Fourier Series

Periodic function: A function 𝑓 𝑥 is said to periodic with period 𝑇 if for all 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑇 = 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑇
is a positive constant. The least value of 𝑇 > 0 is called the least period or simply the period of 𝑓 𝑥 .

Definition of Fourier Series

Let 𝑓 𝑥 be defined in the interval [−𝐿, 𝐿] and determined outside of this interval by 𝑓 𝑥 + 2𝐿 = 𝑓(𝑥) ,
i.e. assume that 𝑓 𝑥 has the period 2𝐿. The Fourier series or Fourier expansion corresponding to 𝑓(𝑥) is
∞
defined to be 𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
+ ෍ 𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin (1)
2 𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
𝐿
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
𝐿 𝐿
where the Fourier coefficients 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are −𝐿
𝐿 (2)
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑛 = 1,2, …
𝐿 𝐿
−𝐿
 Fourier Series
If 𝑓 𝑥 has the period 2𝐿 , the coefficients 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 can be determined equivalently from
𝑐+2𝐿
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = න 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
𝐿 𝐿
𝑐 (3)
𝑐+2𝐿
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = න 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑛 = 1,2, …
𝐿 𝐿
𝑐
Fourier Series
 Fourier Series

𝑏
Orthogonal function: Two functions u and v are said to be orthogonal on [a,b] if ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑣 𝑥 𝑢 𝑎׬‬0
A set of non-zero functions, {𝑓𝑖 (𝑥)}, is said to be mutually orthogonal on [a,b] if 𝑓𝑖 (𝑥) and 𝑓𝑗 (𝑥) are

𝑏 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑙
orthogonal for every 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. In other words, ‫𝑖𝑓 𝑎׬‬ 𝑥 𝑓𝑗 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ቊ
𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
Fourier Series
 1
1
1 1

0.5 sin( 3t ) 0.5

cos( t )

cos( 2 t ) 0
sin( t ) 0
cos( t )  cos( 2 t ) sin( t )  sin( 3 t )
− 0.5 − 0.5
−1 −1
−1 −1
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6
0 t 7
0 t 6

1 1
1 1

0.5 sin( t ) 0.5

sin( 2t )

sin( t ) cos ( 2 t ) 0
0
sin( t )  sin( 2 t ) sin( t )  cos ( 2 t )
− 0.5 − 0.5

−1 −1
−1 −1
0 2 4 6 0 2 4 6

0 t 6 0 t 7
Fourier Series
Fourier Series
 Fourier Series
Determination of the Fourier c𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬.
we consider that the Fourier series converges to 𝑓(𝑥) in −𝐿 < 𝑥 <L, so that
𝑎0 𝑘𝜋𝑥 𝑘𝜋𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑘=1(𝑎𝑘 cos + 𝑏𝑘 sin ) (1)
2 𝐿 𝐿

Integrating Eq. (1) w. r. to 𝑥 in limit (−𝐿, 𝐿), we get

𝐿 𝑎0 𝐿 𝐿 𝑘𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝑘𝜋𝑥
‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑥𝑑 ׬‬ + σ∞
𝑘=1(𝑎𝑘 ‫׬‬−𝐿 cos 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘 ‫׬‬−𝐿 sin 𝑑𝑥)
2 −𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

𝐿 𝑎0 𝑎0
⇒ ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥] 𝐿
−𝐿 + σ∞
𝑘=1(𝑎𝑘 × 0 + 𝑏𝑘 × 0) = × 2𝐿 = 𝑎0 𝐿
2 2

1 𝐿
⇒ 𝑎0 = 𝐿 ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Fourier Series

𝑛𝜋𝑥
Multiplying Eq. (1) by cos w. r. to 𝑥 in limit (−𝐿, 𝐿), we get
𝐿

𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎0 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝑘𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝑘𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥

‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬ cos 𝑑𝑥 + σ∞
𝑘=1(𝑎𝑘 ‫׬‬−𝐿 cos cos 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑘 ‫׬‬−𝐿 sin cos 𝑑𝑥)
𝐿 2 −𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

It follows from the orthogonality relations (1.10), (1.11), and (1.13) that the only nonzero term on the
right-hand side is the one for which k = n in the first summation. Hence

𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑎0
‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝐿
𝑑𝑥 =
2
× 0 + 𝑎𝑛 𝐿 + 𝑏𝑘 × 0

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 𝐿

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Similarly, we can find 𝑏𝑛 = 𝐿 ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓 𝑥 sin 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
 Fourier Series

Example 1: Obtain the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 in the interval −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.

𝑎0
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2

Since 𝑓 𝑥 is an odd function. Then 𝑎0 = 0 and 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝑑 𝜋
Now 𝑏𝑛 = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥) ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 −𝜋

1 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 1 𝜋 1 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= + ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋

1 −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋

=𝜋 + − +
𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛2

1 −2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 1 −2𝜋(−1)𝑛 −2(−1)𝑛

= + = +0 =
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛

−2(−1)𝑛
Hence, the required Fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = σ∞
𝑛=1 sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛
 Fourier Series

Example 2: Obtain the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 in the interval −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.

𝑎0
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2

Since 𝑓 𝑥 is an even function. Then 𝑏𝑛 = 0.

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Now 1 1 1 𝑥 3 1 𝜋3 −𝜋 3 1 2𝜋 3 2𝜋 2
𝑎0 = න 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = = − = × =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 −𝜋
𝜋 3 3 𝜋 3 3
−𝜋 −𝜋

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 2 1 𝑑 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥2 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥 2 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 −𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
1 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2 1 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥
= − ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋
𝜋
1 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥
= + −
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 −𝜋

1 𝜋2 sin 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 𝜋2 sin 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 1 4𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 4(−1)𝑛

= 𝜋 𝑛
+ 𝑛2
− 𝑛3
+ 𝑛
+ 𝑛2
− 𝑛3
= 𝜋 𝑛2
= 𝑛2

𝜋2 4(−1) 𝑛
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = 3
+ σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 cos 𝑛𝑥
 Fourier Series
0 −1<𝑥 <0
Example 3: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ .
𝑥 0<𝑥<1
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Solution: we know that 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin ) Here 𝑙 = 1
2 𝑙 𝑙
1
1 𝑙 1 1 0 1 1 𝑥2 1
Now 𝑎0 = ‫)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬
𝑙 −𝑙
𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑥𝑑)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬
1 −1
= ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 0
=2

1 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 ‫׬‬−𝑙 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝑑 1 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
= 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥) ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0

𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1×sin 𝑛𝜋 0×sin 0 cos 𝑛𝜋−cos 0 (−1)𝑛 −1

= + = − + =
𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2 𝑛2 𝜋2

1 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑙 ‫׬‬−𝑙 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝑑 1 − xcos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
= 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥) ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0

− 𝑥cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 − 1×cos 𝑛𝜋+0×cos 0 sin 𝑛𝜋−sin 0 −(−1)𝑛

= + = + =
𝑛𝜋 𝑛 2 𝜋2 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2 𝑛𝜋

1 −1 𝑛 −1 −1 𝑛
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 − sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥
4 𝑛2 𝜋2 𝑛𝜋
 Fourier Series
𝜋+𝑥 −𝜋 <𝑥 <0
Example 4: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ .
𝑥−𝜋 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝑎0
Solution: we know that 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
Now 𝑎0 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−𝜋(𝜋 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 (𝑥 − 𝜋)𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

0 𝜋
1 𝑥2 1 𝑥2 1 𝜋2 1 𝜋2 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜋𝑥 + + − 𝜋𝑥 = 𝜋 0 + 0 + 𝜋2 − +𝜋 − 𝜋2 − 0 − 0 = 2 − 2 = 0
𝜋 2 −𝜋 𝜋 2 0 2 2

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋(𝜋 + 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 (𝑥 − 𝜋) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 (𝜋+𝑥)sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 0 1 (𝑥−𝜋)sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= + +𝜋 +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

1 1 −1 𝑛 1 −1 𝑛 1 1 1 −1 𝑛 −1 𝑛 1
= 𝜋
0+ 𝑛2
−0− 𝑛2
+ 𝜋
0+ 𝑛2
−0− 𝑛2
= 𝜋 𝑛2
− 𝑛2
+ 𝑛2
− 𝑛2 = 0
 Fourier Series

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋(𝜋 + 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 (𝑥 − 𝜋) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 (𝜋+𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 0 1 − (𝑥−𝜋) cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= − + + +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 −2𝜋 −2
= 𝜋 − 𝑛 + 0 + 0 − 0 + 𝜋 −0 + 0 − 𝑛 − 0 = 𝜋 × =
𝑛 𝑛

2
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = − σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
 Fourier Series
State and Prove Parseval's theorem.

Statement: If the Fourier series of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is converges uniformly in the interval (−𝐿, 𝐿), then
1 𝐿 𝑎02
‫׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑥 = + σ∞ 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛
𝐿 −𝐿 2

Proof: we know the Fourier series of a function 𝑓(𝑥) in the interval (−𝐿, 𝐿) is
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin ) (1)
2 𝐿 𝐿

Multiplying both sides of Eq. (1) by 𝑓(𝑥) and integrating term by term w. r. to 𝑥 in the interval (−𝐿, 𝐿), we get

𝐿 𝑎0 𝐿 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑥𝑑)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬ + σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥
2 −𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

𝐿 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
But we know by Fourier coefficients ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿𝑎0 ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿𝑎𝑛 ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿𝑏𝑛
𝐿 𝐿

𝐿 𝑎0
Hence ‫׬‬−𝐿 𝑓(𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑥 = × 𝐿𝑎0 + σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 × 𝐿𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 × 𝐿𝑏𝑛
2

1 𝐿 𝑎02
⇒ ‫׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑥
=2 + σ∞ 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛
𝐿 −𝐿
 Fourier Series

Example 1: Obtain the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 in the interval −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.

𝑎0
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2

Since 𝑓 𝑥 is an odd function. Then 𝑎0 = 0 and 𝑎𝑛 = 0.

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝑑 𝜋
Now 𝑏𝑛 = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥) ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 −𝜋

1 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 1 𝜋 1 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= + ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋

1 −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 sin 𝑛𝜋

=𝜋 + − +
𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛2

1 −2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 1 −2𝜋(−1)𝑛 −2(−1)𝑛

= + = +0 =
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛

−2(−1) 𝑛
Hence, the required Fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = σ∞
𝑛=1 sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛
 Fourier Series
Example 2: Obtain the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 in the interval −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 and deduce that
𝜋2 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1
= 1 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ and = 1 − 22 + 32 − 4 2 + ⋯
6 12
𝑎0
Solution: Let 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2

Since 𝑓 𝑥 is an even function. Then 𝑏𝑛 = 0.

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1 𝑥 3 1 𝜋3 −𝜋 3 1 2𝜋 3 2𝜋 2
Now 𝑎0 = න 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = = − = × =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 −𝜋
𝜋 3 3 𝜋 3 3
−𝜋 −𝜋

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 2 1 𝑑 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ‫ )𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥2 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥 2 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 −𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
1 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2 1 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥
= − ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋
𝜋
1 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥
= + −
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 −𝜋

1 𝜋2 sin 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 𝜋2 sin 𝑛𝜋 2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 1 4𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 4(−1)𝑛

= 𝜋 𝑛
+ 𝑛2
− 𝑛3
+ 𝑛
+ 𝑛2
− 𝑛3
= 𝜋 𝑛2
= 𝑛2

𝜋2 4(−1) 𝑛
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = 3
+ σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 cos 𝑛𝑥
 Fourier Series

Putting 𝑥 = 𝜋, we get Putting 𝑥 = 𝜋, we get

∞ ∞
𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛 𝜋2 4(−1)𝑛
𝑓 𝜋 = +෍ cos 𝑛𝜋 𝑓 0 = +෍ cos 0
3 𝑛2 3 𝑛2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
2 ∞ 2𝑛 2 ∞ 2 ∞ 𝑛 2 ∞
𝜋 4(−1) 𝜋 1 𝜋 4(−1) 𝜋 (−1)𝑛
⇒ 𝜋2 = +෍ = +4෍ 2 ⇒0= +෍ = +4෍
3 𝑛2 3 𝑛 3 𝑛2 3 𝑛2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

𝜋2 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1
⇒ 𝜋2 − = 4(1 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ ) ⇒− = 4(−1 + 2 − 2 + 2 − ⋯ )
3 2 3 3 2 3 4
2𝜋 2 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1
⇒ = 4(1 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ ) ⇒ = 4(1 − 2 + 2 − 2 + ⋯ )
3 2 3 3 2 3 4
2𝜋 2 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1
⇒ =1+ 2+ 2+⋯ ⇒ = 1− 2+ 2− 2+⋯
3×4 2 3 12 2 3 4
𝜋2 1 1
⇒ =1+ 2+ 2+⋯
6 2 3
 Fourier Series
0 −1<𝑥 <0
Example 3: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ .
𝑥 0<𝑥<1
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Solution: we know that 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin ) Here 𝑙 = 1
2 𝑙 𝑙
1
1 𝑙 1 1 0 1 1 𝑥2 1
Now 𝑎0 = ‫)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬
𝑙 −𝑙
𝑑𝑥 = ‫𝑥𝑑)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬
1 −1
= ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 0
=2

1 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 ‫׬‬−𝑙 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝑑 1 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
= 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥) ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0

𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1×sin 𝑛𝜋 0×sin 0 cos 𝑛𝜋−cos 0 (−1)𝑛 −1

= + = − + =
𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2 𝑛2 𝜋2

1 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑙 ‫׬‬−𝑙 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝑑 1 − xcos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
= 𝑥 ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ‫׬‬ (𝑥) ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 0

− 𝑥cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 − 1×cos 𝑛𝜋+0×cos 0 sin 𝑛𝜋−sin 0 −(−1)𝑛

= + = + =
𝑛𝜋 𝑛 2 𝜋2 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2 𝑛𝜋

1 −1 𝑛 −1 −1 𝑛
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 − sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥
4 𝑛2 𝜋2 𝑛𝜋
 Fourier Series
𝜋+𝑥 −𝜋 <𝑥 <0
Example 4: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ .
𝑥−𝜋 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝑎0
Solution: we know that 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
Now 𝑎0 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−𝜋(𝜋 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 (𝑥 − 𝜋)𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

0 𝜋
1 𝑥2 1 𝑥2 1 𝜋2 1 𝜋2 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜋𝑥 + + − 𝜋𝑥 = 0+0+ 𝜋2 − + − 𝜋2 − 0 − 0 = 2 − 2 = 0
𝜋 2 −𝜋 𝜋 2 0 𝜋 2 𝜋 2

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋(𝜋 + 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 (𝑥 − 𝜋) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 (𝜋+𝑥)sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 0 1 (𝑥−𝜋)sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= + +𝜋 +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

1 1 −1 𝑛 1 −1 𝑛 1 1 1 −1 𝑛 −1 𝑛 1
= 𝜋
0+ 𝑛2
−0− 𝑛2
+ 𝜋
0+ 𝑛2
−0− 𝑛2
= 𝜋 𝑛2
− 𝑛2
+ 𝑛2
− 𝑛2 = 0
 Fourier Series

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋(𝜋 + 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 (𝑥 − 𝜋) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 (𝜋+𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 0 1 − (𝑥−𝜋) cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋

= − + + +
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 −𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 −2𝜋 −2
= 𝜋 − 𝑛 + 0 + 0 − 0 + 𝜋 −0 + 0 − 𝑛 − 0 = 𝜋 × =
𝑛 𝑛

2
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = − σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
 Fourier Series
−𝑥 − 1 < 𝑥 < 0
Example 4: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1. = ቊ
𝑥 0<𝑥<1
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Solution: we know that 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos + 𝑏𝑛 sin ) Here 𝑙 = 1
2 𝑙 𝑙
0 1
1 𝑙 1 0 1 0 1 −𝑥 2 𝑥2
Now 𝑎0 = ‫)𝑥(𝑓 ׬‬
𝑙 −𝑙
𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 −𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 2 −1
+ 2 0
=1

1 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 0 1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙 ‫׬‬−𝑙 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
0 1 1
= − ‫׬‬−1 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ‫׬‬0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1×sin 𝑛𝜋 0×sin 0 cos 𝑛𝜋−cos 0 (−1)𝑛 −1
=2 + 𝑛2 𝜋2 = − + = 2 𝑛2 𝜋2
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2

1 0 1
𝑏𝑛 = ‫׬‬−1 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ‫׬‬−1 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Putting 𝑥 = −𝑥 in
the first integration
0 1
= − ‫׬‬1 −𝑥 sin −𝑛𝜋𝑥 −𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 1
= ‫׬‬1 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= − ‫׬‬0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ‫׬‬0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0
1 2
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 + σ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 𝜋2 ( −1
𝑛
− 1) cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥
 Fourier Series
− cos 𝑥 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
Example 5: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = ቊ
cos 𝑥 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
𝑎0
Solution: we know that 𝑓 𝑥 = + σ∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)
2
1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
Now 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝜋 − sin 𝑥 −𝜋 +
𝜋
− sin 𝑥 0 =0

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0 1 𝜋
= − 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 0 1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= 𝜋 ‫ 𝜋׬‬cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

1 𝜋 1 0 1 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Putting 𝑥 = −𝑥 in
the first integration
1 0 1 𝜋
= − 𝜋 ‫ 𝜋׬‬cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋 1 𝜋 2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 2cos 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 [sin 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 + sin 𝑛 − 1 𝑥]𝑑𝑥
 Fourier Series
1 cos 𝑛+1 𝑥 cos 𝑛−1 𝑥 𝜋 1 cos 𝑛+1 𝜋 cos 𝑛−1 𝜋 cos 0 cos 0
= − − = − − + +
𝜋 𝑛+1 𝑛−1 0 𝜋 𝑛+1 𝑛−1 𝑛+1 𝑛−1

1 −1 𝑛+1 −1 𝑛−1 1 1 1 −1 𝑛 −1 𝑛 𝑛−1+𝑛+1

= − − + + = + +
𝜋 𝑛+1 𝑛−1 𝑛+1 𝑛−1 𝜋 𝑛+1 𝑛−1 (𝑛+1)(𝑛−1)

1 2𝑛 −1 𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛 −1 𝑛 +1
= + =
𝜋 𝑛2 −1 𝑛2 −1 𝜋 𝑛2 −1
2𝑛 −1 𝑛 +1
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = σ∞
𝑛=2 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛2 −1

2 ∞ 𝑛 −1 𝑛 +1 2 2×2 4×2 6×2

𝑓 𝑥 = σ sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝜋 ( sin 2𝑥 +0+ sin 4𝑥 +0+ sin 6𝑥 + ⋯)
𝜋 𝑛=2 𝑛2 −1 3 15 35

𝜋 2 4 𝜋 8 12 3𝜋
⇒𝑓 = 𝜋 (3 sin 2 + 0 + 15 sin 𝜋 + 0 + 35 sin + ⋯)
4 2 1 𝜋
𝑏1 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 2 4 8 12 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
⇒ cos 4 = 𝜋 (3 × 1 + 0 + 15 × 0 + 0 + 35 × (−1) + ⋯ ) = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ‫׬‬0 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 8 1 3 5 𝜋 1 3 5 1 cos 2𝑥 𝜋 1
⇒ = − + − ⋯ ⇒ = − 5∙7 + − ⋯ = − 2 = − 2𝜋 cos 2𝜋 − cos 0
2 𝜋 3 5∙7 9∙11 8 2 3 9∙11 𝜋 0
1
= − 2𝜋 1 − 1 =0
 Fourier Series
−𝜋 −𝜋 <𝑥 <0
HW2: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ . Hence deduce that
0 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝜋2 1 1 1
= 1 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯
8

1 − −1 𝑛
Solution: Here 𝑎0 = −𝜋 𝑎𝑛 = 0 𝑏𝑛 =
𝑛
𝜋 ∞ 1− −1 𝑛
Hence the required fourier series is 𝑓 𝑥 = −2 + σ𝑛=1 sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛

From the Persival’s theorem we know that

1 𝜋 𝑎02 1 𝜋 𝜋2 1− −1 𝑛 2
‫׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑥
=2 + σ∞ 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ⇒ ‫׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) 2 𝑑𝑥
=2 + ∞
σ𝑛=1
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋 𝑛

1 0 2 𝑑𝑥 1 𝜋 2 𝑑𝑥 𝜋2 ∞ 1− −1 𝑛 2
⇒ ‫׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) + ‫׬‬ 𝑓(𝑥) = + σ𝑛=1
𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 0 2 𝑛

1 0 2 𝑑𝑥 𝜋2 ∞ 1− −1 𝑛 2 𝜋3 𝜋2 ∞ 1− −1 𝑛 2
⇒ ‫׬‬ 𝜋 = + σ𝑛=1 ⇒ = + σ𝑛=1
𝜋 −𝜋 2 𝑛 𝜋 2 𝑛

2 𝜋2 4 4 4 𝜋2 1 1 1
⇒𝜋 − = +0+ +0+ +⋯ ⇒ = 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯
2 12 32 52 8
 Fourier Series

− sin 𝑥 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0

HW1: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = ቊ
sin 𝑥 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋

0 −𝜋<𝑥 <0
HW2: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቊ . Hence deduce that
𝜋 0<𝑥<𝜋
𝜋 1 1 1 𝜋2 1 1 1
=1− + − + ⋯ and = 1 + 32 + 52 + 72 + ⋯
4 3 5 7 8

HW3: Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 and hence deduce that
𝜋 1 1 1
= + − +⋯
4 2 1∙3 3∙5