Fixed-Point Representation − This representation has fixed number of bits for integer part and for fractional

part. For example, if given fixed-point representation is IIII.FFFF, then you can store minimum value is 0000.0001
and maximum value is 9999.9999. There are three parts of a fixed-point number representation: the sign field,
integer field, and fractional field.

We can represent these numbers using: 1)Signed representation: range from -(2 (k-1)-1) to (2(k-1)-1), for k bits.
2)1’s complement representation: range from -(2(k-1)-1) to (2(k-1)-1), for k bits.
3) 2’s complementation representation: range from -(2(k-1)) to (2(k-1)-1), for k bits.
2’s complementation representation is preferred in computer system because of unambiguous property and
easier for arithmetic operations.

Floating-Point Representation −This representation does not reserve a specific number of bits for the integer part
or the fractional part. Instead it reserves a certain number of bits for the number (called the mantissa or significand)
and a certain number of bits to say where within that number the decimal place sits (called the exponent).The
floating number representation of a number has two part: the first part represents a signed fixed point number called
mantissa. The second part of designates the position of the decimal (or binary) point and is called the exponent. The
fixed point mantissa may be fraction or an integer. Floating -point is always interpreted to represent a number in the
following form: Mxre.

ASCII Code The ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The
ASCII code is an alphanumeric code used for data communication in digital computers. The ASCII
is a 7-bit code capable of representing 2 7 or 128 number of different characters. The ASCII code is
made up of a three-bit group, which is followed by a four-bit code. 1)The ASCII Code is a 7 or 8-bit
alphanumeric code.2)This code can represent 127 unique characters.3)The ASCII code starts from
00h to 7Fh. In this, the code from 00h to 1Fh is used for control characters, and the code from 20h
to 7Fh is used for graphic symbols. 4)The 8-bit code holds ASCII, which supports 256 symbols
where math and graphic symbols are added. 5)The range of the extended ASCII is 80h to FFh.

The ASCII characters are classified into the following groups:

 Control Characters:The non-printable characters used for sending commands to the PC
or printer are known as control characters. We can set tabs, and line breaks functionality by this
code. The control characters are based on telex technology. Nowadays, it's not so much popular in
use. The character from 0 to 31 and 127 comes under control characters.
Special Characters All printable characters that are neither numbers nor letters come
under the special characters. These characters contain technical, punctuation, and mathematical
characters with space also. The character from 32 to 47, 58 to 64, 91 to 96, and 123 to 126 comes
under this category.
Numbers Characters This category of ASCII code contains ten Arabic numerals from 0 to
9.
Letters Characters In this category, two groups of letters are contained, i.e., the group of
uppercase letters and the group of lowercase letters. The range from 65 to 90 and 97 to 122 comes
under this category.

Types of ASCII Code ASCII is of two types: 1)ASCII-7 2) ASCII-8

The first three bits of an ASCII-7 code are known as zone bits, and the remaining bits
represent the values of the digits.The latest version of ASCII is known as ASCII-8,
that is, an 8-bit code in which 256 characters can be encoded. 2) In ASCII-8, the
first four bits are known as zone bits, and the rest four bits represent digit values.

EBCDIC CodeSince the Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange, or EBCDIC,

code is an 8-bit code, this indicates that there are 28 = 256 different methods to
represent numerals, alphabets, and other special symbols.In addition, the parity bits
are utilized by the system. EBCDIC is a code that uses 8 bits, however it can be split
into two sets of 4 bits each. Each of these four-bit groups, which are represented by a
number system called hexadecimal, is utilized by computers, which use EBCDIC for
internal character representation, as sorting notation for memory dumps. This
resulted in a reduction in the volume of memory dumps of somewhere between one
and four years' worth.The EBCDIC code is an example of a non-ASCII code, which is
another name for it. The operating systems of IBM mainframes and midrange

De-Morgan's Theoremz A famous mathematician DeMorgan invented the two most important
theorems of boolean algebra. The DeMorgan's theorems are used for mathematical verification of the
equivalency of the NOR and negative-AND gates and the negative-OR and NAND gates. These theorems
play an important role in solving various boolean algebra expressions. The rules of De-Morgan's theorem
are produced from the Boolean expressions for OR, AND, and NOT using two input variables x and y. The
first theorem of Demorgan's says that if we perform the AND operation of two input variables and then
perform the NOT operation of the result, the result will be the same as the OR operation of the
complement of that variable. The second theorem of DeMorgan says that if we perform the OR operation

of two input variables and then perform the NOT operation of the result, the result will be the same as the
De-Morgan's First Theorem
According to the first theorem, the complement result of the AND operation is equal to the OR
operation of the complement of that variable. Thus, it is equivalent to the NAND function and is a
negative-OR function proving that (A.B)' = A'+B' and we can show this using the following table.

Inputs Output For Each Term

A B A.B (A.B)' A' B' A'A+B'

0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 0 0
De-Morgan's Second TheoremAccording to the second theorem, the complement result of the
OR operation is equal to the AND operation of the complement of that variable. Thus, it is the
equivalent of the NOR function and is a negative-AND function proving that (A+B)' = A'.B' and we
can show this using the following truth table.

Inputs Output For Each Term

A B A+B (A+B)' A' B' A'.B'

0 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0 0 0

What is the Venn diagram?A diagram or figure that represents the mathematical logic or relation
between a finite collection of different sets (a group of things) is called the Venn diagram. It is used
to illustrate the set relationship. We usually use a circle or oval to represent a Venn diagram. It may have
more than one circle; each represents a set.
Suppose there are two sets A and B having the elements {1, 2, 3} and {8, 5, 9}, respectively. We can
represent these two sets in the Venn diagram, as shown below.

Advantages of Venn Diagram

o It is used for both comparison and classification.
o It groups the information into different parts.
o It also highlights the similarities and differences.

A comparator is an electronic circuit, which compares the two inputs that are applied to it and produces an output.
The output value of the comparator indicates which of the inputs is greater or lesser. Please note that comparator falls
under non-linear applications of ICs.An op-amp consists of two input terminals and hence an op-amp based
comparator compares the two inputs that are applied to it and produces the result of comparison as the output. This
chapter discusses about op-amp based comparators.Types of ComparatorsComparators are of two
types : Inverting and Non-inverting. This section discusses about these two types in detail.

1)Inverting Comparator An inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference
voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its inverting terminal. This
comparator is called as inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be compared is applied to the
inverting terminal of op-amp. 2)Non-Inverting Comparator
A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is applied to its inverting
terminal and the input voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal. This op-amp based comparator is called
as non-inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be compared is applied to the non-inverting
terminal of the op-amp.
 S.No. ENCODER DECODER

Encoder circuit basically converts the applied

information signal into a coded digital bit Decoder performs reverse operation and recovers
1 stream. the original information signal from the coded bits.

In case of encoder, the applied signal is the

2 active signal input. Decoder accepts coded binary data as its input.

The number of inputs accepted by an encoder The number of input accepted by decoder is only n
3 is 2n. inputs.

4 The output lines for an encoder is n. The output lines of an decoder is 2n.

The encoder generates coded data bits as its The decoder generates an active output signal in
5 output. response to the coded data bits.

6 The operation performed is simple. The operation performed is complex.

The encoder circuit is installed at the The decoder circuit is installed at the receiving
7 transmitting end. side.

AND gate along with NOT gate is the basic logic

8 OR gate is the basic logic element used in it. element used in it.

9 It is used in E-mail, video encoders etc. It is used in Microprocessors, memory chips etc.

Error detection codeThe error detection codes are the code used for detecting the error in
the received data bitstream. In these codes, some bits are included appended to the original
bitstream.Error detecting codes encode the message before sending it over the noisy channels.
The encoding scheme is performed in such a way that the decoder at the receiving can find the
These are the following features of error detection codes: 1)These codes are used when we use
errors easily in the receiving data with a higher chance of success.
message backward error correction techniques for reliable data transmission. A feedback message is sent
byParity Code
the receiver to In paritythe
inform code, we add
sender one parity
whether bit either istoreceived
the message the rightwithout
of the LSB
anyorerror
left to
orthe
notMSB to
at the
the original
receiver side. Ifbitstream.
the messageOn contains
the basiserrors,
of thethe
type of parity
sender being the
retransmits chosen, two typeserror
message.2)In of parity codes
detection are
codes,
inpossible, i.e.,blocks
fixed-size even parity
of bits,code
the and odd parity
message code. In this, the redundant bits are added for correcting
is contained.
and detecting errors.3)These codes involve checking of the error. No matter how many error bits are there
and the type of error.4)Parity check, Checksum, and CRC are the error detection technique.

Error correction code

Error correction codes are generated by using the specific algorithm used for removing and
detecting errors from the message transmitted over the noisy channels. The error-correcting codes
find the correct number of corrupted bits and their positions in the message.

There are two types of ECCs(Error Correction Codes), which are as follows.
Block codes In block codes, in fixed-size Convolutional codes The message consists
blocks of bits, the message is contained. In this, of data streams of random length, and parity
the redundant bits are added for correcting and symbols are generated by the sliding application of
detecting errors. the Boolean function to the data stream.
 Multiplexer Demultiplexer

Multiplexer processes the digital information from Demultiplexer receives digital information from a
various sources into a single source. single source and converts it into several sources

It is known as Data Selector It is known as Data Distributor

Multiplexer is a digital switch Demultiplexer is a digital circuit

It follows combinational logic type It also follows combinational logic type

It has 2n input data lines It has single input line

It has a single output data line It has 2n output data lines

It works on many to one operational principle It works on one to many operational principle

In time division Multiplexing, multiplexer is used at In time division Multiplexing, demultiplexer is used at
the transmitter end the receiver end

The hamming code technique is used for error correction. Hamming Code Hamming code is an example
of a block code. The two simultaneous bit errors are detected, and single-bit errors are corrected by this
code. In the hamming coding mechanism, the sender encodes the message by adding the unessential bits
in the data. These bits are added to the specific position in the message because they are the extra bits for
correction.