Azkia Nasywa Rana 11220140000063 4B

Book Response Form

Book title : How to Teach Vocabulary

Author : Scott Thornbury
Publisher : Pearson Education ESL
Date Publish : March 2002 Pages : 192 Pages
Genre : Reference Book Code: ISBN-10; 0582429668

Chapter:
1. Chapter 1
This chapter is about an introduction of various types of words. I think this
chapter will explain how a word is a more complex phenomenon than at
first it might appear.

2. Chapter 2
This chapter talks about how words are learned. I think it will explore how
theories of learning might impact on the teaching of vocabulary.

3. Chapter 3
This chapter talks about the relation between teaching and learning, and
the teacher’s role in vocabulary development. I think this chapter will also
explain the five possible sources of vocabulary input for learners.

4. Chapter 4
This chapter will continue investigating sources of vocabulary input, with
special reference to texts, dictionaries, and that more recent phenomenon.

5. Chapter 5
This chapter talks about how to present/teach vocabulary. I think this
chapter will talk about some ways the teacher can make the presentation of
vocabulary maximally affective, both in terms of word form and word
meaning

6. Chapter 6
This chapter talks about how to put words to work. I think this chapter will
explain the classroom activities that the teacher might employ and educate
students on how to use words effectively.
 7. Chapter 7
This chapter talks about teaching word parts and word chunks. I think in
this chapter will explain how parts of words combine in systematic ways
to form whole words and how whole words combine a systematic ways to
form chunks.

8. Chapter 8
This chapter will talks about how to test vocabulary. I think this chapter
will look at ways of testing vocabulary knowledge, both before, during
and at the end of instruction.

9. Chapter 9
This chapter talks about explore the subject of vocabulary learning
strategies in more detail. I think this chapter will explain how to train good
vocabulary learners.

Table of Content:
1.What’s in a word? 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Identifying Words 2
1.3 Word Classes 3
1.4 Word Families 4
1.5 Word Formation 5
1.6 Multi-Word Units 6
1.7 Collocations 7
1.8 Homonyms 8
1.9 Polysemes 8
1.10 Synonyms and Antonyms 9
1.11 Hyponyms 9
1.12 Lexical Fields 10

2. How Words are Learned 13

2.1 How important is vocabulary? 13
2.2 What does it mean to ‘know a word’? 15
2.3 How is our word knowledge organized? 16
2.4 How is vocabulary learned? 18
2.5 How many words does a learner need to know? 20
2.6 How are words remembered? 23
2.7 Why do we forget words? 26
2.8 What makes a word difficult? 27
2.9 What kind of mistakes do learners make? 28
2.10 What are the implications for teaching? 30
3. Classroom Sources of Words 32
3.1 Lists 32
3.2 Coursebooks 34
3.3 Vocabulary books 44
3.4 The teacher 48
3.5 Other student 49

4. Texts, Dictionaries and Corpora 53

4.1 Short texts 53
4.2 Books and readers 58
4.3 Dictionaries 60
4.4 Corpus data 68

5. How to Present Vocabulary 75

5.1 Presenting vocabulary 75
5.2 Using translation 77
5.3 How to illustrate meaning 78
5.4 How to explain meaning 81
5.5 How to highlight the form 84
5.6 How to involve the learners 87

6. How to put words to Work 93

6.1 Integrating new knowledge into old 93
6.2 Decision-making tasks 93
6.3 Production tasks 100
6.4 Games 102

7. Teaching Word Parts and World Chunks 106

7.1 Teaching word formation and word combination 106
7.2 A lexical approach 112
7.3 Teaching lexical chunks 115
7.4 Teaching word grammar 122
7.5 Teaching phrasal verbs 123
7.6 Teaching idioms 127

8. How to Test Vocabulary 129

8.1 Why test vocabulary? 129
8.2 What to test 130
8.3 Types of test 132
8.4 Assessing vocabulary size 137
8.5 Doing action research 1393. Classroom Sources of Words 139

9. How to Train Good Vocabulary Learners 144

 9.1 Learner training 144
9.2 Using mnemonics
145
9.3 Word cards 145
9.4 Guessing from context 148
9.5 Coping strategies for production 150
9.6 Using dictionaries 151
9.7 Spelling rules 155
9.8 Keeping records 156
9.9 Motivation 159

Question and Answer:

1.What’s in a Word?
1.1 Introduction
Q: How introduction in this book?
A: The introduction to this book explains about words and what problems arise
when learners produce a language.

1.2 Identifying Words

Q: What is identifying words?
A: There are words that are repeated but have a distinct part of
speech, two variations of the same term, and two words that combine to form a
new word, such as the word "second-hand."

1.3 Word Classes

Q: What are word classes?
A: Is used to describe the function of words in a sentence. It divided into 8 parts:
nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and
determiners.

1.4 Word Families

Q: What is word families?
A: Word families refer to groups of words that are related in meaning or form.

1.5 Word Formation

Q: What is word formation?
A: Word formation refers to the process of analysing vocabulary items and
identifying their individual components.

1.6 Multi-Word Units

Q: What are multi-word units?
A: Multi-word units are words that can function as a single meaning unit.
1.7 Collocations
Q: What are collocations?
A: Collocations are combinations of words that frequently occur together in a
language. They are not just single words, but rather multi-word units that are used
in specific contexts.

1.8 Homonyms
Q: What are homonyms?
A: Homonyms are are words that have the same spelling and pronunciation but
different meanings. They can cause confusion for learners because they look and
sound alike, but their meanings are different.

1.9 Polysemes
Q: What are polysemes?
A: Polysemes is having multiple but related meanings.

1.10 Synonyms and Antonym

Q: What are synonyms and antonym?
A: Synonyms are words that share a similar meaning. Antonym are
words with opposite meanings

1.11 Hyponyms
Q: What are hyponyms?
A: Hyponyms are words that are related to a more general category or
superordinate term.

1.12 Lexical Fields

Q: What is lexical fields?
A: lexical fields are are groups of words that are related to a particular topic or
theme. They are a way of organizing vocabulary around a central idea or concept.

2. How Words are Learned

2.1 How important is vocabulary?
Q: How important is vocabulary?
A: According to Thornbury, vocabulary is the foundation of a language and is
essential for effective communication. He emphasizes that vocabulary knowledge
is necessary for understanding reading and other subjects, as well as for
improving verbal ability, which is aided by phonological awareness.

2.2 What does it mean to ‘know a word’?

Q: What does it mean to ‘know a word’?
A: It means to have a comprehensive understanding of the word, including its
meaning, pronunciation, spelling, and usage in context.
2.3 How is our word knowledge organized?
Q: How is our word knowledge organized?
A: How our minds store words in a highly organized and
interconnected fashion is called the mental lexicon.

2.4 How is vocabulary learned?

Q: How is vocabulary learned
A: Vocabulary is learned through a combination of explicit instruction and
implicit learning.

2.5 How many words does a learner need to know?

Q: How many words does a learner need to know?
A: The majority of researchers today advise having a core
vocabulary of at least 3,000 words families.

2.6 How are words remembered?

Q: How are words remembered?
A: Words are remembered through a combination of explicit and implicit learning
strategies.

2.7 Why do we forget words?

Q: Why do we forget words?
A: Words are forgotten due to several reasons, including the lack of retrieval
practice, the absence of contextual connections, and the lack of meaningful
connections to existing knowledge.

2.8 What makes a word difficult?

Q: What makes a word difficult?
A: The factors that make some words difficult are pronouncation, spelling,
meaning, collocation, frequency and distribution, appropriateness.

2.9 What kind of mistakes do learners make?

Q: What kind of mistakes do learners make?
A: There are various types of mistakes, making incorrect associations,
overgeneralising, mispronouncing words, etc.

2.10 What are the implications for teaching?

Q: What are the implications for teaching?
A: Learners need tasks and strategies to help them organize their mental lexicon
by building networks of associations – the more the better; Teachers need to
accept that the learning of new words involves a period of ‘initial fuzziness’; etc.

3. Classroom Sources of Words

3.1 Lists
Q: What are the lists?
A: Vocabulary learning requires a rich and nourishing diet. So, this diet will need
to consist of words that have been selected for active study. Learners were given
lists of terms that were intended for active study as a resource.

3.2 Coursebooks
Q: What are the coursebooks?
A: Coursebooks content includes both segregated and integrated vocabulary work.

3.3 Vocabulary books

Q: What are the vocabulary books?
A: vocabulary books likely refers to textbooks or other educational materials
specifically designed to help learners acquire and improve their vocabulary.
Supplementary vocabulary books are usually thematically organised, but cover a
range of vocabulary skills.

3.4 The teacher

Q: How is the teacher in teaching vocabulary?
A: The teacher is potentially fruitful source of vocabulary input, not only terms of
incidental learning, but also as a means of introducing vocabulary through teacher
talk.

3.5 Other student

Q: How is the other students in learning vocabulary?
A: Each learner can contribute to the shared class lexicon through activities such
as brainstorming, and research findings suggest that learner input is as powerful, if
not more so, than other vocabulary sources.

4. Texts, Dictionaries and Corpora

4.1 Short texts
Q: What are short texts?
A: Short texts are brief written or spoken passages that are ideal for vocabulary
building purposes.

4.2 Books and readers

Q: What are books and readers?
A: Books are written texts that can be used for various purposes, including
vocabulary building. Readers, on the other hand, are collections of texts that are
designed to be read by learners.

4.3 Dictionaries
Q: What are dictionaries?
A: Dictionaries are both tool and a resource of vocabulary learning, since that
contain a wealth of information about words.

4.4 Corpus data

Q: What is corpus data?
A: Corpora are the latest addition to the resources available for vocabulary input.

5. How to Present Vocabulary

5.1 Presenting vocabulary
Q: How is it presenting vocabulary?
A: To present vocabulary, the teachers need to decide how many
words will be taught to the learners. Then, the teachers can decide
whether to present information in a way that puts the meaning first
or the form first.

5.2 Using translation

Q: How is using translation?
A: There are three different ways of incorporating translation into
the vocabulary: First, all the teacher’s talk is in their first language.
Second, the teacher uses only English (the target language), and the
L1 words are used to introduce meaning. Third, the presentation is
entirely in English, and their L1 is used only to check that the
learners have understood.

5.3 How to illustrate meaning

Q: How to illustrate meaning?
A: to illustrate meaning, the learners can use the direct method and
total physical response (TPR).

5.4 How to explain meaning

Q: How to explain meaning?
A: An alternative way to convey the meaning of a new word is
simply to use words and other words, such as providing an example
situation, giving several example sentences, giving synonyms, etc.

5.5 How to highlight the form

Q: How to highlight the form?
A: To highlight the form is by highlighting the stress and general
shapes of the word in order to retain the word and give much
attention to the individual sounds.

5.6 How to involve the learners

Q: How to involve the learners?
A: One technique to make the learners involve in the learning
process is elicitation.

6. How to put words to Work

6.1 Integrating new knowledge into old
Q: How is intergrating new knowledge into old?
A: To integrate new knowledge into old knowledge, learners need
to ensure long-term retention and recall; words need to be ‘put to
work’.

6.2 Decision-making tasks

Q: How to decision-making taks?
A: Decision-making tasks include the following types: identifying, selecting,
matching, sorting also ranking and sequencing.

6.3 Production tasks

Q: What is production task?
A: Production tasks can be classified into two main types:
completion (of sentences and texts) and creation (of sentences and
texts).
6.4 Games
Q: What are games like?
A: Games that draw atttention to newly learned words often encourage recall
through guessing and categorising.

7. Teaching Word Parts and World Chunks

7.1 Teaching word formation and word combination
Q: How to teaching word formation and word combination?
A: To teach word formation and word combination, the teachers can teach word
parts, chunks, and formation. Secondly, use a lexical approach and teach phrasal
verbs and idioms. The last, focus on word grammar and context.

7.2 A lexical approach

Q: What is a lexical approach?
A: A lexical approach to language teaching foregrounds vocabulary
learning, both in the form of individual, high-frequency words and
in the form of word combinations or chunks.

7.3 Teaching lexical chunks

Q: How to teach lexical chunks?
A: Encourage learners to identify and understand lexical chunks, which are word
sequences that have become conventionalized over time, such as collocations and
phrasal verbs.

7.4 Teaching word grammar

Q: How to teaching word grammar?
A: Distinguish the use of words based on the use of certain grammatical patterns
such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc. Understand the distinction between
countable and uncountable nouns.

7.5 Teaching phrasal verbs

Q: How to teaching phrasal verbs
A: the teachers can teach learners how to use phrasal verbs, which are
combinations of a verb and a preposition or adverb, to express specific meanings

7.6 Teaching idioms

Q: How to teaching idioms?
A: The teachers can teach learners how to use idioms, which are expressions that
cannot be understood from the meanings of the individual words, to express
specific meanings.

8. How to Test Vocabulary

8.1 Why test vocabulary?
Q: Why test vocabulary?
A: Because testing vocabulary can provide a form of feedback, both
for learners and teachers.

8.2 What to test?

Q: What to test in vocabulary?
A: Most vocabulary tests target only one or two aspects of word
knowledge such as only focus on spelling, meaning and collocation.

8.3 Types of tests

Q: What are types of tests in vocabulary?
A: Types of tests in vocabulary such as multiple choice and gap-fill.

8.4 Assessing vocabulary size

Q: How to assessing vocabulary size?
A: Vocabulary tests can be assessed qualitatively and quantitatively.

8.5 Doing action research

Q: What is action research?
A: Action research cycle typically includes: a pre-test, an experimental treatment,
and a post-test.

9. How to Train Good Vocabulary Learners

9.1 Learner training
Q: What is learner training?
A: Learner training is training learners to learn effectively.
9.2 Using mnemonics
Q: What are the mnemonics?
A: Mnemonics is techniques for remembering things.

9.3 Word cards

Q: What are words cards?
A: word cards is an affective vocabulary learning technique.

9.4 Guessing from context

Q: How to guessing from context?
A: These are steps to guessing from context, such as deciding the
part of speech of the unknown word, looking for further clues in the
word’s immediate collocates, looking at the wider context,
including the surrounding clues and sentences, etc.

9.5 Coping strategies for production

Q: What are the coping strategies for production?
A: The coping strategies for production are strategies that can be
used in production, such as paraphrasing, describing, and using a
rough synonym.

9.6 Using dictionaries

Q: How to using dictionaries?
A: Using dictionaries can be productive for learners because they
can generate text and serve as resources for vocabulary acquisition. Their
usefulness depends on learners being able to access the information they contain
both speedily and accurately.

9.7 Spelling rules

Q: What is spelling rules?
A: Spelling rules are guidelines or conventions that help learners understand the
patterns and structures of words in a language.

9.8 Keeping records

Q: How to keeping records in vocabulary?
A: (1) Advise learners to have a special notebook solely for
Vocabulary (2) Ask learners regularly to compare and comment on their
vocabulary notebooks; (3) Allow time in the lesson for learners to
record vocabulary and to devise mnemonics.

9.9 Motivation
Q: How to giving motivation?
A: As a teacher, you should share your sense of excitement and fascination of
words with your students, because vocabulary learning never stops, new words
are being coined daily, and old words are assuming new meanings. You have to
share your own experiences and those of other learners, both successful and
unsuccessful with your learners.
 Azkia Nasywa Rana 11220140000063 4B
Book Response Form

Book title : Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking

Author : Jonathan Newton and I.S.P. Nation
Publisher : Routledge
Date Publish : March 2009 Pages : 203 Pages
Genre : Reference Book Code : ISBN13:9780203891704

Chapter:
1. Chapter 1
This chapter gives an overview of the four strands. This overview is also
very relevant for the companion book to this one, called Teaching
ESL/EFL Reading and Writing. I think this chapter will explain parts and
goals of a listening and speaking course.

2. Chapter 2
This chapter talks about beginning to listen and speak in another language.
I think this chapter will (1) help the learners to be able to cope with
meaning-focused input and meaningfocused output as soon as possible; (2)
to motivate them in their language study by getting them to engage in
successful listening and speaking; and (3) to make the early learning as
relevant as possible to their language use needs.

3. Chapter 3
This chapter is about deal largely with listening (a form of meaning-
focused input). I think this chapter will explain about how important
listening learning for a second language learners.

4. Chapter 4
This chapter talks about language-focused learning through dictation and
related activities. I think this chapter will talk about the dictation technique
that s help language learning by making learners focus on the language
form of phrase and clause level constructions, and by providing feedback
on the accuracy of their perception.

5. Chapter 5
 This chapter talks about the importance of pronunciation. I think this
chapter will explain the difficulties in speaking with pronunciation and
how to deal with it.

6. Chapter 6
This chapter talks about learning through task focused interaction. I think
this chapter will examines activities that bring listening and speaking
together in communicative activities.

7. Chapter 7
The chapter discusses "pushed output" in language learning, where
learners are encouraged or compelled to speak, even in unfamiliar areas. I
think this chapter explain how pushed output helps learners become aware
of grammar for production and encourages them to move from
understanding words to using them actively.

8. Chapter 8
This chapter looks at language-focused learning of vocabulary, grammar,
and discourse with the aim of helping learners understand and produce
spoken language.

9. Chapter 9
The chapter explores fluency in language learning across listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. I think this chapter will emphasizes the
importance of meaning focused tasks and support for higher performance
levels in developing fluency.

10. Chapter 10
This chapter deals with monitoring and testing.

Table of Content
1.Parts and Goals of a Listening and Speaking Course 1
1.1 The Four Strands 1
1.2 Meaning-focused Input: Learning through Listening and Reading 3
1.3 Meaning-focused Output: Learning through Speaking and Writing 4
1.4 Language-focused Learning 7
1.5 Becoming Fluent in Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing 9
1.6 Balancing the Four Strands 10
1.7 Integrating the Four Strands 11
1.8 Principles and the Four Strands 12
1.9 Learning Goals 14

2.Beginning to Listen and Speak in Another Language 17

2.1 What Should They Learn? 17
2.2 How Should the Teaching and Learning be Done? 19
2.3 Activitie for Teaching and Learning in a Beginners’ Course 23
2.4 Techniques for Early Meaning-focused Speaking 30
2.5 Planning a Listening and Speaking Programme for Beginners 33

3.Listening 37
3.1 Why Listening? 37
3.2 Models of Listening 39
3.3 Types of Listening 40
3.4 Listening Processes 40
3.5 Activities for Meaning-focused Listening 42
3.6 Supporting Listening 46
3.7 Information Transfer 47
3.8 Strategies 51
3.9 Advanced Listening: Note-taking 52
3.10 Monitoring Meaning-focused Listening 57

4.Language-focused Learning through Dictation and

Related Activities 59
4.1 Choosing Dictation Texts 60
4.2 Pre-dictation Exercises 61
4.3 Variations of Dictation 62
4.4 Related Techniques 65
4.5 Dictogloss and Related Activities 68
4.6 Dicto-comp 69

5.Pronunciation 75
5.1 The Importance of Pronunciation 75
5.2 Factors Affecting the Learning of Another Sound System 78
5.3 Procedures and Techniques 82
5.4 Fitting Pronunciation into a Course 93
5.5 Monitoring Pronunciation 95

6.Learning through Task-focused Interaction 97

6.1 Encouraging Negotiation 99
6.2 Using Written Input to Encourage Negotiation 99
6.3 Using Information Distribution to Encourage Negotiation 101
6.4 Factors Affecting the Amount and Type of Negotiation 106
6.5 Using Learner Training to Encourage Negotiation 107
6.6 Monitoring Negotiation 110
6.7 Monitoring Learners Beginning to Speak 112

7.Learning through Pushed Output 115

7.1 Pushing Output 116
7.2 Informal Speaking 120
7.3 Formal Speaking 121
7.4 The Nature of Formal Speaking 122
7.5 Teaching Formal Speaking 123
7.6 A Process Approach to Formal Speaking 125

8.Language-focused Learning: Deliberate Teaching 131

8.1 The Value and Limits of Language-focused Learning 131
8.2 Deliberate Vocabulary Learning 132
8.3 The Requirements of Language-focused Vocabulary Instruction 133
8.4 Techniques and Procedures for Vocabulary Learning 135
8.5 Deliberate Grammar Learning 138
8.6 Correcting Grammatical Errors 141

9.Developing Fluency 151

9.1 The Nature of Fluency 151
9.2 Fluency and Accuracy 152
9.3 Developing Fluency 152
9.4 Designing Fluency Activities 153
9.5 Fitting Fluency into a Course 156
9.6 Developing Fluency in Listening and Speaking 157
9.7 Techniques for Developing Fluency in Listening 157
9.8 Techniques for Developing Fluency in Speaking 161
9.9 Monitoring Fluency Tasks 162

10 Monitoring and Testing Progress 165

10.1 Monitoring Progress 165
10.2 Testing Listening and Speaking 166
10.3 Listening Tests 170
Speaking Tests 171

Question and Answer

1. Parts and Goals of a Listening and Speaking Course

1.1 The Four strands
Q: What are the four strands?
A: The four strands are called meaning-focused input, meaning-focused
output, language-focused learning, and fluency development. A wellplanned
language course has an appropriate balance of these four strands.

1.2 Meaning-focused Input: Learning through Listening and Reading

 Q: What is Meaning-focused Input?
A: The meaning-focused input strand involves learning through listening and
reading—using language receptively. It is called “meaning-focused”

1.3 Meaning-focused Output: Learning through Speaking and Writing

Q: What is Meaning-focused Output?
A: The meaning-focused output strand involves learning through speaking and
writing—using language productively. Typical activities in this strand include
talking in conversations, giving a speech or lecture, writing a letter, writing a
note to someone, keeping a diary, telling a story, and telling someone how to
do something.

1.4 Language-focused Learning

Q: What is language focused learning?
A: Language focused learning involves the deliberate learning of language
features such as pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse.

1.5 Becoming Fluent in Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing

Q: How to Becoming Fluent in Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing
A: The fluency strand only exists if certain conditions are present. (1) All of
what the learners are listening to, reading, speaking or writing is largely
familiar to them. (2) The learners’ focus is on receiving or conveying meaning.
(3) There is some pressure or encouragement to perform at a faster than usual
speed. (4) There is a large amount of input or output.

1.6 Balancing the Four Strands

Q: How to balancing the Four Strands
A: According to Ellis, includes the following principles in his list of principles
of instructed language learning: (1) Instruction needs to ensure that learners
focus predominantly on meaning. (2) Instruction needs to ensure that learners
also focus on form.

1.7 Integrating the Four Strands

Q: How is Integrating the Four Strands?
A: There are many ways of giving time to the four strands and these will
depend on many factors like the skills and preferences of the teachers, the
expectations of learners and the school, the time-tabling constraints, and
current beliefs about language teaching and learning

1.8 Principles and the Four Strands

Q: What are the principles and the Four Strands?
A: Pedagogical principles are aimed at providing guidelines for teachers. The
list is organised around the four strands with the final two principles focusing
 on what should be covered in a course. Each principle is followed by a brief
list of suggestions about how the principle could be put into practice.

1.9 Learning Goals

Q:What are the learning goals?
A: A language learning course is used to reach learning goals. This include : :
(1) language items such as sounds, vocabulary and grammatical constructions,
(2) the content or ideas of the subject being studied such as geography,
English literature, mathematics, or crosscultural understanding, (3) language
skills such as listening, writing, fluency in using known items, and strategies
for coping with language difficulties, and (4) the organisation of discourse
such as rhetorical features and communication strategies.

2. Beginning to Listen and Speak in Another Language

2.1 What should they learn?
Q: What Should They Learn?
A: If the learners are adults who wish to use the language while traveling, then
learning the survival vocabulary (Appendix 1) is a sensible early goal. If the
learners are children, then they should learn the high frequency
words of the language which allow them to listen to simple stories, begin to
read graded readers, and do interesting activities

2.2 How Should the Teaching and Learning be Done?

Q: How Should the Teaching and Learning be Done?
A: Here are five principles that are particularly relevant to the teaching of
beginners: Meaning, Interest , New language, Understanding, Stress-free.

2.3 Activities and Approaches for Teaching and Learning in a Beginners’ Course
Q: What are Activities and Approaches for Teaching and Learning in a
Beginners’ Course
A: There are some Activities and Approaches for Teaching and Learning in a
Beginners’ Course, such as quizzes, interview, listen and do activities, etc.

2.4 Techniques for Early Meaning-focused Speaking

Q: What are Techniques for Early Meaning-focused Speaking?
A: There are some Techniques for Early Meaning-focused Speaking such as,
description based on pictures, hints game, question making, etc.

2.5 Planning a Listening and Speaking Programme for Beginners

Q: How to Planning a Listening and Speaking Programme for Beginners
A: When planning for this
 it is worth making a distinction between just listening to input, listen and
enjoy, and the various other listening techniques described in this chapter and
elsewhere which require some visible response from the learners, such
as listen and draw, What is it?, listening to pictures, and information transfer.

3. Listening
3.1 Why listening?
Q: Why listening?
A: Listening is the natural precursor to speaking; the early stages of language
development in a person’s first language (and in naturalistic acquisition of
other languages) are dependent on listening.

3.2 Models of listening

Q: What are models of listening?
A: Listening was traditionally seen as a passive process by which the listener
receives information sent by a speaker.

3.3 Types of Listening

Q: What are types of listening?
A: We can distinguish two broad types of listening:
1. One-way listening—typically associated with the transfer of
information (transactional listening).
2. Two-way listening—typically associated with maintaining social
relations (interactional listening).

3.4 Listening process

Q: What are listening process
A: There are two listening process, bottom-up processes, and top-down
processes.

3.5 Activities for Meaning-focused Listening

Q: What are Activities for Meaning-focused Listening
A: There are some Activities for Meaning-focused Listening, such as listening
to stories, the what is it technique, same or different exercise, etc.

3.6 Suporting listening

Q: How to supporting listening?
A: We can provide this support in four main ways: 1) By providing prior
experience with aspects of the text. 2) By guiding the learners through the
text. 3) By setting up cooperative learning. 4) By providing the means by
which learners can achieve comprehension by themselves.

3.7 Information transfer

Q: What are information transfer?
 A: Information transfer is another group of activities involving a small amount
of written language.

3.8 Strategies
Q: What are strategies?
A: Learners can benefit from training in listening strategies. Two types of
useful strategies are Communication strategies, and Learning strategies.

3.9 Advanced Listening: Note-taking

Q: What is Advanced Listening: Note-taking?
A: Note-taking is a meaning-focused listening activity. It is also an essential
skill for academic study where learners have to attend lectures in another
language, but can be used in various forms at all levels of language
proficiency.

3.10 Monitoring Meaning-focused Listening

Q: How is Monitoring Meaning-focused Listening
A: There are two ways to Monitoring Meaning-focused Listening: examining
the Teaching Material and Observing the Activity.

4. Language-focused Learning through Dictation and Related Activities.

4.1 Choosing Dictation Texts
Q: How to choosing dictation texts?
A: Dictation texts should contain useful or interesting content such as that
seen in humorous or unusual stories, dialogues and poems.

4.2 Pre-dictation Exercises

Q: What is Pre-dictation Exercises
A: Dictation can be used after exercises that provide practice in the words or
patterns that are in the dictation and that emphasise the language focus of the
dictation activity.

4.3 Variations of Dictation

Q: What are the variations of Dictation
A: There are variations of dictation, such as: Running Dictation, One Chance
Dictation, Dictation of Long Phrases, Guided Dictation, Dictation for a Mixed
Class, Peer Dictation, Completion Dictation, Perfect Dictation, Sentence
Dictation, Unexploded Dictation.

4.4 Related techniques

Q: What are related techniques?
A: Dictation is related to several other techniques. Dictation has listening
input and written output. Delayed repetition has listening input and spoken
 output. Read-and-lookup has reading input and spoken output, and delayed
copying has reading input and written output. They all involve holding
language material briefly in memory before producing it.

4.5 Dictogloss and Related Activities

Q: What are Dictogloss and Related Activities?
A: Dictation and its related activities work mainly at the phrase and clause
level. The dictation-based techniques described below work with much larger
units of language

4.6 Dicto-comp
Q: What is dicto-comp?
A: The dicto-comp is similar to the dictogloss, but does not involve group
work. In the dicto-comp, the learners listen as the teacher reads a text to them.

5. Pronunciation
5.1 The Importance of Pronunciation
Q: What are the importance of pronunciation?
A:The importance of pronunciation is if learners do not have a stable
pronunciation for a word, it cannot easily enter long-term memory because it
cannot be held in the phonological loop

5.2 Factors Affecting the Learning of Another Sound System

Q: What are the Factors Affecting the Learning of Another Sound System?
A: There are five factors that have been shown to have major effects on the
learning of another sound system. They are the age of the learner, the learner’s
first language, the learner’s current stage of proficiency development, the
experience and attitudes of the learner, and the conditions for teaching and
learning. All these factors need to be considered in a well-balanced approach
to pronunciation.

5.3 Procedures and Techniques

Q: What are Procedures and Techniques?
A: There are many techniques and procedures that can be used to focus on
various aspects of the pronunciation task and to take account of the various
factors affecting pronunciation. Such as Articulation of Individual Sounds,
Learning New Sounds: A Procedure, Teaching the Sound, etc.

5.4 Fitting Pronunciation into a Course

Q: How to Fitting Pronunciation into a Course?
A: Several possibilities are available for making pronunciation improvement
part of a course: 1) A special time is regularly set aside for direct attention to
pronunciation for the whole class. 2) Pronunciation is focused on occasionally,
perhaps to set goals and activities for individual work. 3) Pronunciation errors
 are dealt with as they occur 4) Pronunciation is not given any special attention
but meaningfocused speaking activities.

5.5 Monitoring Pronunciation

Q: How to Monitoring Pronunciation
A: The most effective way of testing a learner’s pronunciation is to observe
and record the learner performing in a variety of situations.

6. Learning through Task-focused Interaction

6.1 Encouraging Negotiation
Q: How to encouraging negotiation?
A:Several studies of negotiation have shown the range of reasons for
negotiation. These include keeping the group together by “celebrating
agreement”, clarifying poorly presented items, clarifying because of
inattention, clarifying unknown items, and clarifying the task procedure.

6.2 Using Written Input to Encourage Negotiation

Q: How to using written input to encourage negotiation?
A: Research on the effect of written input on negotiation showed that in the
tasks he used, all of the negotiated vocabulary was in the written input sheets
used in the activity. That is, the learners did not negotiate vocabulary that they
incidentally brought into the activity. If this finding is true across a variety of
activities and texts, it means that by careful choice or rewriting of texts,
teachers can set up wanted vocabulary to be negotiated

6.3 Using Information Distribution to Encourage Negotiation

Q: How to Using Information Distribution to Encourage Negotiation?
A: There are four ways to Using Information Distribution to Encourage
Negotiation : 1) All learners have the same information. 2) Each learner has
different essential information 3) One learner has all the information that the
others need. 4) The learners all see the same information but each one has a
different task.

6.4 Factors Affecting the Amount and Type of Negotiation

Q: What are Factors Affecting the Amount and Type of Negotiation?
A: There are several factors affect the amount, type and effect of negotiation:
1) Pair work usually produces more negotiations on the same task than work
in a group of four. 2) Cooperating tasks produce more negotiation of the
meaning of vocabulary than information gap tasks. 3) The signals learners
make affects the adjustment of output during a task.

6.5 Using Learner Training to Encourage Negotiation

Q: How to Using Learner Training to Encourage Negotiation?
 A: According to Anderson and Lynch (1988) have reviewed studies with
young native speakers on the effect of training on the use of negotiation while
listening. The training can involve telling learners the importance of asking for
more information, watching others ask, and providing simple plans of what to
do when there is a comprehension problem.

6.6 Monitoring Negotiation

Q: How to monitoring negotiation?
A: Teachers or learners acting as observers can look for these kinds of support
and comment on them to the group as a way of bringing about the
development of group support skills that will help language learning.

6.7 Monitoring Learners Beginning to Speak

Q: How to Monitoring Learners Beginning to Speak?
A: It is important to be aware that reluctance to speak may not be only because
of language difficulties. Observing learners in speaking activities can provide
important information for the teacher about the learners’ control of
developmental features, like question making, and other features.

7. Learning through Pushed Output

7.1 Pushing Output
Q: What are pushing output?
A: When planning for a variety of speaking tasks to push learners’ output there
are several factors to consider. These include covering a range of topics, a
range of text types, and a range of performance conditions.

7.2 Informal Speaking

Q: What is informal speaking?
A: Informal speaking typically involves tasks where conveying information is
not as important as maintaining friendly relationships. Brown (1978) calls this
interactional speaking as opposed to transactional speaking.

7.3 Formal Speaking

Q: What is formal speaking?
A: Formal speaking helps language learning in the following ways. It
represents a new use of English for most learners and thus requires them to
focus on language items that are not as well represented in other uses of the
language.

7.4 The Nature of Formal Speaking

Q: What are The Nature of Formal Speaking?
A: This type of speaking has several important features. 1) It is transactional.
2) It involves taking a long turn. 3) It is influenced by written language 4) The
 speaking is done in the learner’s “careful” style in a clear and deliberate way
with opportunity for the speaker to monitor the production. 5) It often needs
teaching as it is a skill that is not a part of typical language use.

7.5 Teaching Formal Speaking

Q: How to teaching formal speaking?
A: The transactional nature of formal speaking means that the effectiveness of
the learners’ performance should focus on the successful communication of
information. Formal speaking opportunities in the classroom should therefore
be done with an obvious audience who are interested in the speaker’s message.

7.6 A Process Approach to Formal Speaking

Q:How to process approach to formal speaking?
A: An important part of the formal speaking process is taking account of the
audience and the suitability of the information that is to be conveyed to them.

8. Language-focused Learning
8.1 The Value and Limits of Language-focused Learning
Q: What are The Value and Limits of Language-focused Learning?
A: There are, however, limitations on the effect of language-focused learning.
These limitations include the following: 1) Language-focused learning cannot
change the order in which learners acquire certain complex, developmental
features of the language, such as questions, negatives, and relative clauses. 2)
Language-focused learning needs to be combined with the opportunity to use
the same items in meaning-focused use. 3) Some grammatical items learned
through language-focused learning may only be available to the learner in
planned use.

8.2 Deliberate Vocabulary Learning

Q: How to deliberate vocabulary learning?
A: The best language-focused vocabulary instruction involves looking at a
word as part of a system rather than as part of a message. This means paying
attention to regular spelling and sound patterns in words, paying attention to
the underlying concept of the senses of words, paying attention to word
building devices, giving attention to the range and types of collocations of a
word, and paying attention to the range of clues to the word’s meaning
provided by context.

8.3 The Requirements of Language-focused Vocabulary Instruction

Q: What are The Requirements of Language-focused Vocabulary Instruction?
A: For learners who have a good knowledge of the high frequency words, the
focus of instruction should be on learning and coping strategies, including
using context clues for inferring meaning, and using word parts and other
mnemonic procedures for learning new low frequency words. Learners need
 to take responsibility for using these strategies to increase their knowledge of
low frequency words.

8.4 Techniques and Procedures for Vocabulary Learning

Q: What are The Techniques and Procedures for Vocabulary Learning?
A: For adult beginners, it is useful to have a rapid expansion of vocabulary
through direct vocabulary learning. There is an effective ways of doing this for
older learners, such as: vocabulary cards, keyword technique, or word part
analysis.

8.5 Deliberate Grammar Learning

Q: How to deliberate grammar learning?
A: Grammar can be deliberately learned as a result of direct explanation and
analysis, through doing grammar exercises, through consciousness-raising
activities, and through feedback.

8.6 Correcting Grammatical Errors

Q: How to correcting grammatical errors?
A: Correcting errors is best done if there is some understanding of why the
error occurred. This involves error analysis. Error analysis is the study of
errors to see what processes gave rise to them.

9. Developing Fluency
9.1 The Nature of Fluency
Q: What are the nature of fluency?
A: Fluency has the following characteristics in all of the four skills of
listening, speaking, reading and writing. There are: 1) Fluent language use
involves “the processing of language in real time”. 2) Fluent language use
does not require a great deal of attention and effort from the learner. 3) If we
consider the four goals of Language, Ideas, Skill, Text (LIST), fluency is a
skill.

9.2 Fluency and Accuracy

Q: What are fluency and accuracy?
A: Fluency is typically measured by speed of access or production and by the
number of hesitations, while accuracy is measured by the amount of error.

9.3 Developing Fluency

Q: How to developing fluency?
A: There are some ways to developing fluency: 1) The activity is meaning-
focused. 2) The learners take part in activities where all the language items are
within their previous experience. 3) There is support and encouragement for
the learner to perform at a higher than normal level.
9.4 Designing Fluency Activities
Q: How to designing fluency activities?
A: To design fluency activities:
1. Ensure learners process a large quantity of language without interruption.
2. Limit demands to prevent overwhelming complexity.
3. Tailor tasks to learners' experience levels.
4. Provide clear outcomes to focus on meaning.
5. Introduce time pressure to encourage quick performance.
6. Allow planning and preparation for higher-quality output.
7. Repeat activities for fluency with specific language items.
8. Change the audience to prevent message alteration during repetition.
9. Vary listening activity purposes to maintain engagement.

9.5 Fitting Fluency into a Course

Q: How to fitting fluency into a course?
A: How to fit fluency into a course:
1. Allocate a quarter of class time to fluency activities.
2. Integrate fluency activities with new language items.
3. Ensure fluency tasks contain mostly familiar language.
4. Include periodic blocks of time solely for fluency.
5. Link skills in activities for better performance.
6. Evaluate unit progression for fluency goals.
7. Justify linked skill units beyond fluency.
8. Optimize skill linking for effective learning.

9.6 Developing Fluency in Listening and Speaking

Q: How to Developing Fluency in Listening and Speaking?
A: The first approach relies primarily on repetition and could be called “the
well-beaten path approach” to fluency. The second approach to fluency relies
on making many connections and associations with a known item. The third
approach to fluency is the aim and result of the previous two approaches. This
could be called “the well-ordered system approach”.

9.7 Techniques for Developing Fluency in Listening

Q: Techniques for Developing Fluency in Listening
A: All the techniques described here set up the following conditions that are
necessary for the development of fluency. 1) The techniques involve meaning-
focused activity. 2) They place very limited demands on the learners in that
they rely heavily on language items, topics and experiences with which the
learners are already familiar. 3) The techniques encourage learners to reach a
high level of performance through the use of meaning-focused repetition,
 increasing speed of input, and the opportunity for prediction and the use of
previous background knowledge.

9.8 Techniques for Developing Fluency in Speaking

Q: What are Techniques for Developing Fluency in Speaking?
A: Techniques for developing speaking fluency:
1. 4/3/2 Technique: Speak progressively shorter times on a topic.
2. Best Recording: Record, listen, and improve speaking.
3. Ask and Answer: Question each other about a text for fluent presentation.
4. Rehearsed Talks: Prepare and present talks individually and in groups.
5. Adapting Activities: Use activities like ranking and interviews with a focus
on fluency.

9.9 Monitoring Fluency Tasks

Q: How to monitoring fluency tasks?
A: Fluency activities can be monitored to see if learners are increasing the
fluency with which they deal with tasks. Lennon (1990) found that over a
period of several months, the measures that showed a change were speech rate
and filled pauses. It would be necessary to make careful transcripts of
recorded spoken production to measure such change, but teachers may be able
to make more subjective judgements that are of value.

10. Monitoring and Testing Progress

10.1 Monitoring Progress
Q: How to monitoring progress?
A: Careful observation of learners while they are involved in listening and
speaking activities can provide useful information of their progress. However,
if a teacher sets up an information gathering system, then more useful and
reliable information can be obtained.

10.2 Testing Listening and Speaking

Q: How to Testing Listening and Speaking?
A: Like any tests, satisfactory tests of listening and speaking have to fulfil
three criteria—reliability, validity, and practicality. Usually some compromise
has to be made between the criteria because what is most reliable might not be
the most valid, and what is the most valid might not be practical.

10.3 Listening Tests

Q:What are listening tests?
A: Listening tests include:
1. Dictation: Writing phrases as the teacher reads aloud.
2. Partial Dictation: Filling in missing parts of a written text while listening.
3. Text with Questions: Answering multiple-choice questions while listening.
10.4 Speaking Tests
Q: What are speaking tests?
A: There are two main aspects of direct procedures for testing speaking are:
(1) the way in which the person being tested is encouraged to speak. (2) the
way in which the speaker’s performance is assessed.