos ax dx = (2ax cos ax − 2 sin ax + a2 x2 sin ax)
a3
#
sin (a − b)x sin (a + b)x
sin ax sin bx dx = − a2 = b2
2(a − b) 2(a + b)
# !
cos (a − b)x cos (a + b)x
sin ax cos bx dx = − + a2 = b2
2(a − b) 2(a + b)
#
sin (a − b)x sin (a + b)x
cos ax cos bx dx = + a2 = b2
2(a − b) 2(a + b)
#
1
eax dx = eax
a
#
eax
xeax dx = (ax − 1)
a2
#
eax 2 2
x2 eax dx = (a x − 2ax + 2)
a3
#
eax
eax sin bx dx = (a sin bx − b cos bx)
a2 + b2
#
eax
eax cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx)
a2 + b2
#
1 1 x
dx = tan−1
x2 + a2 a a
#
x 1
dx = ln(x2 + a2 )
x2 + a2 2
58 CHAPTER B BACKGROUND

B.8-9 L’Hôpital’s Rule

If lim f (x)/g(x) results in the indeterministic form 0/0 or ∞/∞, then

f (x) ḟ (x)
lim = lim
g(x) ġ(x)

B.8-10 Solution of Quadratic and Cubic Equations

Any quadratic equation can be reduced to the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0

The solution of this equation is provided by

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
A general cubic equation
y3 + py2 + qy + r = 0
may be reduced to the depressed cubic form

x3 + ax + b = 0

by substituting
p
y=x−
3
This yields
a = 13 (3q − p2 ) b= 1
27
(2p3 − 9pq + 27r)
Now let    
3 b b2 a3 3 b b2 a3
A= − + + B= − − +
2 4 27 2 4 27
The solution of the depressed cubic is
A+B A−B√ A+B A−B√
x = A + B, x=− + −3, x=− − −3
2 2 2 2
and
p
y=x−
3

REFERENCES
1. Asimov, Isaac. Asimov on Numbers. Bell Publishing, New York, 1982.
2. Calinger, R., ed. Classics of Mathematics. Moore Publishing, Oak Park, IL, 1982.
3. Hogben, Lancelot. Mathematics in the Making. Doubleday, New York, 1960.