A point-to-point communication is also known as P2P.

In the context of telecommunication, it is an

established connection between two nodes that may be used to communicate back and forth. A basic
telephone call, in which one phone is connected to another, and both nodes can send and receive audio,
is the most common example of point-to-point communication.

These P2P connections were first established utilizing circuit-switched landlines in the early days of
telephony. However, point-to-point communication in modern networks nowadays is made possible by
complex fibre-optic networks. P2P connections of various forms can transmit many types of data,
including digital and analog signals.

Multipoint Communication

Multi-point communication is the communication that occurs when a communication channel is

shared not just between two devices or nodes but also between numerous devices or nodes participating
in the conversation.

A multipoint connection is one that connects more than two devices together. Multidrop line
configuration is another name for the multipoint connection. Numerous devices share a single link in a
multipoint connection. As a result, it is possible to say that all devices connected to the link temporarily
share the channel capacity. The devices use a turn-by-turn link, which is called a time-shared line
configuration.

COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
OR

A computer network is a group of interconnected nodes or computing devices that exchange data
and resources with each other. A network connection between these devices can be established using
cable or wireless media. Once a connection is established, communication protocols -- such
as TCP/IP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol and Hypertext Transfer Protocol -- are used to exchange data
between the networked devices.

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 A network consist of group of computer systems, servers, networking devices are linked together
to share resources, including a printer or a file server. The connections is established by using either
cable media or wireless media.

The first example of a computer network was the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.
This packet-switched network was created in the late 1960s by ARPA, a U.S. Department of Defense
agency.

The following are the two most common computer network architectures:

1. Client-server. This model consists of many clients -- or nodes -- where at least one network node
acts as the central server. The clients in this model don't share resources, but request the central
server, as all the resources are installed on it.

2. Peer-to-peer (P2P). Each connected device on this network behaves as the client, as well as the
server, and enjoys similar privileges. The resources of each peer are shared among the entire
network, including memory, processing power and printing. Many companies use
the P2P architecture to host memory-intensive applications, such as three-dimensional rendering,
across multiple network devices.

Uses of Computer Networks

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

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There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single person, that
is, communication between the computer devices is centered only on an individual’s workspace. PAN
offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its
transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.
This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

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2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers
through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN
encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies
involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very
high with easy maintenance and low cost.
Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually
used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it
spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range
from 1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate
cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

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 Campus Area Network (CAN)

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city,
town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with
a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes
with a high cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple
buildings, etc.

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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each
other with a range above 50km.
Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with
very high maintenance and very high cost.

The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

INTERNETWORK
o An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer
network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing
scheme. This process is known as internetworking.
o An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
o An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
o The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

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Types Of Internetwork:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such

as Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing. The access
to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet is the lowest level
of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer networks. An extranet
cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission
Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization which is only
accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share the
information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet provides the facility to work

in groups and for teleconferences.

What is Network Topology?

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network. Both
logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.

The various network topologies are:

 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Star Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Classification of topologies

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Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single
cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha,
etc.

Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

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 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a single
coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks. For more,
refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have
to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the
Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to another
node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology

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1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is
to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.

Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a
multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
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 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not
an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect
the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
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 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers
are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are
connected to a wireless access point.

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as
links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected
to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of
ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices through
dedicated channels or links.

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 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.

LAYERED ARCHITECTURE: -

o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from lower to
higher layer without defining how the services are implemented. Therefore, any
modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from network to
network. However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a
higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the information
with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both the contents and order
of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication with the
layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are known as a layer-
n protocol.

Why do we require Layered architecture?

o Divide-and-conquer approach: Divide-and-conquer approach makes a design process in such
a way that the unmanageable tasks are divided into small and manageable tasks. In short, we
can say that this approach reduces the complexity of the design.
o Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular. Modularity provides the independence of
layers, which is easier to understand and implement.
o Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so that implementation in one layer can
be changed without affecting other layers.
o Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be analyzed and tested individually.

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ISO – OSI MODEL :

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to
the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984,
and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed independently.

Layer 1- Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

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Data Bits in the Physical Layer

The Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a
clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

Layer 2- Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of
this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using
its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address
in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request
onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC
address.
The Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a
set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus,
flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC
sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a
given time.

Layer 3- Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.
The Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

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 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines
an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Layer 4- Transport Layer

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network
layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End
Delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
The Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with
it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying
this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service

1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes

 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after
a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure

2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much
faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.
The Functions of the Session Layer
 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that
the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data
loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other
in half-duplex or full-duplex.

Layer 6- Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The Functions of the Presentation Layer are
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

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Layer 7- Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access
the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP
The Functions of the Application Layer are
 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services : Provide email service.
 Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

The advantages of the OSI model are

 It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network model.
 It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers, provided that the interfaces
between the layers do not change drastically.
 It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols. Hence, it is flexible in nature. Protocols
in each layer can be replaced very conveniently depending upon the nature of the network.
 It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless services.

The disadvantages of the OSI model are
 It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of appropriate technology.
This restricts its practical implementation.
 The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI appeared, the TCP/IP protocols
were already implemented. So, the companies were initially reluctant to use it.
 The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was cumbersome, slow and costly.
 Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer and presentation layer
have very little functionality when practically deployed.
 There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing, flow control and
error control are offered by multiple layers.
 The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate solutions for practical
network implementation.

TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and
is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the
seven layers in the OSI model.

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1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for
generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access
layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.

2. Data Link Layer

The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error
prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing
at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host
to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4
and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number
of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams
and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.

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 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a
host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP,
and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define
the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another
across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify
the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.

4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit missing
packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is referred
to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically
connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the
whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make up this
transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol.
Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that
transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of
establishing and validating connections.


5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide
Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-
Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where
the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The
reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a
secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer
to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the
following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your

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computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash
very badly if it’s out of sync.

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