VECTOR ANALYSIS 31

different at different depths; density can then be Justification: if two such lines intersect at a
regarded as a scalar field and horizontal planes in point, Fig. 2.4, then at
the liquid are the level surfaces. that point the field has
(iii) Electric and gravitational potentials are two two directions along
scalar field.
very important examples of
the two tangents to
2 Eauipotential surfaces are surfaces where
notential has the same value. For gravity field of
the two field lines.
This cannot happen,
Fig. 2.4
plane
the earth, equipotential surface is a horizontal
because a vector field must have a definite
VECTOR ANALYSIS parallel to earth's surface direction at each and every point in the field.
When a fluid noves in a strean line motion,
In vector analysis we shall mainly be concermed 2.1.2 Vector field
big room may be different at different locations. the field lines in this velocity field are called streanm
with two kinds of fields: scalar fields and vector We can say that temperature in that room is a If the physical quantity in a field is a vector lines. Hence two stream lines do not intersect.
fields, and the nature of their spatial variations. scalar field or there is a temperature field in the quantity, A, like velocity, force, etc., then it isincalled
that
Electric and magnetic field lines and stream
Studies of gravitation. electricity and magnetism room. We write the temperature field as T= T(x, a vector field. At each and every
point lines give a vivid description of the respective fields.
whose
can be interesting only if he basic properties of 2). Similarly density ofacolloidal solution or space, there is a certain vector function, 2.2 Gradlent of scalar fleld
fields and their variations are clear. So, the electric potential in an electric field may be different magnitude and direction depend on the co-ordinates In a scalar field Í (x, , z) the value of o
direction
importance of this chapter cannot be at different points. Hence these are scalar field. of the point. Both the magnitude and the from changes as we move fom one point to another.
overemphasized. Equal or level surface: In a scalar field we of vector functions may change continuouslyvector The most obvious question that comes to our mind
Let us see what is meant by field. can always find a surface, at each and every point point to point throughout the field region. A is how fast the field changes as we move from
of which the scalar (p) has a definite constant field is therefore written as
2.1 Flelds
value (C). Such a surface is called equal or level one point to another in different directions in that
We have already studied some fields like surface. A scalar field can be mapped graphically
Ä= Äx,y, z). feld? In other words, what is the space rate of
gravitational, electric and magnetic fields. Now we Examples ofvector field: In gravitational, electric change of p (r, y z). In simpler words space rate
by such surfaces; the surfaces divide the region and magnetic fields, we can assign vectors at each of changemeans rate of change with displacement.
shallstudy some properties of field in general. This into a series of layers. In Fig. 2.la, the level
knowledge is very important for further knowledge surfaces are shown as two dimensional surfaces: and every point, which give the forces on a unit Now we shall find its answer.
of the above three fields.
in Fig. 2. lb these are shown as lines. mass, unit charge or unit pole placed at that point. Suppose the value of changes from o to
If there is a phsical quantity which has well These forces are respectively called gravitational, ( tdÍ as we move from a point F (x, V ) to a
defined value at each and every point in acertain electric or magnetic intensities or fields. Hence nearby point + dY (r + dx, y + dy, z + d),
P4 = CA =CA gravitational, electric and magnetic intensities are
region of space. and can be expressed as -0; = C a=C Fig, 2.5. Then we have
0= C vector fields.
continuous fiunction of the position, the function 2=C
p=C; Similarly velocities ofliquid particles ofa moving ....(2.1)
is called a point function and the region in which liquid are, in general, different at different points. dÍ =Ax dx +
the function is specified is called field. (a) (b Hence there is a velocity field within the confines
Often the term field is used to mean both the Fig. 2.1
region and the value of the physical quantity. For of theliquid.
Tvo level surfaces cannot intersect. Field lines : In a vector field, we can always d
example. we say there is a uniform electric field
between the two charged plates and the field is100 Justification: Suppose two level surfaces p= draw lines, Fig. 2.3, such that tangents at each
Cj,and p = C, C C intersect, Fig.2.2. Then point of the line give the directions of the field at
newton per microcoulomb along X-axis.
at each and every point
We shalldiscuss two kinds of field: scalar field on the line of intersection
and vector field.
of the two surfaces, the Fig. 2.5
2.1.1 Scalar field scalar must have the
Here we have to deal with the partial
If the physical quantity in a particular field is a same value. This p=C
scalar quantity (p), like temperature, density, contradicts our assump
electric potential, etc., then the field is called a tion: C, * C,. Hence two Fig. 2.2 derivatives because Í is a function
scalar field.Thus a scalar is assocíated with cach level surfaces a scalar field do not intersect. Fig. 2.3
and every point in a scalar field. The magnítude of Examples of level surface in scalar fields :
the scalar depends on the co-ordinates of the point. that point. These are called the fieldlines. Drawing of x, , and . is the rate of variation of o as
Therefore a scalar field is written as (i) In the temperature field in a room, we may Such field lines we can give a vivid picture of the
find isothermal surfaces, at each point of which Vector field. one moves along X-axis, only the variable x
temperature has the same value. Theo field lines in a vector field do not changes, ' and z co-ordinates are then constant,
Example of scalar field: Temperature (D) of a (ii) Similarly if density of a colloidal liquid is
intersect. etc.

30
 AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIce
32 VECTOR ANALYSIS
33
We have moved by an infinitesimal differentiates the function. But it is slightly more
displacement vector paximum rate in the direction of the vector ùo. the vector Vo ís equal to the maximum space
complex than d :it has some properties like maturally it decreases at the same rate the rate of change of and Í increases in that
df =dri +dË +dek ..(2.2) ordinary vectors; notice the presence of basic unit opposite direction, maximum rate in the direction of ýo . The
With a little inspection of eqns. 2.l and 2.2 we vectors. It is, therefore, called vector differential To get a more vivid picture, let us imagine a directíon
of the vector Vo al any point 15
can wite
operator. ùÍ is pronounced as del or grad 0 level surface in that perpendícular to any level surface Í = constant
scalar field o (%, , z) passing through that point in the field p (x, y, z).
do= and another name of this operator ù nabla. at each point of which From a scalar field Í (x, y, z), a vector field A
Here we have used the relations To emphasis its vector character we have given o has a constant
value P (%, y z) can be derived :Å = Vo. In other words
the usual arrow head over it. Many authors do not C,Fig.2.7, and suppose gradp or VÍ isa vector field derived from ascalar
i.i=jj=kk=l and other products are zero. give the vector sign, but we must not forget its Fig, 2.7
=C

fieldo (x, y, z).

Now we wTite the vector vector character.
that the vector Vo
makes angle a. with that surface. If one moves
Now you may ask the obvious question: Is it
Thus we learn a very important fact : true for allvector fields? Is any vector field can
.....) By operating ùon a given scalar field, o by an infinitesimal distance dY along that surface be derived from a scalar field? The answer is no.
we may get a vector field (Å). A=Ñp, where from P to g, the change in p is given by equation We shallsee below that only a conservative
If f isthe unit vector along, dF,then we have 2.8. But it is definitely zero, because values of o
is the vector differential operator. vector field can be derived from a scalar field.
dF = ári are the same Cat P and . Now let us see one concrete well-known
Csing (i)and (ii) in eqn. 2.3, we can write ..dÍ =VÍ-dY =|VÍ ||dY Jcosa = 0 example with the familiar symbols. The scalar field
dÍ = Ã-d =ifdr ..(2.4) is the electric potential (), the vector field derived
But what are the meaning and use of this new
|o 0, dY +01. So there is only one option: from V, is electric field or intensity of electric field
Eqn. 2.4 gives the change (do) of the scalar ():=-V. Surfaces = constant are
field (o) for asmall displacement d.
vector A ? cos a =0, i.e., a= 90°. So, the vector Vo makes
equipotential surfaces. Negative sign in the
Geometrical meaning of the vector: Ã=To: angle 90° with level surface. equation =-y implies that electric field E
We have got a new vector A constructed from Thus we learn another important fact:
the scalar field o (x, , z) given by Suppose changes by has direction opposite tothe direction of Vo. The
dÍ for an infinitesimal Thedirection of the vector VÍ, at any point electric lines of force or field lines give the direction
-p+ dÍ
i-ici-0j-i-ij-ilo Byisplacement df . Fig 26.
eqn. 2.4, we can write
dr
Fig. 2.6
P in the field, is at
right angle to the
of . Therefore electric field lines proceed
normally from the equipotential surfaces towards
"..........(2.5) surface the direction in which potential decreases. The
dÍ = Ã- dY -VÍ-dY =VÍ:fdr =| VÍ ldrcose constant passing negative sign actually comes in the above relation
7isdefinitely a vector field because it is a .....2.8) through that point, from physical consideration; we use the general
vector and it has definite values at each and every where 0 is the angle between the vectors ù Fig. 2.8
Fig.2.8. convention that work done by external agent is
point in the region where the scalar field (, y, From the above result it also follows that the
z) exists. This new vector field is called the and dF. From egn. 2.8, we find that the space positive and that done by the field is negative.
rate of change of o, when one moves around in unit vector perpendicular to the surface =
gradient of the scalar field o (x, y, z). It is constant is given by 2.3 Divergence and Curl of a vector
wTiten as that scalar field, is given by fleld
dÍ =Vp-i=|Vo| cos ...........(2.9) ...(2.10) We have found above that vector differential
Å= grad Í= ù9 ..(2.6) dr
Looking at egns. 2.5 and 2.6, we can easily We know that cos 0 has the maximum value 1, Again, from eqn.2.4 we can write operator ù operating on a scalar field can generate
recognise that the term grad or the symbol ù a vector field. Now let us see what we get when
when 9 = 0°, So, the space rate of change of q Hence dr gives the space rate of change
stands for ù operates on a vector field.
has the maximum positive value equal to |Vp| in of a scalar o in the particular direction f.
Let A (x, . z) is a vector field. It can be
grad or $ = a k . 7 ) the direction, 0=09, i.e., when displacement occurs Therefore dÍ is called the directional derivative. expressed in terms of its rectangular components
in its own direction. When, =180°, cos =- 1, dr
Vo is the maximum value of dÍ
as
the space rate of change has maximum negative
ii value -|Í| in the direction = 180°, i.e., when Now let us gather all the conclusions we have
Obviously grad or is a differential operator displacement occurs in the opposite direction. At arrived at in this section. +A,(4, y, z) k
other values of 0, it has intermnediate values. If we have a scalar field, o (, , z), we can We can produce two useful combinations of
like
d and so by itself it has no value. Only when So we come to the following conclusion :
some function is put on its right, it operates on that Maximum space rate ofchange of o is equal construct a vector field ùo by applying the vector and A producing a dot product and a cross RA

function, we get something new. Actually ù to the magnitude of vÍ . It increases in this differential operator õon o. The magnitude of product with .
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS VECTOR ANALYSIS 35
34

Divergence of the vector A is

defined as
¯)+C]=o(:) [)dt =B4)+ß The general symbolfor the line integral is J
Tf we integrate between two limits = a and
7.j= div The result of integration is therefore indefinite where Cstands for contour or curve, i.e., the path
integral
up to an arbitrary constant C. Hence the above =b, we get the definite of integration. Notice, line integral of a vector is
-&i*&j*li* 4j* 4) function f() is called indeftnite integral of o).
(ä)dt =B(%) - B(a) ...(2. 13)
by definition a scalar.
If the path of integration C is a closed curve
We see that if the derivative p(*) of afunction as shown in the Fig. 2.10, initial and final points (P
......2.11) fo) is known, we can find the original function suppose A() is velocity of a
For example, and ) coincide, then the
f) by integration. For example, suppose speed particle, which varies with time ().
Then B() is
Curl of the vector A is defined as () of a particle is known as a function of time Similarly we may get symbol is , We notice that
its displacement at time t. Po
Õxi=curià (t): V = f). Then we can find distance (() velocity if we know its acceleration as a
function
traversed by it in a given interval of time bv the closed path C can be
of time. visualised as the boundary of
integrating Vover time: S=|Vdt. The unknowm There are, however, three other kinds of
of vectors, which are very useful in a surface S. For such a Fig. 2.10
integration
constant C, which appears after integration, can
calculating many importantphysical quantities .We closed path, the line integral
is sometimes called circulation (T). We shall see
be found from the given initial condition. shall discuss them one by one.
Also we know that integration is a process of that this name is very significant.
summation. Suppose the independent variable x 2,6Line Integral
oftheabove function o () increases in small steps Suppose there is a vector field and Cis a line in r=f-dr .(2.16)
- h. Initial value ofx is aand final value is b. There that space with P and as the initial and final C
Examples of useful line integrals :
are many occasions in physics when we are to points,Fig.2.9. Both the magnitude and direction
find the sum of the series: (i) If Ais a force acting on a particle and as a
S= ola) h +o(a + h) h + (a + 2h) h+ result the particle moves along path C, then the
...t o(b) h, where h is infinitesimally small. dr line integral is the work done by the force.
..(2.12) b (ii) If Ais electric field intensity, the line integral
The above two expressions have been written
down in the same manner as we do in scalar and This series is written as S=lo(x)dr. Sis called p
is the potential diference between the end points
Fig. 2.9 Pand
vector products of two vectors ù and A. But we definite integral of o(x) with respect to x between
of the vector A may change from point to point
should remember that ù is an operator and we the limits a and b; a is called the lower limit and b
(ii) IfAis velocity at any point in a fluid, the
along the curve. We mentally divide the line Cinto line integral of Å over a closed path is called the
should place the partial derivative components of is called the upper limit. small infinitesimal parts dË ,dY,, dy, etc. One circulation of the fluid. In fact, generalising this
ùbefore the components of A. It can be proved that such small element dF is shown in a little magnified
Scale in the figure. The vector A make angle idea, line integral of any vector field over a closed
Thus we see that when ù operates on a point S= (o(*)dr =f()R -fb) A) path is called the circulation of the field.
function (scalar or vector), what we get are with this element. Therefore scalar product of A We shall now learn about conservative vector
different kinds of space derivatives (grad, div, and Thus by integration we can find the sum of the and dY is A-dF= A cos dr:.
field and line integral of such a field.
curl). Obviously ù A is a scalar and ù x Ais a above series. Summation of these infinitesimal scalar
vector, but unless we know their significance, and products can be done by integration. The sum of 2.6.1 Conservative vector feld
2.5 Integration of vectors There are some vector fields for which the line
the properties of the field they express, these are allthese scalar products all along the line C,
ofno use. To understand the significances of these If a vector A=4,i+A,j+ A,k and its defined as the line integral of the vector over the integral is found to be independent of the path C
rectangular components, A,, A, and A, are
two, however, we require the knowledge of vector functions Contour or curve C: chosen between any two points P and , and it
integration. of a single scalar variable t, then the depends only on the locations of the two end points.
indefinite integral of At) is cos dr ..(2.14) These fields are called a conservative or lamellar
2,4 Integration of a scalar P vector field. The well known examples of such
We know that integration is the inverse of Ä)dt =i•4,()d1 +j[4,()dt +k| 4,(()dt We have =Af+ 4,j+4,k fields are electrostatic field and gravitational field.
differentiation. If there exists a vector whose derivative is, .. If Ais a conservative yector field, then its
()
and dY =dxi +dýË +dzk,
:.If
dz o(), then olx)- ds =f(r) +C. Ä(), ie, dB() Ä(). then by the above In terns of the rectangular components of A, line integral between any two points P and is
Cis the called the integratíon constant. The d
the line integral is
given by A- dF =Vo -Vp .......)
constantC appears, because derivatíive of a integration of Ãwe shall get that vector B along
cOnstant is zero.
with an integration constant C.
[kd =f(4,dc +4,dy +A,de) ..15)
C
where Vo and vp are two scalars whose
 AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICe
VECTOR ANALYSIS 37
36
Qand can find the scalar product A-dã. If we find suck cylinder of
.alucs depend on the positions of the points one secondthrough area A fills up the normally through a unit area about a point is by
scalar products for all the different surface base area A and
length . definition the electric field intensity at that point.
Pnthe field re-peciív ely. vector field can If the electric field is uniform and the area A is a
Vo suppose that the above plane surface, then
gradient,
be derked from ascalar field. by taking its
then by eqns 2.4. A= grad o=
By cqn 2.8. we have
o. dd= dan
0 Electric flux through the surface,

If neither the field is unifom nor the area is

plane, then electric flux through a surface S is
iisjo r=Jdo =op-0p ..
Comparing eqns. (i) and (ii). we find that fields
N S

Uand o are identical. Thus we arrived at a very 2.8 Volume Integral

Fig. 2.11
mportant conclusion: X Fig. 2.12 We generally require volume integral for
if a vector fieid is derived froma scalar field elements belonging to S and add them, we get the cylinder different scalar fields. For example, suppose there
. Flux of the liquid, Ù = volume ofa is a distribution of matter in a certain given volume,
bi taking its gradient. then it is conservative in surface integral of the vector A over the surface of length v and base area A= A.
nature. Conersel. only conservative vector S. It is written symbolically as not normal to V But the distribution is not uniform, the mass per
Now suppose that the area A is
makes
field can be derived from a scalar field. Thus a normal (OM) to the area volume, i.e., density (p,) varies from point
J dã =|A ida =[Acose da ..2.18) velocity, but the unit
conservative vector field has a corresponding angle with the velocity, then to point over the space according to a definite given
S S
Scalar field. D-A=p-hA
Every vector field. however, does not have a Flux of liquid o =vAcos = relation, i.e., p fx, , z). Therefore density is a
The symbol is used for surface integral, along the vector area field. Now let us imagine an infinitesimal
corresponding scalar field. Electrostatic and Here ñ is the unit vector scalar
gravitationa! vector fields are conservative fields volume dv. Then mass within that volume element
some authors use the symbol| to emphasize
and the corresponding scalar fields are the integration is to be done over an Now suppose that the velocity is not uniform is dm = p dv. To get the total mass we have to
electrostatic and gravitational potentials the fact that the
area (two dimensions); it is actually a double throughout the whole surface and the surface is integrate dm over the whole given volume.
respectively. Magnetostatic field is not conservative not a plane surface. In that case, to find the
total
and so it has no scalar potential. integral, integral over two independent variables. . Total mass, M=JPmdv ....2.20)
If the surface S is a closed surface, the symbol flux, we have to divide the surface A into
Now we consider a closed path C in a infinitesimally small areas and find the fluxes for
conservative vector field, Fig.2.10. It starts from of surface integral is . all these infinitesimal areas. Summing them up we Similarly, if electric charge is distributed over
the point P and ultimately ends at P. From eqn. (i) S
get the total flux. If the velocity field is continuous, the volume Vand charge density (charge per unit
above we have for this closed path C: the summation can be done by integration.
2.7.1 Fux of a vector volume) is po, then total charge in volume Vis
44-d=op -0; =0 ....(2.17) Often the surface integral of the vectorÅ in a
vector field over a surface is called the fl of the . Flux of liquid, o =[7-ida
Thus we get another important property of vector A through the surface S. :. Flux is the net volume of liquid passing
Conservative vector field :. Flux of avector through a surface S, through any arbitrary surface in unit time. Now The symbol for volume integral is Some
For a conservative field, line integral over
O=|Ä-i da ..(2.19) we can understand why surface integral of any authors write it as , to emphasize the fact that
aclosed path is zero. arbitrary vector is called the flux of the vector.
S
2.7 Surface integral In fact, vector analysis was originally developed
Why it is called flux will be clear from the to describe the motion of fluids in hydrodymamjcs. the integration is to be
done over volume (three
Suppose there is a vector field A and S is a examples below. If the surface is a closed surface and the dimensions); it is actually a triple integral i.e.,
surface drawn in that field, Fig.2.11. At each point Examples (i): Suppose aliquid is flowing with surface integral is found to be positive, it means integration over three independent variables.
in S, Ahas a definite magnitude and direction. We uniform velocity normally throughapipe of cross
sectional area A and is normal to the area A, Fig. that the flux is diverging away from the enclosed 2.9 Physlcal slgniflcance of Divergence
mentally divide the surface into infinitesimally small surface. Ifit is negative, it indicates that the flux is
surface elements. We know that these surface 2.12. Now we can find the physical meaning of
converging upon it. If it is zero, then net outflow
elements can be regarded as elementary vector The volume of liquid coming out of the pipe and net inflow balance each other. divergence of avector field: A:divA or ù.Å.
areas. In the figure we see one such area , per second is called the flux of the liquid. Let us Example (i) : Number of electric field lines For that purpose we shall now calculate the
find this volume.
dã= dan, nis the unit vector normalto the area. Passing normally through an area is called the flux Aux of the ector field Afrom a small volume
Suppose the value of the vector at P is A We
This volume of liquid coming out of the pipe in of the electric field. Number of field lines passing enclosed by a surface.
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIC VECTOR ANALYSISs 39
38
By the same reasoning we can deduce the
We have already seen above what is meant by TF V.A= 0 at a point, it means that there is surface S and ñ is the outward drawn unit vector
flux of a vector field through an area. For flow of following. point and the to the closed surface, Fig.
Net outflow of flux through the top and bottom neither a source nor a sink at that
liquid, it is the volume of liquid flowing normally As much fluid 2.15.
density ofthe fluid is not changing.
about that point as it
through an area per unit time. For an electric field ôA,dxdydz isflowing into a small volume
In the L.H.S. we see
itis number of fieldlines passing nomally through sides = is flowing out. the volume integral of
an area. In the derivation below, you may consider Gy intensity of an
Net outflow of flux through the other two sides 2, If the vector field is that of div A over a volume V.
gives us the
any one of these two fluxes for a vivid picture. electric field, its divergence at a point diverging From the above physical
lines
We consider an elementary rectangular dxdydz measure of the number of fieldvolume. interpretation, it is nothing
parallelepiped of volume dy = dxdydz ina vector outward from that point per unit but the total flux of the
field as shown in Fig. 2.13. The vector field is Total outflow or flux of the vector there is feld from that volume V. Fig. 2.15
If V.A at a point is +ve, it means that electric
given by through the volume element dv is q) at that point and In the R.H.S. we see the surface integral of
a positive charge (+ away from
field lines are emerging or diverging
the source of the the flux over the surface S
the charge. Positive charge is
+
A, (%, . 2)Á
electric field. See Fig.2.14. enclosing the volume V. Hence the two sides must
dy dv be equal.
We shall not give formal proofof this theorem.
Ax You notice, the expression within the bracket But we like to show you that we have already got
Ax + 4 dr
in R.H.S. is divA or ùA (eqn.2.11). results which make the theorem self-evident.
. We can write, do=(0-~)dv ...2.21) We have from eqns. 2.21 and 2.19 :
Fig. 2.13
Fig. 2.14 -idv =do and d-Å-ñda.
dy
(2.22)
Ifù: at a point is -ve, it means that there is We imagine a volume Venclosed by a closed
Let A, be the value of the X-component of A = Net outward flux of the vector per
anegative charge (-) towards which electric surface S. Break the volume mentally into
at the centre of the face l of element dv. We may infinitesimal elements like
suppose that it has the same value over the small
unit volume. ffeld lines are converging. Negative charge is the
area dydz. Then the value of the same at the centre Suppose there is a vector field A(x, , z) and sink of the field. dv, Fig.2. 16. When
summing up the fluxes
of the face 2 of the element dy is we have found its divergence at a point. Then what If V-4=0 at a point, it means there is no net
have we got ? We have got a piece of important charge there. As many field lines enter into a small (Äâda ), the fluxes
A, + dr. information about the field at that point. volume about that point as they leave. In this case through the inner surfaces
Divergence of the field at that point is equal to the the field must be uniform. of the elements like dv,
You can rigorously get this result by expanding net outward flux of the field about that point 3. If the vector field represents the flow of heat, cancel each other and so dv
A, in Taylor series and keeping the first term of per unit volume. Hence the name divergence is we are left with the flux Fig. 2.16
then VA at a point gives us the rate at which
the expansion, as explained in the previous chapter. very appropriate.
Or you can convince yourself physically by Let us consider several examples : heat is issuing from that point per unit volumne. of Athrough the closed surface S. So the R.H.S.
observing that the rate of variation of4, with x is 1. If the vector field is that of velocity of a If for a vector field A, ù:¢= 0, the field is of the theorem is the total flux of A through S.
and xhas changed by a smallamount d. So flowing fluid, its divergence at apoint gives us the called solenoidal. Summing up (integrating) Ädv over the whole
measure of the volume of fluid flowing outward
value of A, at the face 2 should be A, + 2.9.1 Divergence theorem volume V, we get the L.H.S., which is the total
from that point per unit volume.
.:. Flux of A flowing into the volume element If ù-Åat apoint is +ve, it means that fluid is Statement:|In a vector field (&, , z) if the flux of from the volume V Hence the two sides
flowing out from that point. This can happen in vector and its first derivatives are continuous over are equal.
dv parallel to X-axis, do, =A,dydz. two ways: either there a source (a tap from acertain region, the surface integral of the vector 2.9.2 Integral definition of divergence
Similarly, flux of Åflowing out ofthe element which liquidor gas is coming out) or density of the over a closed 'surface is equal to the volume
parallel to X-axis, fluid at that point is decreasing (i.e., it is expanding integral of the divergene of the vecto integrated Divergence of a vector A was defined above
in volume). over the volume enclosed by the surface. In as a dot product of ù and Å, where ù is a vector
do, =(4, + If V.Åata point is -ve, it means that fluid is symbols, it can be stated as
differential operator. Physical interpretation was
:. Net outflow of flux through these two sides flowing towards that point. This can happen in two ...(2.23) derived from the analysis made afterwards. Fronm
ways: At that point either there is a sink at which
= d0, -do, fluid is draining out or density of the fluid is Gauss's divergence theorem we can define divA
increasing (it is contracting in volume). Here Vis the volume enclosed by the closed in terms of a surface integral as follows.
 AHAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICe VECTOR ANALYSIS 41
40
that flowing liquid, it would tend to spin and We shallgain more insight into curl ofa vector
Divergence of aveclor A is defined
as Iè we calculate curl i at a point in a flowing
advance. Such vortex or circulation is a commo of the from Stokes's law discussed below.
duid. we shall see that curl is a measure
sight when water drains out from the bottom o angular velocity of the fluid in the neighborhood of 2.11 Stokes's theorem
there is a point
the basin.
the point. So we understand that if
Here Sis closed surface enclosing a volume To justify the above interpretation, let us take, in a flowing fluid at which curl p has large value. Statement: In a vector field AK. . z), if the
Ile have alreadv soen that simple example. Suppose a solid body is rotatino then there must be a vortex
If we
about that point. vector and its first derivatiyes are continuous over
will start a certain region, the line integrul of the vector
with aconstant angular velocity i, Fig.2.18. Then nlace a small paddle wheel there, it maximum taken around a simple closed curve is equal to the
$A-hd: = lux of i out ofvolume lI'enclosed rotating vigorously. The rotation will be
surface integral of the curl of the vector taken
along the direction
when the axis ofthewheel points over any surface having the curve as the boundary.
by the clsed surtace S. wheel acts as a curl
of o or curl i. The paddle In mathematical symbol, we can write
measures curl ù. If curl pis zero at a
-hic= tuxof Aout ofvolume meter. it
rotate.
noint the curl-meter does not
S
region, the C
Iper unit voiune., as I ’0= div 4. Ifcurl is zeroeverywhere in some (2.26)
region.
The condition limit l'’ 0 means that the velocity field pis called irrotational in that Here S is the open surface bounded by closed
velocity field
volume coN erges to a point (r. ); )within that In Fig. 2.19 we can see several curve C, Fig.2.20. Cis a simple curve ifit does not
kinds of flow of liquid. In (a)
velune So divA gives the property of avector lines for different
the vortex. In (b) and da Curl A
field .4 zt a poiri. Ar different points it may have crl T 0at the centre of
different values. ln other words, diA is scalar Fig. 2.18 curl =0 and there is no sense of rotation. In
(c)
poinr furnon expresing the local property of the linear velocity of any particle on the body is
thevector ield 4.lt gives the flux per unit volume F=öxF. Notice that ù is different for different
and indicates whether there is (i) flux flowing out particles of the body and so velocity (v) of the
(T-) cr (ü) flux flowing in (-i-ve) or particles of the body is a vector field. Now let us Parallel flow with S
C

lr orfion (T--0) calculate the curl of p.

constant velocily
from source
Vortex
2.10 Physical interpretatlon of curl of We have ö =0,i+o,j+o_k (a) (b) (c) d
a vector field
and F=xi +yË +zk. Fig. 2.2O
Curi of a vector field was defined above
formally as curi =¼xA. Now we shall find its intersect and ñ is the unit nomal to the surtace
meaning element, in the direction decided by the right hand
Like div ergence of a vector field, curl of a wheel thumb rule. It should be mentioned that the cure
vector field a: a point also gives us a piece of Cneed not lie in a single plane, it can be as crooked
-(a,z0x)j +(0,y-o,)k
important information about the field at that point. =(0,2-0-y)i
Purallel ilou wiD
1ariable \ clocty Flow around cormer as one likes, and the shape of the surface does not
The very name "curl" implies that it would be a Now, curl v=xv (e)
matter.
Fig. 2.19
measure ofthe tendency of the vector field to swirl In the lefA hand side of the above equation, there
around or its power to rotate. (d) curlF 0, the paddle wheel rotates, because is a line integral or circulation of the vector field
In fact. the idea of curl was invented to describe velocities though parallel are not equal. In (e) the
ax Cz over a closed curve C. In the right hand side we
aparticular property ofmoving fluids. Suppose the (0,z-0y) (0,x-0,z) (0,y- 0,) liquid is flowing round a comer and so the field have the surface integral or flus of the curl of the
vector field is velocity field v(F) ofa flowing liquid lines are curved as shown. but still curlt = 0.
and curl is non-zero. Then the velocity field has vector field through the surface S bounded by the
something of the character shown below
=(a, +a,)i +(0, +o,)j+ (a, +0, )k Hence we should realize that value of curl T at a curve C
= 20 point depends upon the circulation in the
superimposed. perhaps, on a general flow in one Now let us compare the last two theorems.
direction, Fig.2.17. If we place a light stick on .ö=}kx) .(2.25) neighborhood of apoint and not on the overall flow Stokes's theorem relates
We see that angular velocity of rotation at any patten. In other words curl vis point function and line integral of avector field with the surface
point is equal to half the curl of velocity vector at so it itself is a field.
the values Integral of its cwl.
that point. So curl ù is a measure of the magnitude ror electric and magnetic fields also. Divergence theorem relates
of rotation. If the body is not rotating, then o =0, of curl at a point give very important information surface integral of avector field to the volune
and so curl of Vis zero. In fact curl is sometimes about the fields, which we shall see when we shall
Fig. 2.17 called rotation k or rot v. study those fields in detail. integral of its divergene.
3251-3
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIC
VECTOR ANALYSIS 43
42
2.11.1 Integral definition of curl of a vector circulation per unit area is the magnitude of curl We can say that curl of a vector field is zero, if
field. In
Curl of avector A was defined above fomally at the point P. The direction of 4Curl the vector field is the gradient of a scalar
irrotational.
where is a
curl A is perpendicular to this other words all gradients are
as a cross product of ùand a. plane S, Fig.2.21. 3.Gradient of divergence of a vector field:
vector differential operator. Physical interpretation Thus at each and every point
S, p
scalar. so we ôy
was derived from the analysis made afterwards. Fig. 2.21
We know that divA =V-Å is a (oA, OA,
is vector field A. there is a vector = V(ù.)
From Stokes's theorem we can define curl in curl Aof definite magnitude and direction. Henos can take its gradient. But grad (divÃ) ßy
terns of a surface integral as follows. curl A is itself a vector field. seldom occurs in physics.
For a conservative vector field line integral over 4Divergence of curl of a vector field : oA, aA, a ôA, @A.
take its
pa- d ....2.27 Curl of a vector is a vector, so we can
curl Ä-7=,L a closed path is zero. Hence from eqn.2.26, we divergence. But
dy ar
can arrive at an important conclusion that
Here S is the open surface bounded by closed Curl of a conservative field is zero and so div curl A-ù.kx=0 ........(ii) of any
curl
We can say that divergence of
curve C and is the unit normal. a conservative vector is an irrotational field
The condition Aa ’0means that the area A is necessarilv
If Ais a conservative field, curlA =0. vector field is zero and so curl
ultimately collapses to a point. So curl A is a ....(2.28)
solenoidal.
are
vector at each and every point in a vector field. The two relations of egn. (ii) and (iii) dx oyl ôy
Second derivatlves mathematical identities, independent of any Now we consider only the x-component and
LH.S. of the eqn. 2.27, is the component of 2.12
curl Aat a point along the direction A. Often we encounter several combinations of Proofs by direct calculations are shown
physics. write it as curl, curl A.
R.H.S. is circulation per unit area about that below.
vector operators involving ù. Some of these are: 5. Curl of curl of a vector field : curl, curl Ã
point. 1. Divergence of gradient of a scalar field: It can be shown that
The two are equal. It is given by curlcurl A =grad divà 26
Again, curl A-ñ= JcurlA| cos 0, where 9 is Gyâx &y2 ozôx
divgradp= ù.Vo =VIk-)-ù-VÄ ....(iv)
the angle between the vector and curl A and ñ. Proof: We can immediately write down the
.:. L.H. S. has the maximum magnitude equal
result using the BAC- CAB rule :
to| curl A, when = 0°, i.e., when the plane of
We add and subtract to get a simple
the area dã is perpendicular to the direction of =V'p.
the vector curl A. Put =B= and =i expression. We have
From the above observations we can define From above we can see that the differential
Curl Ain words as follows: operator
:9x(®x)=Vù-)-(ù-)Ã
Curl, Curl A=axôx + axoy axôz
If there is a vector field 4. then curlA is is in fact the scalar
another vector field. Its direction at a particular We have to remember that is a vector
point is normal to the plane, through that point, in
which the circulation is maximum and its
product of the vector differential operator ùwith differential operator and something must be placed oy?
itself. y2k The operator y2 is called the on the right of it to operate upon. Let us prove the
magnitude is equal to this maximum circulation
per unit area in this plane, around the point in Laplacian operator and often it is denoted by the
symbol A.
above relation by direct calculation.
- 0z
question.
For electrostatic potential V, in particular, we
Explanation of the definition :
Let us elaborate the above definition. We take find V'p=0. ..(i) Õx(®%)=x
-lat4
This equation is called Laplace's equation of We can have similar expressions for the y and
aparticular point P ina vector field A and imagine electrostatics. But this is not true for all scalar zcomponents. Adding them we get,
a closed curve c around that point. Line integral fields. Eqn. (i) is a consequence of the physics
of the vector field over such aclosed path is called behind electrostatics, which we shall learn later. Curl curl -ij](®-i)
circulation C. The value of this circulation varies 2. Curl of the gradient of a scalar field :
as the orientation of the plane S enclosed by the We have proved above that gradient of a scalar
closed path is changed. For a particular orientation field is a conservative field. Also we have seen 4i+4,j+44
of this plane S,, the circulation per unit area has that curl of a conscrvative field is always zero.
the maximum valuc. This maximum value of .. curl (grad ) = 0......)
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSice
44 VECTOR ANALYSIS
45

SUMMARY We are to find the scalar product for cach and px, y, z) which varics Irom point to point, then
every infinitesimal portion of the linc and sun henis volume integral of the scalar field over a volunne V
Ifa physical quantity has well-defined value at which o increases at this maximum rate. In th un. The line integral is a scalar. The vector ficld is
each and every point in a certain region of space, opposite direction decreases at the maximur onservative in nature if the line intcgral is found
ficld o
and can be expressed as continuous function of rate. Direction of Vo is perpendicular to the familv to depend on the values of a scalar
the position co-ordinates of the point, then that
of equal surfaces in the scalar field.
corresponding to the two points P and Q. Significancc of divergence of a vector field
region of space or that physical quantity is called Divergence of a vector ficld is itsclf a scalar
field. Ifthe physical quantity is scalar, it is a scalar Unit vector perpendicular to the surface o
constant is given by ficld, whose valuc at a poinl gives the flux of the
field, if physical quantity is vector, it is vector field. p
vector ficld per unit volume through that point.
thefinal
A Scalar field o and vector field Acan be For aclosed path the initial point Pand If ùÄ=0 at point,then there is no net lux of
respectively written as p = p(x, y, z) and = Pp. Therefore for a the vector at that point (no sourcc, no sink).
From a scalar field we can derive a vector field. path coincide: Po
but the reverse is not true. All vector fields canno over any
conservative vector field, line integral Jf V.A>0 (+ve) at a point, there is a net
Examples : Scalar field - temperature of a be derived from a scalar field. Only a conservative closed path in the vector field is
zero. outward flux (there is a source)of the vector ficld.
room, potential in electric field. vector field can be derived from a scalar field. $idF =0
Vector field - velocity at different points in a Divergence and Curl of a vector field If ù-j<0(-ve) at a point, there is a net
moving fluid, intensity in electric field. inward flow (there is a sink)of thc vector field.
Vector differential operator V can operate in a field A is
The surface in a scalar field, at each and every This is possiblc only if the vector Gauss' divergence theorem :
vector field A= A(r, V, z). We can get two useful gradient
point of which the scalar quantity Í hasa constant derived from a scalar ficld by taking its
value is called equal or level surface of the field.
quantities. as can be scen below.
Two level surface cannot intersect. 1. Divergence of the vector field Å is Volume integral of the divergence of a vector
A family of equal surfaces can be represented
by the equation : P p field A over a volume V= Surface integral of flux
o(r, . z) = C;, C; has di fferent values for and coincides. of the vector through the surface S which encloses
different surfaces. Line integral over a closed path is called the volume V(tota! flux through S).
In a vector field, we can always draw lines circulation. Divergence of a vector field gives the flux of
such that tangents at each point of the line give Surface integral : If we imagine a surface the vector per unit volume
the directions of the field at the point. These are and dã is an infinitesimal Signíficance of curl of a vector field :
Divergence of a vector field is a scalar field. S in a vector field Å Curl of a vector field at a point gives important
called the field lines. Two field lines in a vector vector area of that surface, then surface integral
feld do not intersect. 2. Curl of the vector ficld Å is of the vector field over that area is information about the field at that point. It is itself
Gradient ofa scalar field: Ina scalar field a vector field : it is the measure of the power of

We can define a vector field = Ax, v, z) by F*i= curl i-(i+j+ Jä- dã =[ä. ida =fAcos0 da .
S S
the field to rotate.
For example, if in flowing fluid curl of the
taking the gradient of the scalar field as velocity field at a point has a high value, there must
i-Here
gradÍ= TÍ (4,i+ 4,j+ 4,k) We are to find the above scalar products all
be a strong vortex around that point. If we placea
grad or V is vector differential operator over the surface and then to sum up. This surface
integral is called the flux of the vector through the small paddle wheel there, it will start rotaing
gven by surface S. Surface integral of a vector field give vigorously. If curl is zero everywhere in some
very important information about the vector field. region, the velocity field is called irotational in that
grad or FaiiÂ) Example:For the velocity field of aflowing region.
It is a partial differential operator which acts fluid, flux is the volume of fluid flowing normally Stokes's theorem :
on the scalar o and it has some properties like a through the surface in unit time.
vector. But it itself has no value. only if it acts or Curl of a vector field is a vector field. For electric field, flux is the number of field $idF=f(®x) dã =f(ù x¦) kda
operates on a function from the left it yíelds a Line integral : If we imagine a line Cjoiníng lines passing normally through the arca S.
C

vector. Obviously it gives the space rate of change two points P and O in a vector field A= Á(x,y, z). Line integral of a vector field over a closed
If the surface S is closed, the surface integral curve C= Surface integral of the curl of vector
of o. Change in the magnitude of the scalar o for
line integral of the vector field along Cfrom P and is written as $i- dã. field through the surface S enclosed by C, i.e. total
a displacement dY in the field is given by is
dÍ = VÍ- dY flux of the curl through S.
Volume integral : If there is a scalar field Curl of a vector field is a vector field whose
Magnitude of Vo is the muximum space rate magnitude at a point is equal o the maximum value
of change of o and direction of Vo is the direction and value of that scalar ficld per unit volume is
P
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE
46

ofthe circulation per unit area about that point and The operator can act more than
PHYSICS VECTOR ANALYSIS
47
whose direction is perpendicular the planc in ficld, Some important relations are : once on a Here, A, =-y;A, = xand 4, = 0
which thc circulation has the maximum yalue.
For a conservative vector ficld circulation is
Curl }=i 0-0)+ j0-0)+ ê[I --1)) -(iii)-1
div.grado =V. VÍ=2y2,2 -2X
E If A = ixyz + jcos y + k xe, find
zoro få-dë -o, thereforecurl ofa vecior field =y Curl A.
culr(grad¹) = Vx (Vp) = 0
is zero. Conservative field is also calledlamellar
field. div culr Ä-ù.ùxÃ=0
aNS Curl -ecosy) ôx

If for a vector ficld, A, V.A= 0, the field is

called solenoidal. curl curl i= grad divÀ ù²
If for avector field A, ù×Å= 0, the ficld is
called irrotational.

SOLVED PROBLEMS = i(-xe) + jy-e)+ i- x2) 9. i = itz- j2y+ kx Prove that

=- ixe+ jy-e)- kxz diy A =- 3 at the point (I, -1, ).
1. fo (r. ; ) = y + dyz², calculate $ 7. Prove that Diy cur
A = 0. [C.U. 2001]
at the position (2, I, 0). [CU. 2006] ù(ùx À) ANS -(i++ (is, -
ANS Ù= ù (y? + 4y) ANS Div curl A
Now, ù x 7

i
- +4y) +) (y² +4y) -)+2)+y'2)
= 2xz - 6y+xy?
+Ç: y² + 4yz)
- 2(1) (1)- 6(-1(1) + (1) (- 1' =-3
- i + (2ry + 4) + (4-2yz) 10. Prove that (A-F) = A where A is a
= ijf + (2ry + 4) + &(8z) -i-jy-k constant vector andY a positio vector.
[C.U. 2000, '04]
At. (2, I, 0). ù=i x1+2-2 + 0) +-o 4. If = itz -j2y' + kxy'z, find div
-i-4j. Aat the point (, -1, 1). [C.U. 2009]
- -2(244) NS -i+i+:-i4,+ jA,+
2. If = e, find grad ¢. kA, and F = ixt iy+ kz
ANS grad =i+j+. i2y'2 +ky') dy Now, A-F =(i4,+ j4,+ k4) (ix+ iy+
-)+-')+y') axoy axôz yâz Oyâx kz) -A* t A,y +A;
- (i 9z + jx+ky) e - 2rz -6y + xy? :P(ÁF )=i4)+i (4, y)
- 2(1)(1) - 6(-1)(1 + (1)(- 1)² =-3 Gzêy
3. Find ùÓ if Q=. [CU. 2004] =0
5. Show that curl i = 2Å for À = - yi+
ANS Let = ir +jy + kz. Then, |F| = *j. [C.U. 20061 8. f (, y, z) is a scalar function of the
position co-ordinates x, y, z, prove that,
- i4, +j4, +k4, +i
NS Curlã ù x (ù¢) = 0. [C.U. 2001] tì-y+k"za
- ANS =
it &z
= Å: ùA=0 since A is a constant vector]
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICe VECTOR ANALYSIS
48 49

11. For what value of b, the magnetic field B (oA, a4-Aoy

-i(r+ 3y) + jo-2r) + ko t bz) will
be solenoidal ?
2
(w,z-w.y) (w,x- w,2) ("y- w,r)
+B:|ax ôB.
dz

(OB, OB, ) xi +yj +zk

AXSA vector is solenoidal when its divergence =i21w, +j2w, +k2v, (a+y' +z?y%r
is zero. Now, =2 . - curl - curi p is the unit vector alongr
force
16, A particle under the action of a
14. Show that Y. ds = 3, where Vis
S
the
field Y=3ryf 5z + 10x k moves
(ii) grad -*-())
[i(rt3y) + j(y -2r) + Xx+ ba)] volume enclosed by the closed surface s along the curve x= + 1, y= 212,z = (x? +y² +z2y-%
[C.U. 2013, '15; Burd. U. 20021 Find the work done from t = Ito t = 2.
ANS Work done, =
-, [2xi+2yj+ 2: k]
- r+3y)+-2x)++be) ANS F ix+iy +kz 2(x+y' +'yh 1

=1+|+b=2+b According to Gauss's divcrgence theorem, "-fF. dF =(3ay i - $zj+ 10x k). =
xi +yË +zk
If B is solenoidal, div B =0 (dr i +dyj +dek)
..2+b0 or, b =-2 (ii) log r =log (r² +y' +z')i =2 log (r+
12. If W is a constant vector and F is the W=|3xy dx - 5z dy + 10x dz y+ )
position vector so th¡t V= px Y, prove grad (log n)=(logr)
that ù.7 = 0. (C.U. 2013] We have dx = 2idt, dy = 4/ d, dz = 3/ dt
2
ANS ù-ù = ( x F) : W= (3(² +1)- 2 2udt sP 4idt Ox

+ 10(2+ 1)3fdt 2= k
2yj
= , (1 +1 +1) dv - ((a2r +12 - 20 + 30 +30) dt
- wz) + k(wy-w))
xi+yj+zk
(wz-wy) +ày (w,r- w)+ =3 dV= 3V
2
= [(12r + 10 + 12/+ 30) dr
- W,x) -
=0+0+0=0 15. Prove that div ( x B) = B curl (=l
(iv) div F-ù.;
curl = À
curl B
13. If 7 = WxF, show that 2
W, where w is a constant vector and r is ANS Let =i x5- i4,- A,B)
the position vector. +i4B,-4B) +i4B,-4,B) =[2 f6+ 2/5 + 3 + 10
[Burd. U. 2002; C.U. 2004] -(128 +64 +48 +80)-(2 +2+3+ 10)
=303 unit
ANS curl 7-(*7) Again, div (Ã x B) = div = ù.6 17. If Fis aposition vector of a point, then (v) div (r"F) = V-(r"F)
find the value of (1) gradr, (ii) grad
-) Putting , , , and . , We get,
div( xB)-4,B, -A,B,)
(ii) grad (log r) (iy) divF () div (" i),
(vi) curl ( ) Let us evaluate

W, Wy W: ANS G) F =xi+y} tz k, =+y+2.

F=ir+jy+k +4B,- 4,B,)4,8, - A, B,) )grad r=
= (r+? +')2 +r+y? +z')?"r2r
ôA.
B,
+j(w,x - w,z) +k(w,y-w,)) (r'+'+'yi
 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSIe VECTOR ANALYSIS
51
50
At the point (2, - 2, 3)
Similarly ("r)= +y-p Õo=-2i+4j+ 4k
0 0
. Unit normal to the surface is
=-[B(. -(8-k)
- (B.9)i- B(k-)
t m²2 2i+4j+4k
.:. div (r"F)=r"+nr?+ B J4+16+16
Adding the two we get
ùx (Ã×B)- (8-94-(-®)B
=3M +n ( + + 2 at Aa Notice that -i is also normal to the surface.
=3 + n = (3+ n) + Ä(9-B)- B(ù-}).
20. Prove ù-(Â)=(ù)-+fï-i.
We see that for n =-3,div ) - 0. Thus a

Fig. 2.22
A

ANS
23. Prove

Vk)=Ãx(øxB) +Bx(®x ã)
the vector . is solenoidal.
(vi) Îx(rF)=®x(°xi+rý+z) Ö-(fD-4,) + ) ) +( (B-®)4
AB ANS We have
-4+4, T(Ä-B)=V(Ã B),+V}-B)a
- Jody= jvdy =
0
+
Subscript has the same significance as above.
0
Now, }x(ùxB) =$(Ã B),-(4-9)8
BC a

21. Prove ùx(§)= fùxÃ+ (k)xi Bx(®x =( -(B-V)Ã

[F.d= rir+ iy)- jy =•ydy =0 ANS -componentofVx(Ä) is iB), =ix(Õx B) +(-vyB
CO
ÄB) =Bx(® xã) +(B-9)
Adding the two we get
Nowx C

@Ay (B)=Äx (ÕxB)+Bx(®x)

=2
ph-2
=ky
=f dy A,-z +(
24. Find the directional derivative of
Similarly y -=y-2, 0
p=xy+Z at (1, 2, - 1) in the direction
..9x(i)=i(nzy -ny) +j(nzx - nxz) + An element of area in the plane of the square
i=2i-2j+k.
OABC is dã =k dxdy.
k(ngy - nry) x 2=0 Similarly we get for y and z components. ANS Unit vector in the direction of Å is
Hence ; is inrotational, whatever thevalue Collecting them we get
of n be. S 00 0 0
Õx( x
18. Verify Stokes ' theorem for the field
F=x(ix +4 iv) integrated round the 2. Prove x(ãxB) =(B-)
.: Stokes' theorem is proved.
square in the plane z = 0 and bounded +
by lines x= 0, y = 0, x = 4, y =a. 19. Find the unit normal to the surface xy
+ 2xz = 4 at the point (2, -2, 3). ANS By rule of differentiation, we can write =(2ry +z)i +xj+xÅ
ANS According to Stokes' law:
ANS We know that the unit vector perpendicular Üx( =ùx(ÃxB), +x(Ãx B): VÍ at (1, 2, - 1) is VÍ= 3i + +k
to the surface p = conrtant is given by
C The subscripts Aand B means A and B are dÍ = VÍ-â
.. Directional derivative dr
First we evaluate the line integral over the treated as constants respectively.
closed path OABC, Fig, 2.22 Using the BAC- CAB rule of triple product,
we have
-2--$
BC CO Üx( - ù-})-(Ä-ù)Ë (Uad. I B R A

=(2ry +22) i+xj+ 2xk

 A HAND BOOK OF DEGREE PHYSICS VECTOR ANALYSIS
52
53
QUESTIONS 7. Find the curl of the vector fields (i)
13. Showy÷ ( n + )
Give
i=ti+y'j+:*k and (ii) B= yi+yj+ xck 14. If uA - Vu show that d, cul i -0. 4,
1. |. die scalar fields and vector fields 13. What does it mean if dirA integrated over a
woples ofeach. volume is zero!
at the point (-2, 4, 1). represent scalar ficlds and 4 rcpre vector
[Ans. (i) ¼xÅ= 0,(i)Vx B=-j+2k] ficld.
2. Hou om a scalar field (x. 1:)youmay derive 8. A= i y + jyz+ k zx. Find the divergence
d vector tield ? What information about the 14. Show that diy =0. 15. Obtain the value of V(r"F). Find the value ofn
15. Obtain an expression for the gradient of ascalar and curl of Å. for which the vector "F is solenodal.
sculac field we may get from ?
3. What is called vector diferential operator ? field in rectangular co-ordinates. [Ans. (i)x+y +z (ii)-(i y+jz+ kx)] (Ans. (n +3)] [C.U. 2002. °07|
16. Show that when a vector field can be derived as 9. (i) Prove that div A=0where A =+i-r [Hints :
Which fields we may get when it operates on a the gradient of a scalar field, the line integral of
scalar field and a vector field?
4. Are ailvctor fields may be derived from a scalar
the vector taken round any closed path in the (ii)If Å=e-i+:j+yÅ )show that curl
vector field is zero.
field?
5. Awor field is derived from ascalarfield. What
17. Write down the expression for the del operator
10. (r yz) is a scalar function and A(x.v=) is a
)=nr-.
in Cartesian co-ordinates. What is the physical
is its essential property ? vector function. Show that
6. What are level surfaces of a scalar field ? Why significance of -V, where Vis electric
P-(6i) =õi+¬-) .9-(M)= (n+3)"
wo such surfaces cannot intersect ? potential ?
(iü) When the vector F is solenoidal. ù ( )
7. Drau alevel surface in a scalar field o (x. y, z) and 18. Explain the physical meaning of divergence ofa
=0i.e. (n3) =0 i.e. n= -3.]
vector field .
then draw the vector Vo. 19. Arigid body is rotating with angular velocity o 16. If F =ix+ j2y+ k 3zthen show th:t Faa
8. Wha: is line integral of avector field ? What are about a fixed axis. Prove that
the alues of a line integral of a conservative -04,)+4,)+4) =6Vwhere Vis the volume encloscd bv the closed
surface S.
field ti) over an arbitrary line and (i) over aclosed @=ourli,
line? where p is the linear velocity of a point on the 17. (a) Obtain curl A at the point (|, 1. )r A=i(Sx
axy
9. What is surface integral of a vector over a body. +y) + j(|-2yz) + (3xz). [CU.2003)]
surtace? Why it is called the flux of the vector?
Explain your answer taking an example of flowing
20. Define curl of a vector field and give its physical
significance. Derive the expression for the curl +4Ayat4 [Ans. 2i 3j -3Å)
liquid. ofa vector field.
10. State divergence theorem and Stokes theorem. L21. Which vector field is called solenoidal ? 11. Prove that the vector A =(4ry-)i+2x2 -
Give heir mathematical expression. 22. Which vector field is called irotational ?
3xzk is an irotational vecto. [C.U.2008] [Hints :Curl A=
[C.C. 2001. 02, '07, '14; B.U. 2003] 23. Express div grad in Cartesian co-ordinates,
11. Expiain (i) gradient ofa scalar (ii) divergence ofa where is a scalar field. What is Laplacian
(Hints : If the vector A is irotational, curl A = |(5x+ y) (1-) (3x= )
vector(æn) curl ofa vector. State Gauss theorem. Oie., xA=0
[C.U.2004]
operator?
-i(2y)-j(32)- k(2y2+ 1)
24. Prove (i) curl grad =0 and (ii) div grad A =0. At(1, 1, 1), Curl A=2i -3j - 3Á
12. Explain the term (i) line integral and (i) surface
integral of a fiel£ vector. Now, curl A= (b) If Ä(² - 6x) i +2n='j (3y'
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS |(4y- ) 2r -3xz 6xz)k. show that VxÅ =0. [C.U. 2004]
18. Prove curl grad ¢ = 0.
1. Find the gradient of the scalar functions :() 4. Starting from the point (1, 1), in which direction 12. If A and B are irotational vectors, prove that
[Hints : Curl grad = * grad . Taking
--rand (it)o - 2r. (iii) Í =-2ry + components of y and grad , find their cross
does the function =-y²+2y decrease Å
× B is solenoidal.
(Ans. (i)2ri -j.(üj 2yi -2rj (i) (2r product].
most rapidly ? [Ans. -i ] [Hints : Since Aand Bareirotational, x A 18. Acentral force can be represented as F =fo)F.
5. Find the unit vector normal to the surface
=0 and ¼x B =0. Now div(Å x B)= ù(4 where F is position vector. Prove xY=0.
2. Given 9 =r-= ind vç at(I. I, 1) 9=+y'-5 at (2, 1, 0) x B)= B(ùx Å)-À(ùx B)- B0 =
(Ans. 2i -2j-kj A
-0=0. Hence. ( A x B)is solenoidal.]
3. Firi Lhe derat1ve of the function
[Ans. i=i*i
V5
6. Find the divergence of the vector fields (i)
0=-2-- au the point 2, -1. i) ia the
i-yi+rj+g¿ and (i) B=yi+yj+k
directior of the vecror i-2i-4i -4k. at the point (2, 1, -1 ).
(Ans. 6] (Ans.